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Looking Back to Look Forward: Lessons for Leadership Development: Contemporary Research and Evidence-Based Practices
Abstract
From high profile scandals involving corporate, political, and religious leaders to systemic abuses of power and unethical practices that often form the backdrop of contemporary organizations; the lack of an efficacious profession of moral leadership is identified as one of the most fundamental problems in leadership among both academics and practitioners. Using the 2007–2008 global financial crisis (GFC) as a turning point, we analyzed 15 years of leadership development intervention literature published in peer reviewed journal before the GFC using servant leadership as a paradigm for holistic leadership development. Through this research, we sought to look back at what lessons can we learn from the past, so that we are able to better understand what changes are needed to move forward. The study revealed an imbalance in the emphasis of leadership development interventions, and extends the literature the study of destructive leadership and ethical leadership in answering the call for moral, authentic and ethical leaders. Theoretical and practical implications were also discussed.
... or action learning(Robin & Sendjaya, 2019) may result in servant leader development. The findings are also consistent with Greenleaf's assertion that servant leader development is reflective and occurs over time(1977).However, as development often occurred through experiential learning outside the classroom in concert with other events, it was difficult to delineate what development was the direct result of the teaching. ...
Numerous courses have sought to develop servant leaders, but few have focused on servant leadership within a New Zealand tertiary education context. This article explores how servant leaders were developed in a course in Aotearoa-New Zealand using the Sendjaya, Sarros and Santora (2008) dimensions of servant leadership. The article also considers how Māori education concepts may support servant leader development in a New Zealand context. Results suggest most learners developed in some servant leadership dimensions with development influenced by experiential learning beyond the classroom. Further post-course and quantitative research is recommended to expand these findings by measuring the extent of servant leader development.
... Bordei et al., 2019;Crawford et al., 2017;Lemoine et al., 2018). In some cases, unethical conduct in organizations begins with a leader acting unethically, but it has impacts on organizational culture leading to a normalization of acting unethically (Robin & Sendjaya, 2019). One of the most recognized cases of poor ethical cultures was Enron, which saw a suppression of moral judgment in leaders in favour of 'looking good' (Edwards et al., 2019). ...
Despite their inherent complexity, social entrepreneurs seek to create social innovation to stem society's wicked problems. To do so requires a balanced consideration of varying social expectations, all while trying to lead a sustainable enterprise. Educators look to equip the social entrepreneur with the right skills and mindset; with program failure, sadly, more common than not. This chapter seeks to explore the commonalities of such failures, highlighting the importance of behavioral development and facilitating an effective learning environment. Following an investigation into the notion of social entrepreneurship, authentic leadership is identified as a response some of the shortcomings of contemporary entrepreneurship education. The incorporation of authentic leader behaviors in entrepreneurial education can offer an injection as the social entrepreneur seeks to address the various challenges of social enterprise.
Despite their inherent complexity, social entrepreneurs seek to create social innovation to stem society's wicked problems. To do so requires a balanced consideration of varying social expectations, all while trying to lead a sustainable enterprise. Educators look to equip the social entrepreneur with the right skills and mindset; with program failure, sadly, more common than not. This chapter seeks to explore the commonalities of such failures, highlighting the importance of behavioral development and facilitating an effective learning environment. Following an investigation into the notion of social entrepreneurship, authentic leadership is identified as a response some of the shortcomings of contemporary entrepreneurship education. The incorporation of authentic leader behaviors in entrepreneurial education can offer an injection as the social entrepreneur seeks to address the various challenges of social enterprise.
Notwithstanding the proliferation of servant leadership studies with over 100 articles published in the last four years alone, a lack of coherence and clarity around the construct has impeded its theory development. We provide an integrative and comprehensive review of the 285 articles on servant leadership spanning 20 years (1998–2018), and in so doing extend the field in four different ways. First, we provide a conceptual clarity of servant leadership vis-à-vis other value-based leadership approaches and offer a new definition of servant leadership. Second, we evaluate 16 existing measures of servant leadership in light of their respective rigor of scale construction and validation. Third, we map the theoretical and nomological network of servant leadership in relation to its antecedents, outcomes, moderators, mediators. We finally conclude by presenting a detailed future research agenda to bring the field forward encompassing both theoretical and empirical advancement. All in all, our review paints a holistic picture of where the literature has been and where it should go into the future.
Despite the independent treatment of the positive and negative sides of leadership in the literature, evidence suggests that the same leader may demonstrate both positive and negative leadership behaviors albeit with a different frequency (i.e., Jekyll and Hyde). What impacts would such opposing leadership styles jointly have on follower and team outcomes? To address this question, the current study examines the interactive impact of charismatic leadership and abusive supervision on individual- and team-level outcomes. Findings across three different samples gathered from the United States and South Korea suggest significant moderating roles of abusive supervision in the positive relationships of charismatic leadership with follower and team outcomes. This study highlights the importance of incorporating otherwise separate perspectives on leadership and provides insights into the boundary condition that impedes the effectiveness of charismatic leadership. Thus, we call for more research on integrative models of leadership that embrace different aspects of leader behaviors.
This paper reports the validation of a 6-item short form of the original 35-item Servant Leadership Behavior Scale, a widely used measure of servant leadership behavior. The holistic perspective of servant leadership and the inclusion of spirituality are two distinctive features of the SLBS relative to other servant leadership measures. Psychometric properties of the SLBS-6 were examined on the basis of seven studies. In the preliminary scale development, the factor structure of the new measure was tested using a combination of all samples (n = 3072). The subsequent seven studies were aimed at building further its construct validity relative to observed variables within the servant leadership nomological network in direct, mediating, and moderating relationships. Analyses of all datasets using MPlus with maximum-likelihood estimation provided support for the 6-item structure and demonstrated its internal consistency reliability, criterion-related validity, and construct validity. As such, the study presents the SLBS-6 as the shortest holistic measure of servant leadership to date that can be used with confidence for research and training purposes.
This paper tests and confirms the cross-cultural equivalence of the Servant Leadership Survey (SLS) in eight countries and languages: The Netherlands, Portugal, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Spain, Turkey and Finland. A composite sample consisting of 5201 respondents from eight countries that all filled out the SLS was used. A three-step approach was adopted to test configural invariance, measurement equivalence, and structural equivalence. For the full 30-item version of the SLS, configural invariance and partial measurement equivalence were confirmed. Implications of these results for the use of the SLS within cross-cultural studies are discussed.
This study compares three emerging forms of positive leadership that emphasize ethical and moral behavior (i.e., authentic leadership, ethical leadership, and servant leadership) with transformational leadership in their associations with a wide range of organizationally relevant measures. While scholars have noted conceptual overlap between transformational leadership and these newer leadership forms, there has been inadequate investigation of the empirical relationships with transformational leadership and the ability (or lack thereof) of these leadership forms to explain incremental variance beyond transformational leadership. In response, we conducted a series of meta-analyses to provide a comprehensive assessment of these emerging leadership forms’ relationships with variables evaluated in the extant literature. Second, we tested the relative performance of each of these leadership forms in explaining incremental variance, beyond transformational leadership, in nine outcomes. We also provide relative weights analyses to further evaluate the relative contributions of the emerging leadership forms versus transformational leadership. The high correlations between both authentic leadership and ethical leadership with transformational leadership coupled with their low amounts of incremental variance suggest that their utility is low unless they are being used to explore very specific outcomes. Servant leadership, however, showed more promise as a stand-alone leadership approach that is capable of helping leadership researchers and practitioners better explain a wide range of outcomes. Guidance regarding future research and the utility of these three ethical/moral values–based leadership forms is provided.
Although most managers can recognize an off-kilter leader (consider the highly supportive boss who cuts people too much slack), it's quite difficult to see overkill in yourself. Unfortunately, that's where leadership development tools such as 360-degree surveys fail to deliver, say Kaplan and Kaiser. Dividing qualities into "strengths" and "weaknesses" and rating them on a five-point scale will not account for strengths overplayed. The authors suggest several strategies, based on their years of consulting experience and research, for figuring out which attributes you've employed to excess and adjusting your behavior accordingly. Strengths taken too far have two consequences: First, they become weaknesses. For instance, quick-wittedness can turn into impatience with others. Second, you're at risk of becoming extremely lopsided-that is, diminishing your capacity on the opposite pole. A leader who is very good at building consensus, for example, may take too long to move into action. To strike a balance between two key leadership dualities-forceful versus enabling, and strategic versus operational-you need to see your actions and motivations clearly. That's no easy task since most leadership development tools don't spell out that you're overdoing your strengths. But there are other ways to bring that information to light. You can start with a review of the highest ratings on your most recent 360 report. Ask yourself: Is this too much of a good thing? Another technique is to make a list of the traits you most want to have as a leader. Are you going to extremes with any of them? To check for lopsidedness, you can prompt feedback from other people with a list of qualities you've composed or one you've gleaned from other sources. Once you know which attributes you're overdoing, you can recalibrate.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to present challenges in leadership performance today, as well as leadership styles that have potential, given the contemporary shifts in performance climate.
Design/methodology/approach
– This paper is based on empirical research, obtained through methodological triangulation, partly through critical literature review, and partly through the author’s ongoing leadership studies during the past ten years, to be subdivided in three phenomenological studies, and 72 structured leadership interviews.
Findings
– There is a multitude of factors that keep changing the leadership landscape, and there is a series of leadership skills that suffice well given the parameters of today’s work environments. Nine of these leadership styles are presented, including their main characteristics and contemporary usefulness.
Research limitations/implications
– The studies reviewed, although in-depth, applied to a limited set of options. Because leadership is such a broad and dynamic topic, neither literature review nor qualitative studies and interview series provide an entirely comprehensive overview, especially when conducted in one part of the world.
Practical implications
– Leaders may reconsider the skills required for themselves and their workforce to guarantee successful performance in an increasingly interconnected world. Leaders may engage in reflection and work toward stronger emphasis and development of skills in which they consider themselves weak. Leaders may examine their work environment and consider how to apply the factors that could facilitate one or more of the presented leadership styles in their organization.
Originality/value
– The leadership styles presented are multi-applicable and are mainly based on inter-human respect, so leaders may reflect and consider the style they feel most attracted to.
This article presents the results of a survey of management educators on business leadership education. The management educators consulted here generally concurred that leadership requires a particular kind of education. Leadership education, like leadership itself, must rely on heuristic approaches such as mentoring, coaching, patterning, and, trial-and-error experience. Most educators agreed that individual personality traits provide at least part of the basis upon which leadership skills are built, and such characteristics reach stability by adolescence. Hence, a frame is established that drives how future managers view their roles, their style of communicating, and their modes of interaction with others. Clearly, these frames can change, and individuals can learn to view things differently. Managers, like educators, continue to grow socially, physically, and intellectually. However, this early grounding and foundation may strongly influence the choice of career or profession, the style or attitude toward work relationships, and the approach of managerial roles and interactions, including leadership roles.
In a sample of 961 employees working in 71 restaurants of a moderately sized restaurant chain, we investigated a key tenet of servant leadership theory that servant leaders guide followers to emulate the leader's behavior by prioritizing the needs of others above their own. We developed and tested a model contending that servant leaders propagate servant leadership behaviors among followers by creating a serving culture, which directly influences unit (i.e., restaurant/store) performance and enhances individual attitudes and behaviors directly and through the mediating influence of individuals' identification with the unit. As hypothesized, serving culture was positively related both to restaurant performance and employee job performance, creativity, and customer service behaviors, and negatively related to turnover intentions, both directly and through employee identification with the restaurant. Samesource common method bias was reduced by employing five sources of data: employees, restaurant managers, customers, internal audits by headquarters staff, and external audits by a consulting firm.
Employing a national sample of 1,162 employees, we examined the relationship be-tween joh and career attitudes and the presence of a mentor, the mentor's type (formal or informal), the quality ofthe mentoring relationship, and the perceived effectiveness and design of a formal mentoring program. Satisfaction with a mentoring relationship had a stronger impact on attitudes than the presence of a mentor, whether the rela-tionship was formal or informal, or the design of a formal mentoring program. Mentoring has been the focus of much research and discussion over the past decade. Comparisons of nonmentored and mentored individuals yield consistent results: compared to nonmentored indi-viduals, individuals with informal mentors report greater career satisfaction (Fagenson, 1989), career commitment (Colarelli & Bishop, 1990), and career mobility (Scandura, 1992). Informal proteges also report more positive job attitudes than nonmen-tored individuals (cf.. Many organizations have attempted to replicate the benefits of informal mentoring by developing formal mentoring programs (Burke & McKeen, 1989). Formal mentoring relationships develop with organizational assistance or intervention, which is usually in the form of matching mentors and proteges. A third of the nation's major compa-nies apparently have formal mentoring programs (Bragg, 1989), and formal mentoring has been iden-tified as an emerging trend in the new millennium (Tyler, 1998). Three questions come to mind when viewing these emerging trends. First, are all mentoring re-lationships created equal? Existing studies imply this assumption by comparing mentored and non-This study was supported by a 1991 grant from the Women's Bureau of the U.S. Department of Labor. We would like to thank the editor and the three anonymous reviewers for their excellent feedback and help with our manuscript: this was reviewing at its best.
The article distinguishes between leaders and leadership on the one hand, and leader and leadership development on the other. It then explores a particular mode of leadership development, based upon membership of the UK Academy of Chief Executives (ACE). Semi-structured interviews, documentary analysis, and participant observation were used to study the experiences and obtain the views of members of the North East England branch of the ACE. It is argued that leadership development has often been equated with leader development, with the resulting focus upon the individual, as against attending to the social, political, collective and other contexts of action and meaning. Social capital theory, following Day (2000), is drawn upon in order to help conceptualize and apply leadership development in context, where the emphasis is upon understanding and building relationships and networks, coordinating activities, and developing commitments.
This article indicates how the competency approach to leadership could
be conceived of as a repeating refrain that continues to offer an illusory promise to
rationalize and simplify the processes of selecting, measuring and developing
leaders, yet only reflects a fragment of the complexity that is leadership. To make this
argument we draw on two sets of data: a review of leadership competency frameworks
and an analysis of participant reports from a reflective leadership development
programme. A lexical analysis comparing the two data sets highlights a
substantial difference with regards to the relative importance placed on the moral,
emotional and relationship dimensions of leadership. The implications of these
differences are considered, as are ways in which the competency approach could be
aligned more closely with the current and future needs of leaders and organizations.
In particular, we argue that a more discursive approach that helps to reveal and challenge
underlying organizational assumptions is likely to be more beneficial if organizations
are looking to move beyond individualistic notions of leadership towards
more inclusive and collective forms. Methodological issues are also raised around
the comparative analysis (both semantic and linguistic) of apparently incommensurable
texts.
This article presents an integrated construct of servant leadership derived from a review of the literature. Subscale items were developed to measure 11 potential dimensions of servant leadership: calling, listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, growth, and community building. Data from 80 leaders and 388 raters were used to test the internal consistency, confirm factor structure, and assess convergent, divergent, and predictive validity. Results produced five servant leadership factors—altruistic calling, emotional healing, persuasive mapping, wisdom, and organizational stewardship—with significant relations to transformational leadership, leader-member exchange, extra effort, satisfaction, and organizational effectiveness. Strong factor structures and good performance in all validity criteria indicate that the instrument offers value for future research.
This article reports findings arising from a systematic review of literature relating to mentoring new head teachers. The review found that all major studies of formal mentoring programmes for new heads reported that such programmes have been effective, and that the mentoring of new heads can result in a range of perceived benefits for both mentees and mentors. However, the nature of the research evidence presented to support such findings is inconclusive and there are notable gaps in the evidence base. With a view to advancing academic knowledge in the field, the authors highlight those areas where further research is most needed.
Findings about the effectiveness of leadership training vary. This research tests for the effectiveness of transformational leadership training, using the Full Range Leadership Development (FRLD) programme, upon leader behaviours and interactions. The impact of transformational leadership upon organizational performance has already been established. Quasi-field experiment research was conducted, resulting in an increase in the display of all five transformational leadership factors and contingent reward behaviour. There was a reduction in the display of passive transactional leadership behaviour as a result of the training. The extra effort of followers was increased. Goal-setting was found to be effective. Implications are discussed for practitioners and for future research.
In this article we discuss individual implicit theories of how positive and negative organizing unfold. The discussion is grounded in data collected from 89 individuals working in different organizational contexts. An inductive logic was followed, based on critical incidents of positive and negative processes and outcomes presented by participants, according to how they viewed their professional situation. Through a dialectical process of analysis, we extracted six dimensions that were present in different combinations among narratives provided by the participants: recognition/indifference, communication/silence, interaction/separation, confidence/ distrust, loyalty/betrayal, and organizational transparency/organizational secrecy. We then analysed how these dimensions fit together and discovered that they could be organized around four major patterns combining the clarity/secrecy of organizational rules and the considerate/detached behavior of leaders. We assert that positive leaders are essential in the creation of patterns of organizing, regardless of the features of the external context.
he Content Analysis Reader presents a collection of studies that exemplify what content analysts do and how they solve problems in applying this methodology to answer a variety of research questions. The assembly of historical and current studies from a variety of disciplines, allows readers to learn the process of conducting content analysis research. Whether used as a companion to Krippendorff's Content Analysis text, as a supplemental text for content analysis courses, or as an introduction to content analysis by examples The Content Analysis Reader will offer readers insight into designing, conducting, and applying their research.
While authentic leadership (AL) has seen a dramatic increase in scholarly attention over the last decade, its contribution relative to more established leadership constructs merits investigation. We employ meta-analytic techniques to compare AL and transformational leadership theories using 100 independent samples and 25,452 individuals. The findings reveal that (1) the relationship between authentic and transformational leadership is large in magnitude, suggesting construct redundancy (ρ = .72); (2) neither AL nor transformational leadership add noticeable incremental validity beyond the other construct; (3) AL has a lower relative weight than transformational leadership for the outcomes of follower satisfaction, follower satisfaction with the leader, task performance, and leader effectiveness; and (4) AL demonstrates dominance over transformational leadership when predicting group or organization performance and organizational citizenship behaviors. We recommend future research examine AL at the component level and its relationships with related ethical constructs to potentially differentiate it from transformational leadership.
A central topic in leadership research concerns the impact of leadership style – the pattern of attitudes that leaders hold and behaviors they exhibit. Since the year 2000, several new leadership styles have been proposed to capture important missing aspects beyond the dominant charismatic/transformational and transactional framework. The authors review the emerging literature on these new styles – ideological leadership, pragmatic leadership, authentic leadership, ethical leadership, spiritual leadership, distributed leadership, and integrative public leadership – as well as the recent work on servant leadership. They also comment on the Ohio State studies on leadership, and then discuss the ways in which these many styles overlap with transformational leadership and each other, and issue a call to leadership researchers to collectively develop a new ‘full-range’ model of leadership that encompasses and distills what is unique about these various styles. The authors argue that such an integrated full-range model is necessary for research on leadership style to progress.
Management Research Methods, first published in 2007, is a comprehensive guide to the design and conduct of research in management-related disciplines such as organisational behaviour, human resource management, industrial relations, and the general field of management. Specifically, the text begins by providing an overview of the research process and in subsequent chapters explains the major types of design used in management research (correlational field studies, experimental and quasi-experimental designs, case studies, historical analysis, and action research). There are also chapters that describe the methods of data collection (interviews, questionnaires, documentation and observation) commonly employed by management researchers. In addition, the text examines the issues of reliability and validity, the construction of multi-item scales, and the methods of quantitative and qualitative analysis. The text concludes with a practical guide explaining how to report research findings and a discussion of the ethical issues in the conduct and practice of research.
The current interest in service learning provides universities with a unique opportunity to engage their students in community service, expand their educational agenda, and build reciprocal partnerships with the community. This article discusses the implementation of service learning by delineating a set of activities for four constituencies: institution, faculty, students, and community.
In this article, the author lists three problems that make any serious discussion about the ethics of leadership a very difficult undertaking. He then proposes a new, postindustrial paradigm of leadership. Using that understanding of leadership, two different sets of ethical analyses of leadership are possible: (1) those concerned with the process of leadership and (2) those concerned with the content of leadership (the changes proposed by the leaders and collaborators). In the end, the author suggests that the industrial paradigm of ethics (the 18th century liberal philosophy) is inadequate to deal with the ethical decision making that leaders and collaborators must do in the 21st century. Thus, a postindustrial paradigm of ethics must be developed to enable leaders and collaborators to make the tough ethical choices that will be demanded in the new millennium.
It is virtually impossible to listen to a news report, read a newspaper or magazine, or surf the Internet without the focus involving a scandal in government, a corporation, an organization or institution. The recent home mortgage collapse and the freezing up of credit markets around the world left taxpayers paying for cleaning up the financial mess caused by the immoral actions and greed of business leaders. It has only increased the already intense concerns about improving the moral behavior of organizations and those who run them. Many of our nation's elite corpo-rations have ethical codes of conduct and code books to direct them. Unfortunately, often the leaders of these organizations either don't know how to implement their policies or, worse yet, may not believe in them. For this reason Johnson calls for an ethical transformation of organiza-tions. Ethics in the Workplace: Tools and Tactics for Organizational Transformation is his attempt to provide organizations and their leaders and followers with tools that will help them place "ethics at the center of the workplace, significantly altering attitudes, thinking, communication, behavior, culture, and systems" (p. xv). His book is a roadmap for those who have the courage to implement significant long-lasting positive change in their organizations. Chapter One introduces five common ethical theory approaches found in organ-izations, which Johnson applies later throughout the book. He encour-Arne P. Nielsen is Superintendent for the Department of Education of the Florida Conference of Seventh-day Adventists in Winter Park, Fla.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to consider theoretically the relationships between performance management, a servant leadership style and leader gender, drawing from Hackman and Wageman's theory of team coaching to suggest a servant leadership style being optimally suited to support the different leadership roles enacted at different stages of the performance management cycle. While recent research suggests that female managers may be more likely to enact a servant leadership style, team and process‐level considerations have yet to be addressed. This paper aims to theoretically address this topic.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper is conceptual based on theory with literature review.
Findings
Because the theory of team coaching suggests differential leader task delivery at various points in the coaching process, servant leadership's individually‐centred approach is suited to team coaching, particularly in the execution of performance management coaching.
Practical implications
Since research suggests that women are more likely to employ a servant leadership style, this paper explores whether gender plays a role in team coaching.
Originality/value
This study makes a novel contribution by considering the influence of a servant leadership style at the leadership process and team levels.
In recent years, a number of new, values-based, or ideological models focusing on leader behavior have been proposed. These models include authentic, servant, character-based, ethical, spiritual, and aesthetic leadership. In the present effort, we argue that these models, despite some differences in key dimensions, are tied together by a focus on moral behavior. The available evidence indicates that these models have only modest predictive power with respect to organizational performance criteria. More centrally, we argue that tests of these models are characterized by significant methodological problems with respect to both measurement and control. Moreover, these models suffer from some serious substantive concerns, including the explicit confounding of leadership and morality, discounting of system impacts, inappropriate assumptions about follower needs, and inappropriate scientific inferences. These models also fail to provide viable new approaches for leader development. We conclude that caution must be exercised when these models are employed as a basis for understanding leadership. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This paper aimed to provide insights into the different mediating mechanisms through which servant leadership (SL) and transformational leadership (TFL) affect followers. We also investigated environmental uncertainty as a moderator of the effects of servant leadership and transformational leadership. Based on the results of two experimental studies and one field study, we concluded that both SL and TFL were related to organizational commitment and work engagement; however, the manner in which they exerted their influence differed. SL worked primarily through follower need satisfaction, whereas TFL worked mainly through perceived leadership effectiveness. The moderating influence of uncertainty was inconsistent across the studies.
Prior research suggests that companies with ethical leadership, a climate characterized by ethical values, and a formal ethics program have employees who engage in less misconduct. In this study, we examine one company's journey to develop these three elements and successfully emerge from scandal to eventually be hailed as a model of organizational ethics. A qualitative analysis of newspaper articles across three periods from scandal exposure to scandal emergence is used to explore the media's role in framing and reframing the perceptions of (un)ethical leadership actions and eventually changing the reputation of one organization. Results sugges that the leaders in this case study helped move beyond the scandal by avoiding even the appearance of impropriety, making ethics visibly stand out from the everyday business environment, and working to symbolically create perceptions of an ethical climate both inside and outside of the organization. Leadership lessons and limitations of the study are discussed.
What does it take to develop enlightened leaders who can transform their organizations and communities? The quest to develop enlightened leaders who are self-aware, learning centered, adaptable, interpersonally competent, and team oriented is a challenge faced by many management programs. The Master of Science program in Executive Leadership and Organization Change (ELOC) was designed to develop enlightened leaders who can demonstrate outstanding and transformative leadership in their organizations and communities. The ELOC program is an innovative executive-level master’s program designed to develop leadership and change management skills through the pedagogical framework of ACT (action learning, competency development, and teamwork). ELOC students participated in a public engagement practicum course in the first summer of their program. A description of the ELOC program as well as a description of the service-learning course is presented. Key components in the program and course that facilitated the desired executive leadership development are highlighted.
Today’s unstable economy puts added stress on today’s leaders. When these leaders are stressed, maintaining their values becomes more difficult. While ethics are stressed during one’s education, organizations are less likely to continue ethics training. Given the many scandals, it is essential that there are ethical leaders to guide organizations. A leader cannot be prepared for all situations, but an ethical leader will have the tools to guide himself through complex situations. The purpose of this article is to present how ethics training is often lacking once students move to the business world. However, continuous training is needed to reinforce their skills throughout their careers. This article will use a review of literature to present findings in academia and business.
While the focus on constructive leadership still dominates leadership research, an increasing number of studies investigate different forms of destructive leadership. This meta-analysis integrates different conceptualizations of destructive leadership and analyzes the relationship between destructive leadership and outcome variables. The search for articles yielded more than 200 studies of which 57 could be included in the meta-analysis. Results indicate the expected negative correlations with positive followers' outcomes and behaviors (e.g., attitudes towards the leader, well-being, and individual performance) and positive correlations with negative outcomes (e.g., turnover intention, resistance towards the leader, counterproductive work behavior). As expected, the highest correlation arises between destructive leadership and attitudes towards the leader. Surprisingly, the next highest correlation was found between destructive leadership and counterproductive work behavior. After discussing the results, an agenda for future research is proposed. Given the negative impact of destructive leadership, more knowledge is especially necessary regarding what triggers destructive leadership.
Servant leadership is positioned as a new field of research for leadership scholars. This review deals with the historical background of servant leadership, its key characteristics, the available measurement tools, and the results of relevant studies that have been conducted so far. An overall conceptual model of servant leadership is presented. It is argued that leaders who combine their motivation to lead with a need to serve display servant leadership. Personal characteristics and culture are positioned alongside the motivational dimension. Servant leadership is demonstrated by empowering and developing people; by expressing humility, authenticity, interpersonal acceptance, and stewardship; and by providing direction. A high-quality dyadic relationship, trust, and fairness are expected to be the most important mediating processes to encourage self-actualization, positive job attitudes, performance, and a stronger organizational focus on sustainability and corporate social responsibility.
This paper examines the philosophical foundation of servant leadership by extracting several value-laden principles drawn from Greenleafs and Jesus Christ's delineation of the concept. The primary intent and self-concept of servant leaders are singled out as the distinctive features of servant leadership. While empirical research studies are critically needed to develop the concepts underlying the servant leadership movement into sound theory, an accurate understanding of the conceptual roots of servant leadership is essential in the process. The current developmental stage of the servant leadership movement is explored in order to provide some useful signposts for future research directions.
Executive Summary Among the most prominent developments in recent years in the investigation of transformational leadership has been the confirmation of the utility of transformational leadership for increasing organizational satisfaction, commitment, and effectiveness, and the 6-factor model of the transformational-transactional factorial structure. Also, we have increased our understanding of transformational dynamics. In this paper, I hope to show how transformational leadership relates to the creation and maintenance of the learning organization. To do this, the meaning of transformational and transactional leadership and the Full Range of Leadership will be discussed and how the components of transformational and transactional leadership contribute to a learning organization will be examined. The future of leadership and administration will be considered in the light of the current state of affairs in educational leadership.
This article has two objectives: to describe how business schools have implemented mentoring programs and to provide some insights on the success of such programs. A national sample of 154 universities and colleges was surveyed by phone to determine the proportion of business schools with mentoring programs and the structure of these programs. To obtain a better understanding of the interpersonal dynamics between mentors and mentees, in-depth interviews with 15 mentoring program administrators and five career development counselors were also conducted. These follow-up interviews provide a qualitative understanding of the characteristics that make mentoring programs successful. Mentor program administrators provide several recommendations for attracting and retaining mentors, for developing greater rapport between mentors and mentees, and for generating greater satisfaction with the mentoring program. The article points to the lack of broad-based research on the effectiveness of mentoring programs in business schools and suggests directions for future outcomes assessment research.
The problem and the solution .This article reviews recent novel contributions to leadership development theory and practice. It provides definitions and a brief overview of leadership and leadership development, and a summary of a number of seminal and contemporary leadership theories that serve as a foundation for leadership development practice today. In addition, the article discusses emerging new directions and approaches in leadership development. Last, this introduction provides a brief overview of each of the articles in this issue of emerging practices in leadership development.
Drawing on the experiences and perspectives of multiple stakeholders closely associated with diverse types of successful student leadership programs, the purpose of this study was to identify the attributes of leadership programs—including the specific actions associated with these attributes—that contribute significantly to undergraduate student leadership development. A total of 62 interviews was conducted with individuals across the four programs in the sample. The researcher employed the constant comparative method to construct a grounded theory model. The theory of high-quality leadership programs developed in this study is grounded in those programmatic attributes that, when enacted, contribute significantly to enhancing student learning and leadership development. The data analysis revealed 16 attributes of high-quality leadership programs organized into three clusters: (a) participants engaged in building and sustaining a learning community; (b) student-centered experiential learning experiences; and (c) research-grounded continuous program development.
The current article addresses how management consultants come to believe that some leaders will do well in the future. The findings from a study of Norwegian management consultants show that the way these professionals arrive at their beliefs depends on their seeing, liking, and trusting. The article suggests that what management consultants come to believe is important, because their beliefs and understanding may affect how leaders define their roles and identities, how we come to trust leaders, and how we legitimize leadership. Thus, management consultants are important sensemakers in the discussion about leadership. However, their sensemaking was path dependent, and they did not critically inquire into their own beliefs, thinking, and understanding.
This article attempts to make sense of some of the unique cultural qualities of the American South as they manifest themselves in the leadership dynamics of three Southern firms. Two private, family-owned and managed firms, and one public (S&P 500) bank are examined in their relationship with the larger cultural structures of the American South. A combination of ethnographic and documentary research is used to articulate a ‘cultural theory of leadership’, which is premised on the idea that the leaders of these firms derive their leadership legitimacy and power from being both ‘local’ and ‘global’ at the same time. It is suggested here that leadership capital is drawn more from the elements of the region’s culture - religion, social capital, gender and class identity and so on - than it is from individual personality or firm history.
This study examined whether managers' values intensities and self-concept salience influence their altruistic leadership behavior and performance. Hypotheses derived from the goal hierarchy model of personality and the positive psychology literatures were tested using multisource data. Two hundred and eighteen managers reported their self-transcendence and self-enhancement values intensity and hoped-for and feared possible selves. Nine-hundred and thirty-five subordinates rated their manager's altruistic behavior and 218 superiors provided ratings of managerial performance. Results of partial least squares analysis indicated that managers' collective self salience partially mediated the relationships between self-transcendence and self-enhancement values intensity and altruistic behavior. Subordinates' ratings of managers' altruistic behavior predicted superiors' ratings of managerial performance. Managers' self-monitoring moderated the relationships between self-construals, altruistic behavior, and performance.
It has become commonplace to examine the externalities of leadership development, emphasizing the need for new skills and abilities such as establishing strategic vision, developing collaborative teams, and managing conflict. This article proceeds from the premise that leadership effectiveness also requires a deeper understanding of self—the inner dimension of leadership. Specifically, the authors (1) trace the evolutionary design of an NTL Institute workshop and the learning from facilitating individual self-awareness and the resolution of behavioral patterns blocking personal leadership effectiveness and (2) provide exemplars of how self-awareness can be incorporated into leadership development programs. However, the authors also raise questions about the willingness of organizations to invest in the integration of externally focused skill development with personal introspection and change.