ChapterPDF Available

Climate Change, Carbon Sequestration, and Coconut-Based Ecosystems

Authors:

Abstract

Climate change, a key global environmental issue of the day, refers to the gradual increase in temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere. It is believed to be caused by the increase in atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (GHGs). Concerned by the serious consequences of anthropogenic climate change, several global initiatives have been launched to address the issue. They fall under two broad categories, climate-change mitigation and adaptation, aimed at reducing GHG emissions and their negative impacts, respectively. Carbon sequestration, the prominent mitigation strategy, refers to capturing atmospheric carbon and securing it in long-lived pools, such as through photosynthesis by plants. Climate-smart agriculture is the rallying theme for adaptation strategies, which is a combination of site-specific management activities. Most climate-change mitigation and adaptation studies in agriculture so far have focused on annual crops, with little attention being paid to perennials such as coconut. Coconut-based ecosystems offer good possibilities for enhancing carbon sequestration through crop combinations involving a variety of plants including food crops, tubers, vines, and tree crops. For climate-change adaptation, the annual intercrops planted under coconuts could be managed for optimum benefits for the whole system. A holistic approach focusing on the overall productivity and sustainability of the whole system rather than the palm alone is needed to make the coconut-based agroecosystems resilient to climate change.
... India has a long history of coconut cultivation spanning over three millennia [52] . The crop is inseparably intertwined with the socio-cultural heritage and economic wellbeing of the people of Kerala, as in other coconut-growing regions of the world [47] . It is ingrained in folklores and has been celebrated by poets over centuries. ...
... Indeed, the state's coconut area decreased dramatically between 2010-11 and 2015-16, but it increased significantly after that, by about 1,00,000 ha in 2018-19. It should be noted, however, that it is difficult to estimate the area under coconuts precisely due to a lack of standardized procedures for estimating areas when the species grows at different densities and is planted and nurtured as a crop either alone or in combination with other species [47] . Coconut production trends paralleled the fluctuations in area ( Fig. 4 ). ...
... An array of ecosystem services such as provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services [45] are provided by the coconutbased multi-strata, multi-species ecosystems [47] . This includes crop species yielding food, fiber, fuel, fodder, timber, medicine, and other basic necessities ( Table 2 and Fig. 9 A-C), besides cash returns [ 28 , 39 ]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Agricultural intensification in the past has led to many land-use-related issues around the world, and nature-based solutions (NbS) in farming seek to offset those negative consequences. NbS, in addition to promoting sustainable production of goods and resources and preserving ecosystem integrity, provides a range of ecosystem services. Mixed-species systems such as agroforestry, including the coconut-based farming systems (CBFS), are excellent examples of NbS. The CBFS, which involves many sciophytic agricultural crops, not only ensures economic benefits, but also improves crop productivity. They produce a variety of food items (fruits, nuts, tubers, and so on), earning the moniker "coconut-based food forests," and have the potential to enrich agrobiodiversity. Biological carbon sequestration is another important attribute of CBFS. Crop combinations that include a variety of species, particularly tree crops, have the potential to increase carbon sequestration while also delivering diverse provisioning and cultural services. Kerala, the "Land of Coconut Trees," witnessed a "coconut boom" from 1955 to 2000, although production and area have been fluctuating since then. The functional dynamics of CBFS and the natural resource challenges they address, as well as the ecosystem services CBFS provides and the biodiversity outcomes, are reviewed in this article, with a focus on Kerala.
... Agroforestry is a land-use strategy that involves planting trees alongside agricultural crops, shrubs, and pastures. It encompasses a broad range of techniques that combine grazing or crop cultivation with tree and bush planting (Nair et al. 2019). Intentionally combining forestry and agriculture offers numerous benefits, such as notably higher yields from staple crops, improved farmer income through revenue production, reduced erosion, better soil health and structure, increased biodiversity, and carbon sequestration. ...
Chapter
The challenges posed by climate change and environmental pollution require urgent solutions. In response, a massive plantation program was put into place during the monsoon season, which led to the creation of vast agroforests. Nevertheless, agroforestry growing waste output endangers the quality of the soil and water, causing eutrophication and depleted soil. Traditional methods of managing such waste, including thermal management, landfilling, and decomposition, have their limitations. Agroforest waste can be turned into energy, biochar, fertilizers, and biofuels, establishing a sustainable circular bioeconomy, while also accomplishing economic and environmental benefits. This is an efficient way to manage the large amount of waste and products generated. In addition to creating jobs, these processes lessen the environmental pollution brought by urban migration. To generate profit from waste and reduce pollution, it is necessary to effectively utilize agroforestry waste for energy production. Since agroforestry waste is a type of biomass, it is carbon neutral because plants use the CO2 they release during burning to produce new biomass during photosynthesis. This chapter outlines the potential conversion of agroforestry waste into bioproducts such as energy, fuel, and chemicals to control environmental pollution.
... Woody perennial species like rubber and coconut trees hold significant potential for sequestering atmospheric CO 2 given the substantial biomass C stocks that have been reported for rubber and coconut-based farming systems (Saha et al. 2010;Ranasinghe and Thimothias 2012;Brahma et al. 2018;Nair et al. 2018;Kumar and Kunhamu 2022). Regionally, however, comprehensive estimates of biomass C stocks along elevational gradients for these plantations in the WG region are scarce. ...
Article
Full-text available
Biomass carbon (C) stocks and species richness and diversity are interlinked, and they co-vary along an elevational gradient. To test these hypotheses of inter-connectiveness and covariation in the Western Ghats (peninsular India) context, we enumerated 16 moist forest plots as well as 18 rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) and coconut (Cocos nucifera) plantations each. Our main objectives were to assess the aboveground biomass C (AGB-C) stocks and the association between plant diversity and forest AGB-C stocks along an elevation gradient. Species-specific allometric equations and Ordinary Kriging interpolation were used to predict and map AGB-C and species diversity. AGB-C stocks varied significantly among forest (381.69 ± 25.87 Mg ha–1), rubber (73.92 ± 7.76 Mg ha–1), and coconut (21.19 ± 1.23 Mg ha–1) stands. Forest AGB-C stocks also decreased linearly with increasing elevation. Although rubber and coconut AGB-C declined with elevation, the differences were not significant. The richness and diversity of arboreal species were higher in mid-elevation forests compared to low/high-elevation sites (unimodal pattern). With Simpson’s diversity index ranging from 0.695 to 0.865, Shannon index of 1.445–2.231, and Equitability of 0.883–0.994, our study sites exhibited moderate to high species diversity and encompassed 26 IUCN Red-listed species. Diversity and AGB-C were significantly correlated, indicating that the results support the hypothesis on inter-connectiveness. Overall, the forests at low and mid-elevations showed greater potential for C sequestration and biodiversity conservation, implying the need for adaptive management (designing actions) of these forests to mitigate the impending global climate change and conserve biodiversity.
... Woody perennial species like rubber and coconut trees hold significant potential for sequestering atmospheric CO 2 given the substantial biomass C stocks that have been reported for rubber and coconut-based farming systems (Saha et al. 2010;Ranasinghe and Thimothias 2012;Brahma et al. 2018;Nair et al. 2018;Kumar and Kunhamu 2022). Regionally, however, comprehensive estimates of biomass C stocks along elevational gradients for these plantations in the WG region are scarce. ...
... The term Agroforestry is defined as a land-use system in which agricultural crops, shrubs and pastures are cultivated in association with trees (Nair et al., 2018). The traditional agroforestry experiences a short delay between this integrated farming technique as the agricultural crops grows more rapidly than the trees, and the waste obtained altogether from these fields is defined as agroforestry waste (Nunes et al., 2020a;Bolzonella et al., 2017). ...
Article
Agroforestry, an integration of farming system with woody perennials leads to the generation of potential agroforestry residues. The conventional treatment of agroforestry waste includes landfilling, thermal management, and decomposition which is accompanied with their own share of disadvantages. The ample amount of residues and products needs effective management to reap the economic and environmental benefits. The channel of waste collection, transportation, and recycle or valorization into products like biofuel, fertilizers, biochar, industrial chemicals is essential to maintain a circular sustainable bioeconomy. Global market value of biowaste to bioenergy (BtB) technology is roughly US 25.32billionandisprojectedtoenhancetoUS25.32 billion and is projected to enhance to US 40 billion by 2023. Employment of an appropriate pretreatment technology such as fermentation, hydrolysis, gasification etc. is going to elevate the degree of valorization along with surpassing the mobilization barrier. The sustainability assessment of the management process can be achieved with multiple models including technoeconomic analysis, life cycle assessment and multi criteria approach which are dependent on both hard and soft indices. Additionally, the loopholes of the agroforestry sectors would be managed by the introduction of appropriate policies which are undertaken globally by the Orlando and Lugo declarations, food and agriculture organization, Millennium Development Goals, Global Research Alliance and Guidelines for Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development. The present review envisaged the agroforestry waste management strategy and its sustainability assessment primarily based upon Social, Economic and Environmental parameters without tormenting the future generations.
... Other particularities and solutions were highlighted by the researchers, such as the presented in Table 4. Table 4. Particularities and solutions highlighted by the literature for a more balanced agricultural development. [119] Fodder banks [120] Fermentation of agricultural waste [121] Models to identify tomato ripeness [122] No-tillage, waste management, and agricultural diversification [123] Conservation agriculture [124] Based on conservation tillage systems [125] Nanotechnology [126] Including for carbon management in soil [127] Drought-tolerant seeds [128] Integrated pest control, combined crop-animal agriculture and organic composting [129] Fertilizer trees and shrubs [130] Terrace landscapes [131] Annual crops planted with coconuts [132] Agroforestry structures [133] Microalgae [134] Dambo cultivation [135] Valorisation of agro-food byproducts [136] Traditional agriculture [137] Integrated farming systems [138] '4R' approach (right source, right rate, right time, right place) [139] Agronomic rotations and cover cropping [140] "Positive Deviance" (identifying practices from farms with higher performance) [141] Genetic strategies [142] Vertical farming [143] In the cities [144] Crop residues management through principles of bioeconomy [145] Certification strategies These solutions as CSA are not universal [146] and depend on the specificities of each context [147]. ...
Article
Full-text available
The innovative technologies developed in the different fields of science (nanotechnology, artificial intelligence, genetic modification, etc.) opened new and infinite possibilities for the several stakeholders that carry out their activities in the different economic sectors. For agriculture, these new approaches are particularly relevant and may bring interesting contributions, considering the specificities of the sector, often dealing with contexts of land abandonment and narrow profit margins. Nonetheless, the question in these unstopped evolutions is about the interlinkages with sustainability. In this context, the objectives of this study are to highlight the main insights from the available scientific literature about the interrelationships between the new trends in the agriculture and the sustainability. To achieve these aims, a search on the Web of Science Core Collection (WoS) and Scopus databases was carried out, on 15 May 2021, for the topics ‘smart agriculture’ and ‘sustainability’. A total of 231 documents (102 from WoS and 129 from Scopus) were obtained, remaining 155 documents after removing the duplicated, which were surveyed through systematic review following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) approach. As main insights, the concerns of the researchers with the impacts on the sustainability from the transformations in the farming organization are highlighted. On the other hand, it was shown the relevance and the new opportunities, including in terms of food supply, arising from the precision agriculture, agricultural intelligence, vertical/urban farming, circular economy, internet of things, and crowdfarming. We suggest the new and wider concept of ‘integrated-smart agriculture’, better than ‘climate-smart agriculture’.
Chapter
Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), the perennial tree crop, has a productive lifespan of six to seven decades. During its life cycle, soil plays a crucial role in sustaining its productivity, by providing the necessary physico-chemical and biological soil quality attributes for its sustenance. Soil health is the foundation for sustainable coconut production. The various soil health attributes need to be assessed and understood for designing the suitable location-specific management practices for sustainable production. In this regard, the constraints for production are to be assessed and monitored. Soil pollution as well as climate change also aggravate the already existing soil fertility constraints hindering the palm productivity. Technological options to improve the productivity while maintaining soil health, viz. efficient organic recycling techniques, integrated nutrient management, conservation agriculture, cropping system, cover cropping, and production of location-specific beneficial microbial consortia and nutrient application based on soil test, were reported. The fertility management strategies encompassing both the integrated nutrient management and organic management depending on the socioeconomic as well the ecological scenario need to be utilized for realizing the optimum production potential. Being ‘Kalpa Vriksha’ for human kind, residue recycling through composting techniques is of utmost importance. Approaches such as DRIS, digitization of soil fertility map at micro level, leaf analysis-based nutrition, and conservation agricultural practices are to be given focus in this regard. Microbial solubilizers for particular nutrients such as phosphorus, potassium, zinc, and silicon are to be identified for formulating location-specific soil health management strategies in coconut-based cropping system.
Chapter
Coastal and island habitats are among the most fragile and climate-vulnerable ecosystems in the world which host around 2.4 billion people. This fragile ecosystem has been experiencing social, economic and environmental difficulties due to climate change-related vagaries such as sea-level rise, extreme weather events, ocean acidification and warming of sea surface temperatures. Coastal habitats are also threatened by population growth, expansion of residential, industrial and tourism developments and attendant pollution and habitat loss. Agroforestry has emerged as a potential remedial measure to address some of these issues, and to achieve at least nine out of seventeen sustainable developmental goals set by the United Nations. Practising agroforestry in coastal regions can stabilize food supplies and incomes through diversification, biodiversity conservation and providing physical protection against extreme weather events. Planting trees also helps to mitigate and adapt to climate change. This chapter highlights the importance of various agroforestry systems for biodiversity conservation, livelihood security, carbon sequestration and meeting some of the important sustainable development goals.KeywordsCoastal and island regionsClimate changeSea-level riseSustainable development goalsBiodiversity conservationSoutheast Asia
Article
Full-text available
Today, when the emphasis on single-species production systems that is cardinal to agricultural and forestry programs the world over has resulted in serious ecosystem imbalances, the virtues of the time-tested practice of growing different species together as in managed Multi-strata Tree + Crop (MTC) systems deserve serious attention. The coconut-palm-based multispecies systems in tropical homegardens and shaded perennial systems are just two such systems. A fundamental ecological principle of these systems is niche complementarity, which implies that systems that are structurally and functionally more complex than crop- or tree monocultures result in greater efficiency of resource (nutrients, light, and water) capture and utilization. Others include spatial and temporal heterogeneity, perennialism, and structural and functional diversity. Unexplored or under-exploited areas of benefits of MTC systems include their ecosystem services such as carbon storage, climate regulation, and biodiversity conservation. These multispecies integrated systems indeed represent an agroecological marvel, the principles of which could be utilized in the design of sustainable as well as productive agroecosystems. Environmental and ecological specificity of MTC systems, however, is a unique feature that restricts their comparison with other land-use systems and extrapolation of the management features used in one location to another.
Article
Full-text available
During the past two centuries, the world has witnessed a remarkable increase in the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases (GHGs), namely carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), as a result of human activities after 1750 (preindustrial era). During 1750 the concentrations for these gases were 280 ppm, 715 ppb, and 270 ppb, respectively which increased to 379 ppm, 1774 ppb, and 319 ppb, respectively in 2005. It showed an increase of 0.23, 0.96, and 0.12% annually. The same has further increased to 385 ppm, 1797 ppb, and 322 ppb, respectively in 2008 representing 1.6, 1.2, and 0.9% increase, respectively from 2005 levels at an annual increase of 0.53, 0.43, and 0.31%, annually. Increase in atmospheric CO2 promotes growth and productivity of plants with C3 photosynthetic pathway but the increase in temperature, on the other hand, can reduce crop duration, increase crop respiration rates, affect the survival and distribution of pest populations, and may hasten nutrient mineralization in soils, decrease fertilizer-use efficiency, and increase evapotranspiration. The water resources which are already scarce may come under enhanced stress. Thus, the impact of climate change is likely to have a significant influence on agriculture and eventually on the food security and livelihoods of large sections of the urban and rural populations globally. The developing countries, particularly in South Asia and Latin America, with diverse agroclimatic regions, challenging geographies, growing economies, diverse agricultural production systems, and farm typologies are more vulnerable to the effect of climate change due to heavy dependence on agriculture for livelihood. These regions also are demonstrating poor coping mechanisms to adapt to these challenges, and as a result there is evidence of negative impacts on productivity of wheat, rice, and other crops to varying extent depending on agroecologies.
Book
Compendium of carbon sequestering agriculture practices, perennial staple crops, perennial industrial crops
Article
The impact of dry spells on the developmental stages of the coconut fruit from inflorescence initiation up to fruit maturity and its relation to nut production was studied. The rainfall pattern from 1976 to 1980 was superimposed on the ontogeny of the coconut fruit beginning from the time of initiation of the inflorescence primordium up to maturity of the nut. Based on the total annual rainfall and the monthly precipitation, the degree and duration of dry spells corresponding to each stage of nut developwent were deduced. A critical analysis of the rainfall data in relation to the stages of fruit development revealed that a prolonged dry spell at three stages viz. initiation of primordium, ovary development ran button size nuts could adversely affect the productivity of palms, while other stages are comparatively less affected by water stress.
Article
Coconut is the major perennial crop in coastal areas of India. It is mainly grown under rainfed conditions in areas of high rainfall. However, these plantations face summer drought situations as the rainfall distribution is restricted to only 4 to 5 months a year, leaving remaining period as dry. The objective of the study is to quantify the dry spell and to deduce the influence of rainfall and dry spell on the nut yield in major coconut growing areas situated in different agro-climatic zones of India. viz., western coastal area - hot sub-humid per-humid (represented by Kasaragod in Kerala and Ratnagiri in Maharashtra), Western Ghats - hot sub-humid per-humid (represented by Kidu in Karnataka); hot semi-arid (represented by Arsikere in Karnataka); and eastern coastal plains - hot subhumid (represented by Veppankulam in Tamil Nadu and Ambajipeta in Andhra Pradesh). Variation in annual rainfall was from a maximum of 3337.7 mm (Kasaragod) to a minimum of 718.23 mm (Arsikere). Dry spell was longer in Ratnagiri (216 days) and Arsikere (202 days), and shorter at Kidu (146 days). The annual nut yield under rainfed conditions varied from 68 (Ambajipeta) and 66 (Kasaragod) to 41 (Arisekere) and 30 (Kidu). Impact of variations in dry spell on nut yield was discernible from the study. In view of the long duration (44 months) between the inflorescence initiation to nut maturation, the occurrence of dry spell in any one year would affect the yield for the subsequent three to four years. It can be inferred that the longer dry spell affects the nut yield for next four years to follow with stronger impact on fourth year, irrespective of the total rainfall.
Article
A long-term multi-location experiment was conducted during 1997-98 to 2002-2003 at different agroclimatic zones (five centers) representing the major coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) growing areas in India. Different moisture conservation practices in coconut palm basins, viz husk burial, leaf mulching, application of farmyard manure and farm waste, composted coir pith, application of synthetic polymer and increased potassium dose were evaluated for soil moisture conservation (SMC) at root zone during dry season. The soil moisture conservation practices resulted in the availability of soil moisture in the root zone for extended period. The 'source' parameters like net photosynthesis (Pn), water-use efficiency (WUE) and number of physiologically functional leaves in the crown increased due to irrigation and moisture conservation practices. 'Sink' parameters like, number of pistillate flowers and nut retention efficiency were increased with water conservation and irrigation. The irrigated palms produced more pistillate flowers with higher retention capacity even during summer. The results clearly demonstrated that the prolonged soil moisture availability due to soil moisture conservation treatments helped to increase the photosynthetic source number and efficiency as also the sink capacity and efficiency.