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Sustainability Impacts of Mobility as a Service: A Scoping Study for Technology Assessment
Abstract
The potential for positive sustainability impacts of Mobility as a Service schemes is frequently mentioned in both scientific literature and public media, although a systematic evaluation of potential impacts is lacking thus far. In preparation of an in-depth technology assessment, we conduct a scoping study aimed at achieving a better conceptualization of what core elements constitute Mobility as a Service, what risks and opportunities are associated with this concept and how these may be further analyzed as part of a technology assessment project. Reviewing a total of 95 sources from academic literature as well as grey literature and media reports, we provide a synthesis of the core elements of Mobility as a Service schemes, develop hypotheses on the risks and opportunities involved and propose a framework for further assessment of the associated sustainability impacts.
... To achieve as many users as possible, supply should be derived from the patterns of daily activities of potential users [3,109]. However, the new opportunities offered by MaaS are countered by a high proportion of fixed assets in the transport industry, as well as strong barriers, especially the unwillingness of transport operators and MaaS operators to cooperate with each other [6,86,124]. Transport ecosystems are currently highly fragmented and characterized by protectionism and risk aversion among transport service providers. ...
... Wittstock and Teuteberg [124] noted the possibility of creating collective value through the realization of MaaS by providing comprehensive sustainable mobility. Many publications have assumed the existence of possible positive ecological effects of MaaS, although the actual impact on sustainability is still quite undefined. ...
... Many publications have assumed the existence of possible positive ecological effects of MaaS, although the actual impact on sustainability is still quite undefined. The influence of MaaS on greenhouse gas emissions within a certain region is also debatable, since different effects can steer total emissions in different directions [124]. Becker et al. [34] provided results of simulations that indicated the occurrence of reductions in green house emissions when a certain fleet size of car sharing and bike sharing was achieved. ...
The number of publications about mobility as a service (MaaS) has increased rapidly in the past years, spreading into various fields. In this paper, a total of 127 scientific publications about MaaS are reviewed and categorized into an overarching thematic framework in order to highlight key areas of research and further potential. Three research questions are highlighted in this review: (1) which topics are discussed in the existing MaaS literature? (2) what are the main results in the specific fields? and (3) where are gaps for further research? Publications have focused substantially on the topics of the market, users, data and technology, and the impact on the transportation system. The review shows that, regarding the concept, multi-level approaches have been established for the organization and cooperation of the actors involved, showing different levels of integration of public and private actors on a regional and supra-regional level. Various groups have already been identified as potential users, but the relatively low willingness to pay and the requirements regarding the individualization of mobility services pose problems that have not yet been solved. There is also a constant and unsolved challenge regarding the sensitive motion data that must be stored and processed. Significant research is still needed, including assessments of the impact of MaaS and what effects the service will have on the established use of transport modes, as well as how packages need to be designed and priced in order to optimally reach users.
... Therefore, MaaS has the potential for positive social impacts [55] through both media and scholars. MaaS has also the potential to reduce environmental damage resulted from urban traffic as well as the creation of new business opportunities for the transportation industry [7,11]. Figure 1 has been designed by the authors to illustrate the core characteristics of MaaS based on the literature review. ...
... The main aspect of this table is that in the last column, the contribution of each NMS to urban mobility is discussed. As discussed by Shaheen and Cohen (2013) [38], Wittstock and Teuteberg (2019) [11], and Giesel and Nobis (2016) [30], the main contributions of the NMS include lower GHG emissions, reduced ownership of private cars, and reducing energy consumption. Impact of new mobility modes on a city ...
Assessing the impact of new mobility systems (e.g., shared mobility services, mobility as a service (MaaS), and Mobihubs) in urban contexts remains a challenging endeavor due to the varying priorities (social, economic, and environmental) of different stakeholders and restricted and/or limited availability of data. In a broad sense, new mobility services (NMS) can be characterized as a way of optimizing the ownership and use of a variety of mobility resources, tailored to the needs of an entire (urban) community. In this context, providing an up-to-date and critical review on the impact of NMS is the main contribution and added value of this study. To this end, this study presents an in-depth review of NMS and their diverse features (e.g., car sharing, bike sharing, Mobihubs, etc.), as an alternative to privately-owned travel modes. By reviewing more than 100 relevant sources from academic journals (Google Scholar, Science Direct, and Web of Science) and media reports, this study explains the key elements on how to address the impact assessment of NMS in terms of social, environmental, and economic aspects of sustainable mobility services. This study concludes that the implementation of NMS offers the potential to promote efficiency, sustainability, social equity, and quality of life. The main findings of this study serve as a perfect starting point for mobility providers and policymakers who are concerned about the growing demands for clean and green cities.
... This infrastructural service is expected to reduce the use of private vehicles [95,96,107,108] through providing a competitive, convenient, and cheaper alternative [21,109]. Although MaaS is associated with a range of positive expectations, empirical evidence of its impacts in practice is still largely lacking [110]. Also, Alyavina et al. [94] stress that MaaS requires to be trialled to test its efficiency in offering reliable information and realistic travel alternatives (e.g., routes) in circumstances of disruption. ...
In the course of major societal developments such as digitalisation and increasing urbanisation, various forms of so-called new mobility services have emerged. Various disciplines are engaged in understanding these services. However, what is still missing is a comprehensive understanding of what the umbrella term new mobility services means beyond a loosely used catch-all term. This article provides an interdisciplinary overview of the concept of new mobility services and their respective impacts on mobility landscapes. These aspects are summarised using a scoping review approach by examining a total of 98 publications. Our results show that the term new mobility services is indeed an umbrella term for different mobility concepts that are conceptualised differently and whose impacts on mobility landscapes are manifold. However, by applying elements of formal concept analysis, we can identify several key characteristics that define the lowest common denominator for services to be classified as new mobility services.
... As empirical observations and structured analyses of the implemented MaaS schemes are yet to be conducted, current research efforts mainly focus on the aspects such as MaaS characteristics, business models, and market potential. Wittstock and Teuteberg [7] summarized the MaaS core characteristics, presenting an overview of 12 selected MaaS schemes. Kamargianni et al. [8] focused on three elements of ticket and payment integration, mobility packages, and ICT integration, which jointly provide users with seamless intermodal journeys. ...
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is a smart mobility model that integrates mobility services to deliver transportation needs through a single interface, offering users flexible and personalizd mobility. This paper presents a structural approach for developing a MaaS system architecture under Autonomous Transportation Systems (ATS), which is a new transition from the Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) with emerging technologies. Five primary components, including system elements, user needs, services, functions, and technologies, are defined to represent the system architecture. Based on the components, we introduce three architecture elements: functional architecture, logical architecture and physical architecture. Furthermore, this paper presents an evaluation process, links the architecture elements during the process and develops a three-layer structure for system performance evaluation. The proposed MaaS system architecture design can help the administration make services planning and implement planned services in an organized way, and support further technical deployment of mobility services.
... Strömberg et al. (2018) identified four types of MaaS users in the 2013-2014 UbiGo pilot in Gothenburg: people that wanted cheaper access to public transport (34%), people that wanted access to a car, but not buy one (30%); people that wanted easier access to mobility services (23%); and people that wanted to test a car-free lifestyle (13%) 4 . The UbiGo participants were 1 For an overview of the entire literature on MaaS, see either Utriainen and Pöllänen (2018) or Wittstock and Teuteberg (2019). 2 In contrast, only 17% of the participants in a stated preference experiment conducted in Amsterdam and Eindhoven indicated interest in MaaS (Caiati et al., 2020). ...
Despite widespread interest, empirical research on how end-users perceive and use Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) is scarce. To address this knowledge gap, this article analyzes the end-user process of adopting a MaaS service entitled EC2B, which was launched in Gothenburg, Sweden, in the spring of 2019. The contribution to the MaaS literature is three-fold. Firstly, the article provides insight into potential end-users by describing the characteristics and motives of the studied group of adopters. Secondly, it improves the understanding of the potential effects of MaaS by outlining how the EC2B service was used and how it influenced travel behavior. Thirdly, the article informs strategies for facilitating MaaS adoption by outlining what types of drivers and barriers the end-users faced during different stages of the adoption process. The reported findings underscore previous assertions that MaaS is much more than just an app and a subscription plan and highlight a mutually reinforcing relationship between the introduction of MaaS and the implementation of policies aimed at reducing car use.
... Jittrapirom et al. (2017) [4] studied the MaaS definition by examining the service functions in some MaaS schemes. Additionally, the risk and opportunity of MaaS were taken into consideration as well [5]. Sochor et al. (2018) [6] classified MaaS based on objectives of integration into five levels: level (0) no integration, level (1) integration of information, level (2) integration of booking and payment, level (3) integration of the service offer, and level (4) integration of societal goals. ...
Many megacities in the world, especially Bangkok, are facing severe congestion in road traffic and public transport, particularly during peak hours. This situation (a) worsens the quality of life, (b) releases emissions causing air pollution and climate change, and (c) subsequently creates requests for massive investment in transport infrastructure, which easily exceed the budget’s limit. Instead of solving the problem by supply-side strategies, applying ICT-based solutions to reform people’s daily activities, particularly commuting and working behaviors, on the demand-side is an alternative solution. As a promising solution, Mobility as a Service (MaaS) introduces ICT to persuade people to use public modes of transport. However, modal shift is a partial solution to mitigate traffic congestion. With technological advancements in communication, people become more flexible in their activities in terms of place and time aspects. MaaS should not only induce a transport mode shift but also a workplace shift and working time shift by extending the planning service in daily activity-travel level, exploiting people’s flexibilities for an activity’s place and time to manage travel demand. This paper proposes the QOL-MaaS as the extended MaaS to support space–time shift of activity-travel and reveals its potential impacts on traffic congestion, quality of life, and CO2 emission.
... Much of the current MaaS literature speculates about where a diffusion of MaaS can lead (e.g. Wittstock & Teuteberg, 2019), but little is known about possibly competing viewpoints or how confident the actors involved in MaaS developments are in their views. To attend to these issues, the first research question deals with expectations: RQ1: (a) What effects do actors involved in MaaS developments foresee that MaaS will have on personal mobility, and (b) how have these expectations influenced MaaS developments? ...
https://research.chalmers.se/en/publication/?id=516812
... In this manner, some previous reviews on MaaS have appeared: Jittrapirom et al. [2], for example, have focused on a general overview of the term's definition, Kamargianni et al. [8] on trials and implementation requirements, and Mulley [7] on a brief recompilation of topics and challenges. Only a few studies are found that systematically analysed bibliography: Utriainen and Pöllänen [9] selected 31 documents focusing on the roles of different transport modes in MaaS, Durand et al., [10] selected 14 documents and specifically analysed travel preferences and behaviour, whereas Wittstock and Teuteberg [11] selected 95 documents (37 scientific and 58 grey literature) and attempted to identify MaaS core elements. ...
Transport integration has evolved into Mobility as a service (MaaS), and as a recent topic, MaaS-literature is rapidly growing. This study analyses 57 MaaS-focused documents (the majority being peer-reviewed articles) from Scopus in January 2019. The aim is to comprehensively answer MaaS basic W-questions: 1) What is MaaS? 2), When and where did the term appear? 3), Who are the main actors in MaaS? 4), How can MaaS be implemented? and 5) Why should it be implemented? Future research lines are also offered. Our findings show that MaaS is an ongoing topical subject; there are still many contributions under development to reach a definition. In order to succeed in implementing it, key stakeholders, such as transport authorities and transport operators, must cooperate to achieve the predicted sustainable effects envisioned. New data on user travel behaviour and their preferences should be obtained through MaaS pilots, helping transport planners and policy makers when evaluating MaaS impacts and its feasibility to be the next transport paradigm.
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) has emerged as a groundbreaking paradigm in the field of transportation, offering a seamless and user-centric approach to mobility in our increasingly interconnected and digital world. MaaS leverages technology and data to provide individuals with convenient, flexible, and sustainable transportation options, reducing congestion, emissions, and the need for private car ownership. As urban populations grow and environmental concerns intensify, MaaS is thus positioned to revolutionize how people access and utilize passenger transportation services. This chapter provides an overview of the reasons that triggered the rise of MaaS, its benefits, challenges, its business model, potential impacts on mobility, highlighting how MaaS is elevated as a priority and as as vision of the EU mobility policy agenda.
In emerging countries, flexible transport systems (FTS) are mostly informal and are provided by individual paratransit operators/drivers. These services are largely unregulated thus resulting in uncoordinated operations with poor service quality. Earnings and working conditions of paratransit drivers/operators are also poor due to loosely regulated fleet size and other operational and regulatory issues which results in further deterioration of service quality. This research identifies key service dimensions and issues of paratransit services and also determines the expected service level for these service dimensions using the level of service approach based on user perception. LOS scales are designed for different service attributes using a five-point satisfaction and importance rating system. For quantitative attributes, five-level LOS scales are determined by applying the Law of Successive Interval Scaling, whereas for qualitative attributes, the same has been developed using the frequency of response for each level of importance for each sub-attribute. Subsequently, we explore various policies and regulatory measures towards reform and redesign of paratransit services and other mobility needs. Operator profitability can be achieved both through the controlled entry of operators through the issue of permits and/or by relaxing the current service level of some service aspects which are at LOS B level of service. The LOS scales can help in future service design of paratransit services in emerging countries which can offer an affordable alternative to ridesourcing and ride-sharing using cars. The study is conducted in two medium-sized cities in India namely Rajkot and Vishakapatnam.
Despite widespread interest, empirical research on how end-users perceive and use Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) is scarce. To address this knowledge gap, this paper analyzes the end-user process of adopting a MaaS service entitled EC2B, which was launched in Gothenburg (Sweden) in the spring of 2019. The contribution to the MaaS literature is three-fold. Firstly, the paper provides insight into potential user segments by describing the characteristics and motives of the studied pool of adopters. Secondly, it improves the understanding of the potential effects of MaaS by outlining how the EC2B service was used and how it influenced travel behavior. Thirdly, the paper informs strategies for facilitating MaaS adoption by outlining what types of drivers and barriers the end-users faced during different stages of the adoption process. The reported findings underscore previous assertions that MaaS is much more than just an app and a subscription plan, and highlight the mutually reinforcing relationship between the introduction of MaaS and the implementation of policies aimed at reducing car use.
The Mobility as a Service (MaaS) concept has recently taken the transport industry by storm. However, as applications and research on it are limited, there is still little evidence on what this new phenomenon could bring to the transport sector. This paper aims to provide initial insights into whether MaaS product bundles (monthly subscription plans) can be used as a mobility management tool to promote shared modes. Data from an original survey, specifically designed to study MaaS plans, was used with Greater London as the case study area. The results show, that even though respondents do not prefer shared modes in their MaaS plans, a significant number of them are willing to subscribe to plans that include these modes. Once they have subscribed, over 60% of them indicated that they would be willing to try transportation modes that they previously did not use if their MaaS plans included them. These initial results show evidence that MaaS bundles can indeed be used as a mobility management tool to introduce more travelers to shared modes.
The Mobility as a Service (MaaS) concept has recently taken the transport industry by storm. However, as applications and research on it are limited, there is still little evidence on what this new phenomenon could bring to the transport sector. This paper aims to provide initial insights into whether MaaS product bundles (monthly subscription plans) can be used as a mobility management tool to promote shared modes. Data from an original survey, specifically designed to study MaaS plans, was used with Greater London as a case study area. The results show, that even though respondents do not prefer shared modes in their MaaS plans, a significant number of them are willing to subscribe to plans that include these modes. Once they have subscribed, over 60% of them indicated that they would be willing to try transportation modes that they previously did not use if their MaaS plans included them. These initial results show evidence that MaaS bundles can indeed be used as a mobility management tool to introduce more travelers to shared modes.
Departing from open innovation (OI), this case study explores the development of Mobility as a Service (MaaS) in West Sweden. An analysis of 19 interviews reveals how representatives from involved actors perceive internal and external barriers as hampering the regional public transport authority's attempts to collaborate with private actors, and that the perception of barriers is incongruent across public and private actors. Transferability to other cases of public-private OI is discussed, and implications for public actors are proposed. The paper expands the knowledge of preconditions for MaaS' development and of the unique conditions for OI in public-private settings.
The purpose of this paper is to shed light on the concept of MaaS and what characterizes a ‘MaaS service’, as well as to propose a topology of MaaS as a tool for facilitating the discussion of MaaS, enabling the ‘comparison of’ different services, understanding MaaS’ potential effects, and aiding the integration of societal goals into MaaS services. Based on a literature review analyzing existing definitions, and an expert workshop identifying key aspects and ascertaining service differentiations accordingly, the resulting proposed topology consists of MaaS Levels 0 to 4 as characterized by different types of integration: 0 no integration; 1 integration of information; 2 integration of booking and payment; 3 integration of the service offer, including contracts and responsibilities; 4 integration of societal goals. The levels are described in terms of their added value and further discussed regarding implications for business, society, users, and technical requirements. Then, a deeper discussion also delves into the potential in expanding upon Level 4 and ways by which services and societal goals can become more fully integrated. The proposed topology adds clarity to the discussion of such a trending topic and enables the positioning of services along the MaaS spectrum. It also deepens the understanding of why MaaS can take time to establish, and can help support the development of action plans in terms of what needs to be done depending on what type of MaaS one wants to develop. Further analysis is desirable regarding the possibilities and problems linked with the different levels of MaaS. Such an analysis is key to understanding which effects can be achieved via the implementation of different levels of MaaS services in terms of e.g. social, economic and ecological sustainability, and business potential.
This paper examines the ways in which business models for MaaS can generate sustainable value, that is, value that extends beyond the traditional ‘profit norm’ embedded in business models, and belongs to the economic, environmental and social dimensions of sustainability. We draw on the growing literature on sustainable business models to explicate a set of principles and guidelines for generating sustainable value, and address one key function of a business model that is often overlooked in this field – value capture. We then identify different ways in which MaaS business models can generate sustainable value, linked to mobility services, data-based services, environmental technology and material recirculation. We identify potential mechanisms for value capture, and discuss the implications of our findings for practitioners and future research.
--- Open Access http://www.cogitatiopress.com/urbanplanning/article/view/931 ---
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is a recent innovative transport concept, anticipated to induce significant changes in the current transport practices. However, there is ambiguity surrounding the concept; it is uncertain what are the core characteristics of MaaS and in which way they can be addressed. Further, there is a lack of an assessment framework to classify their unique characteristics in a systematic manner, even though several MaaS schemes have been implemented around the world. In this study, we define this set of attributes through a literature review, which is then used to describe selected MaaS schemes and existing applications. We also examine the potential implications of the identified core characteristics of the service on the following three areas of transport practices: travel demand modelling, a supply-side analysis, and designing business model. Finally, we propose the necessary enhancements needed to deliver such an innovative service like MaaS, by establishing the state of art in those fields.
Following a political order in late 2014, the regional public transport organisation (PTO) in West Sweden has been on a quest to procure Mobility as a Service (MaaS). In spring 2016, they invited potential bidders to discuss the terms for such procurement through a 'request for information’ process. 65 actors participated in a start-up meeting, and 30 explicated their thoughts in subsequent individual meetings with the PTO. Based on participatory observation of these meetings, this paper explores which aspects that frequented the discussions. It identifies seven aspects that potential bidders believe are important to consider when procuring MaaS: cross-sector collaboration, allocation of responsibilities, governance, business models, target groups, service design and technical integration. Moreover, the analysis suggests that MaaS (in this context) is premature for public procurement at this point in time. Instead more collaborative forms of public-private partnerships seem to be needed to drive the development.
On-demand traffic fleet optimization requires operating Mobility as a Service (MaaS) companies such as Uber, Lyft to locally match the offer of available vehicles with their expected number of requests referred to as demand (as well as to take into account other constraints such as driver’s schedules and preferences). In the present article, we show that this problem can be encoded into a Constrained Integer Quadratic Program (CIQP) with block independent constraints that can then be relaxed in the form of a convex optimization program. We leverage this particular structure to yield a scalable distributed optimization algorithm corresponding to computing a gradient ascent in a dual space. This new framework does not require the drivers to share their availabilities with the operating company (as opposed to standard practice in today’s mobility as a service companies). The resulting parallel algorithm can run on a distributed smartphone based platform.
Executive summary.
This deliverable, D4 Impact Assessment, presents a summary of the work completed within WP4 of the MAASiFiE project.
The overall objectives of WP4 were formulated as:
• to evaluate more in-depth two case studies (one in Sweden and one in Austria). In order to provide a broader basis for the assessments, also information on a sample of additional MaaS and MaaS-related services has been gathered and analysed;
• based on these evaluations, to assess the consequences of introducing MaaS concepts on a broader scale from an individual (user), organisational, and societal perspective respectively;
• to assess the (potential) economic, environmental and social impacts of MaaS; and hereby provide a basis and support for stakeholders' decision making.
Based on a literature review, a web-survey to experts and stakeholders, and the knowledge and experience of the members of the MAASiFiE project team, a tentative impact assessment framework was proposed consisting of altogether 17 impact areas: six on an individual level, six on a business level, and five on a societal level. Compared to most other impact assessments, the business aspects of MaaS were added in terms of revenues, collaboration, and responsibilities.
The framework was used in order to evaluate the case studies (UbiGo and SMILE) and the additional MaaS and MaaS-related services where at least some information of relevance was available.
In a more in-depth analysis of the UbiGo case, UbiGo was found to have potential to reduce or suppress car ownership, i.e. it is a good option for those who consider investing in a family car (or not) but in particular for those who otherwise would invest in a second family car. Furthermore, it will attract users who experience it to be an economically feasible alternative – or who consider the service to offer considerable additional benefits; and it will mainly attract households in areas with (i) high availability to public transport in terms of routes and frequency and (ii) access to carsharing within less than approximately 300m (suggestion). Results from the field trial of UbiGo show an overall decrease in private car use (as well as private vehicles taken off the road for the duration of the FOT) and an increase in the use of, for instance public transport and carsharing services. Furthermore, attitudes towards for instance public transport improved while attitudes towards private car use became less positive. As the UbiGo field trial was not designed to mirror the population of Gothenburg, but to target households that were believed to benefit in particular from having access to the UbiGo service, it is difficult to extrapolate potential due many and complex interactions between various demographic factors, not to mention good enough physical and economic access. However, based on assumptions outlined, several simplified scenarios illustrate the potential for UbiGo to facilitate a reduction of private car ownership in the city centre.
Considering the evaluation of the SMILE service, SMILE app users were found to have used alternative routes more often, especially for non-routine trips such as leisure and shopping trips. Furthermore, the generation up to 40 years old showed a changed mobility behaviour regarding public transport usage in the urban region of Vienna. Overall multimodal combinations were used more often, for example combinations of bike and public transport as well as vehicle sharing. Hand in hand with the trend of using shared mobility facilities instead of privately owned vehicles, a reduction in car usage especially in inner city areas was observed. A reduced number of parking spaces, congestion in peak-hours and enlarged parking zones work additionally as deterrents for private car usage.
Overall, the assessments suggest that a broader introduction of MaaS could result in overall positive impacts, in terms a modal shift, a change in attitudes and an increase in perceived accessibility to the transport system (as illustrated in the table presented below). However, some conflicts between impacts on different levels were identified where, for instance increased accessibility to the transport system – a desired impact on an individual and societal level – may result in an increase in the number of trips made – possibly a desired impact on an individual level but an undesired impact on a societal level with negative implications for emissions as well as congestion. When planning for a further introduction of MaaS from a societal perspective, such conflicts must be addressed in order to best determine how to potentially integrate overall societal goals into the MaaS offer and business model.
From the services covered, it is clear that the business level is not typically addressed in analyses of MaaS or the information is not generally available. Thus, there is a gap between information needed and topics covered in evaluations (if any), as there is an active search for knowledge in the transportation/MaaS community regarding business and collaboration models, roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders, etc., so as to better understand how to sustainably operationalize the concept of MaaS. From the limited experience that has been documented, MaaS will result in (or necessitate) impacts on the business level including increased collaboration and partnerships in the value chain, increased data sharing, as well as changes in organisations and their roles. MaaS also has the potential to attract new customer segments, although the impacts on revenues and numbers of customers are unclear due to their intimate link with the specific MaaS offer (number of modes, subscription levels, relative prices, etc.).
A fundamental issue for feasibility studies in general and the assessment of possible impacts which have been part of the present project, is the lack of empirical evidence. The argued impacts of MaaS, positive and/or negative, are to a large extent based on informed assumptions and experts' opinions. Hence, it is important that different pilots and trials are initiated, with the intention to be developed into a fully functioning service, in order to provide further evidence of the possible impacts of an implementation of MaaS. Resources must then be allocated to address and evaluate different types of impacts (economic, environmental, and social) on different levels (individual, business and societal). However, in order to allow for a comparison between, for instance, different levels of integration and/or different business models, a common assessment framework would be beneficial. The framework introduced in the report provides a first attempt.
http://www.vtt.fi/sites/maasifie/results
Mobility as a service (MaaS) is a relatively new concept, which holds the promise for a paradigm shift in the provision of urban mobility. The concept of MaaS is to use a single app to access and pay for various transport modes within a city or beyond; and the app will give options to allow a traveller to select the most suitable transport mode. The concept of MaaS is enabled by the current mass uptake of smartphones and social media as well ubiquitous internet connection. By studying current applications of MaaS in Europe and US conditions of operation of MaaS have been summarised. Based on the necessary conditions, a checklist has been developed for potential developers of MaaS to assess if they can implement MaaS in a city. This paper also discusses challenges of implementation of MaaS and their potential impacts on urban mobility and societal changes.
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is a new mobility model that aims to bridge the gap between public and private transport operators on a city, intercity and national level, and envisages the integration of the currently fragmented tools and services a traveller needs to conduct a trip (planning, booking, access to real time information, payment and ticketing). As MaaS gains wider acceptance, there are several misperceptions about what this model is. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to provide a preliminary definition for the MaaS concept, and propose the MaaS ecosystem where the role of each actor is described in details. The MaaS ecosystem is designed after personal interviews and focus groups with the involved actors. This holistic approach sets the ground for the MaaS concept and highlights the areas where research is needed in order to contribute to the materialisation of the concept.
—Mobility as a Service (MaaS) applies the everything-as-a-service paradigm of Cloud Computing to transportation: a MaaS provider offers to its users the dynamic composition of solutions of different travel agencies into a single, consistent interface. Traditionally, transits and data on mobility belong to a scattered plethora of operators. Thus, we argue that the economic model of MaaS is that of federations of providers, each trading its resources to coordinate multi-modal solutions for mobility. Such flexibility comes with many security and privacy concerns, of which insider threat is one of the most prominent. In this paper, we follow a tiered structure — from individual operators to markets of federated MaaS providers — to classify the potential threats of each tier and propose the appropriate countermeasures, in an effort to mitigate the problems.
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) applies the everything-as-a-service paradigm of Cloud Computing to transportation: a MaaS provider offers to its users the dynamic composition of solutions of different travel agencies into a single, consistent interface. Traditionally, transits and data on mobility belong to a scattered plethora of operators. Thus, we argue that the economic model of MaaS is that of federations of providers, each trading its resources to coordinate multi-modal solutions for mobility. Such flexibility comes with many security and privacy concerns, of which insider threat is one of the most prominent. In this paper, we follow a tiered structure --- from individual operators to markets of federated MaaS providers --- to classify the potential threats of each tier and propose the appropriate countermeasures, in an effort to mitigate the problems.
The concept of mobility is developing in to a complete solution composed of various modes of transport and alternative ownership models. Evidence suggests that Mobility-as-a-Service will become integral to society, incorporating mobile apps for payment and location-aided services, thus ensuring ease of use and functionality. This is a considerable opportunity to decarbonise transport within cities, reducing the need for private car ownership and utilising electric vehicles within the mobility model. There is however uncertainty of what and how this should be implemented and therefore requires further research within the transitions field. This research will investigate city mobility services, specifically e-mobility. This will be considered in the context of product-service systems to explore the existing market and identify transition pathways. Use-oriented services are the primary focus as the business models are most explicitly linked to car sharing, renting and pooling. The level of uptake of e-mobility services is reliant upon the interest and acceptance of society and the mechanisms put in place by Government and private enterprise. An expected outcome of this research is a requirement for greater collaboration between Government and private enterprise, in order to initially fund city schemes but also ensure they are viable in the long term. It can be expected that data must be shared to a greater extent between the public and private sector and that this is accessible to citizens. Both of these factors will affect people’s choice of transport mode through availability of vehicles and real time information on travel options.
Software-as-a-service (SaaS) has received significant attention recently as one of three principal components of cloud computing, and it often deals with applications that run on top of a platform-as-a-service (PaaS) that in turn runs on top of infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS). This paper provides an overview of SaaS including its architecture and major technical issues such as customization, multi-tenancy architecture, redundancy and recovery mechanisms, and scalability. Specifically, a SaaS system can have architecture relating to a database-oriented approach, middleware-oriented approach, service-oriented approach, or PaaS-oriented approach. Various SaaS customization strategies can be used from light customization with manual coding to heavy customization where the SaaS system and its underlying PaaS systems are customized together. Multi-tenancy architecture is an important feature of a SaaS and various trade-offs including security isolation, performance, and engineering effort need to be considered. It is important for a SaaS system to have multi-level redundancy and recovery mechanisms, and the SaaS system needs to coordinate these with the underlying PaaS system. Finally, SaaS scalability mechanisms include a multi-level architecture with load balancers, automated data migration, and software design strategies.
Facing growing complexity and uncertainty of social and environmental contexts, e.g. global-isation, climate change, dynamics of markets of energy and resources, geopolitical security risks and conflicts as well as technological change, it is more important than ever to reflect today’s decisions prospectively and to adjust them in a future-oriented and sustainable way. Therefore the work with scenarios provides a central tool.
This study gives a structured overview over the broad range of scenario-methods, including important combinations with other methods of futures-analysis. Three ideal types of scenario techniques (scenarios based on trend-extrapolation, systematic-formalised scenario-techniques and creative-narrative scenario-techniques) are discussed regarding their origins and premises, their similarities and differences as well as their strengths and weaknesses. Combinations with other methods and techniques of scenario transfer are presented, too. Fur-thermore, a practical check-list has been developed, which allows specifying the methodo-logical design of concrete foresight projects. This check-list focuses on key decisions to clarify if and how scenario-methods can be applied successfully and in a targeted manner.
Der Faktorielle Survey gilt als eine Erhebungsmethode, bei der sich die Vorteile der Umfrageforschung mit denen experimenteller Designs verbinden. Statt einzelner Items bewerten die Befragten hypothetische Objekt- oder Situationsbeschreibungen. Indem in diesen Vignetten einzelne Merkmalsausprägungen experimentell variiert werden, lässt sich ihr Einfluss auf die abgefragten Urteile oder Entscheidungen exakt bestimmen und damit das Gewicht von Faktoren isolieren, die in der Realität oftmals konfundiert sind. Bislang liegen allerdings nur sehr wenige Methodenstudien zur Validität der erzielten Messungen vor. Der Beitrag gibt zunächst einen knappen Überblick zum Einsatz des Faktoriellen Surveys in der sozialwissenschaftlichen Forschung und benennt anschließend bislang ungeklärte methodische Probleme. Die mit einer eigenen experimentellen Datenerhebung durchgeführten Analysen beziehen sich auf die Stabilität des Urteilsverhaltens der Befragten in Abhängigkeit von der Anzahl der in den Vignetten abgebildeten Dimensionen, möglichen Lerneffekten sowie von unplausiblen oder unlogischen Fällen (Vignettentexte für Situationen, die in der Realität sehr selten oder gar nicht vorkommen und die Befragten daher irritieren könnten). Getestet werden verschiedene Hypothesen zur Komplexität der Erhebungssituation und der Kohärenz der Urteile. Nach unseren Ergebnissen führen eine hohe Komplexität der Vignetten und unplausible Fälle zu einem weniger Vignettendimensionen einbeziehenden Urteilsverhalten, damit geringeren Einflussstärken einzelner Vignettenmerkmale bei gleich bleibender Konsistenz. Abschließend diskutieren wir die praktischen Konsequenzen dieser Befunde. The factorial survey is a method of data collection that combines the advantages of survey research and the advantages of experimental designs. Respondents react to hypothetical descriptions of objects or situations (vignettes) instead of answering single-item questions. By varying each dimension of the vignettes in an experimental design, the dimensions impact on respondents judgments or decisions can be estimated accurately. Thus, the method is able to identify the effect of single factors which are often confounded in reality. So far, only few methodological studies address questions of measurement validity when a factorial survey design is used. The article provides a brief overview of the use of the factorial design in the social sciences and points our still unresolved methodological questions. Using experimental data specifically designed for this purpose our analyses consider the stability of respondents judgments with respect to the number of dimensions presented in the vignettes, possible learning effects and implausible or illogical cases (vignettes describing objects or situations which are rare or even impossible). We test several hypotheses regarding the complexity of vignettes and the consistency of judgments. According to our results, a high complexity of vignettes and implausible cases cause respondents to consider fewer dimensions in their judgments; we find smaller influences of vignette variables while the consistency of the judgments remains the same. Finally, we discuss the practical consequences of these results.
The purpose of this paper is to shed light on the concept of MaaS and what characterises a ‘MaaS service’, as well as to propose a topology of MaaS as a tool for facilitating the discussion of MaaS, enabling the ‘comparison of’ different services, understanding MaaS' potential effects, and aiding the integration of societal goals into MaaS services. Based on an exploration of existing definitions and descriptions of MaaS, and an expert workshop identifying key aspects and ascertaining service differentiations accordingly, the resulting proposed topology consists of MaaS Levels 0 to 4 as characterised by different types of integration: 0 no integration; 1 integration of information; 2 integration of booking and payment; 3 integration of the service offer, including contracts and responsibilities; 4 integration of societal goals. The levels are then described in terms of their added value and further discussed regarding implications for society, business, users/customers, and technical requirements. Then, a deeper discussion also delves into the potential in expanding upon Level 4 and ways by which services and societal goals can become more fully integrated. The proposed topology adds clarity to the discussion of such a trending topic and enables the positioning of services along the MaaS spectrum. It also deepens the understanding of why MaaS can take time to establish, and can help support the development of action plans in terms of what needs to be done depending on what type of MaaS one wants to develop. Further analysis is desirable regarding the possibilities and problems linked with the different levels of MaaS. Such an analysis is key to understanding which effects can be achieved via the implementation of different levels of MaaS services in terms of e.g. social, economic and ecological sustainability, and business potential.
Bundled offerings that facilitate using multiple means for solving everyday travel needs are proposed to hold potential to facilitate a modal shift from private cars to servitized transport modes, including public transport (PT). This type of offering, often coined Mobility as a Service (MaaS), may require new forms of partnerships, in which private actors play a larger role in the creation of public value. Accordingly, based on input from 19 interviews with MaaS actors active in West Sweden, this paper explores how MaaS could develop and how PT might be affected. Three predictive scenarios are identified – market-driven, public-controlled and public-private – and the implications for future PT, in terms of the scope, usage, access, business model, competence structure and brand value, are discussed in relation to these. The authors conclude that finding a regulatory ‘sweet spot’ that drives innovation and secures public benefits will be key for future developments.
This book is a uniquely pedagogical while still comprehensive state-of-the-art description of LCA-methodology and its broad range of applications. The five parts of the book conveniently provide: I) the history and context of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) with its central role as quantitative and scientifically-based tool supporting society's transitioning towards a sustainable economy; II) all there is to know about LCA methodology illustrated by a red-thread example which evolves as the reader advances; III) a wealth of information on a broad range of LCA applications with dedicated chapters on policy development, prospective LCA, life cycle management, waste, energy, construction and building, nanotechnology, agrifood, transport, and LCA-related concepts such as footprinting, ecolabelling,design for environment, and cradle to cradle. IV) A cookbook giving the reader recipes for all the concrete actions needed to perform an LCA. V) An appendix with an LCA report template, a full example LCA report serving as inspiration for students who write their first LCA report, and a more detailed overview of existing LCIA methods and their similarities and differences.
The digital age has opened up new opportunities to improve the customer experience in using public transport. Specifically, we see the role of smart technology in the hands of customers as the new rubric to deliver services that are individualised to the needs and preferences of current and future public transport users. This frontline of service delivery has become known as mobility as a service (MaaS) whereby an individual can book a service delivered through a range of possible modes of transport. At one extreme we have point-to-point car based services such as Uber, Lyft, BlaBlaCar and RydHero (for children), with futuristic suggestions of these gravitating to driverless vehicles (cars and buses). Variations around this future are bus-based options that include smart bookable ‘point-via-point-to-point’ services that offer up options on travel times and fares (with the extreme converting to the point-to-point car service, possibly also operated by a bus business); as well as the continuation of conventional bus services (with larger buses) where the market for smart MaaS is difficult or inappropriate to provide (e.g., contracted (often free) school bus services). This paper, as a think piece, presents a number of positions that could potentially represent future contexts in which bus services might be offered, recognising that a hybrid multi-modal state of affairs may be the most appealing new contract setting, enabling the design of contracts to be driven by the mode-neutral customer experience, and the growing opportunity to focus on MaaS. We suggest that the adrenal rush for mobility services, however, may not deliver the full solution that supporters are suggesting.
Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) as an emerging key concept offers a new perspective on how to organise and implement mobility service concepts in the future. However, the path to that future is not clear. In some countries there already exists a more sophisticated notion of MaaS, but many countries do not yet consider MaaS in national/regional and/or local mobility planning strategies. As a step in easing the way forward, this paper presents international stakeholders’ perspectives on and expectations for MaaS. In the context of the international MaaSiFiE (Mobility as a Service for Linking Europe) project, a state-of-the-art survey has been conducted, including a stakeholder questionnaire gathering different views of MaaS as input for developing a roadmap for MaaS deployment. The questionnaire results include relevant modes and service features, spatial and temporal appraisals, as well as potential impacts, enablers and barriers.
Auch für die Technikfolgenabschätzung (TA) als ein wissenschaftlicher Bewertungsansatz stellen Umweltwirkungen und deren Bewertung in der Regel ein sehr wichtiger Aspekt dar. Umweltwirkungen werden dabei aber explizit innerhalb eines breiteren Kontextes gesellschaftlicher Aspekte betrachtet. Umwelt und Ökologie sind bei der Technikfolgenabschätzung also immer nur einer von mehreren untersuchten Wirkungsbereichen. In der Regel trägt die Technikfolgenabschätzung so dazu bei, Vor‐ und Nachteile von Technologien im Rahmen einer möglichst umfassenden Analyse gegeneinander abzuwägen.
Die Technikfolgenabschätzung adressiert die Wissenschaft selbst. Sie richtet sich aber vornehmlich auch an außerwissenschaftliche Adressaten aus Gesellschaft bzw. Politik. Dies gilt auch deshalb, weil die Politik als gesellschaftlicher Akteur mit technischen Innovationen gesellschaftliche Probleme lösen will und hierbei Unterstützung benötigt. Beispielsweise ist die Energieversorgung eines Landes im Hinblick auf die Verringerung von Treibhausgasen ein solches Problem, für die eine Lösungsstrategie die Einführung neuer Technologien zur Strom‐ und Wärmebereitstellung oder den Verkehrssektor (z. B. Elektromobilität) sein kann. Der Rahmen, in dem die Folgen dieser Innovationen beurteilt werden sollen, geht dabei über die rein technische Betrachtung hinaus und schließt explizit ökonomische, ökologische, rechtliche, soziale und ethische Aspekte mit ein.
The concept of Mobility as a Service or MaaS has been proposed as feasible way to achieve more sustainable transport. One example of such a service is UbiGo, a broker service for everyday urban travel developed and evaluated within the Go:Smart project in Gothenburg, Sweden. This paper presents evidence of travel behavior and related changes from a six-month field operational test (FOT), during which 195 participants tested the new service. Based on participant questionnaires, interviews, and travel diaries, change-enabling service attributes are identified, including the ‘transportation smorgasbord’ concept, simplicity, improved access and flexibility, and economy. Although not a service attribute per se, the FOT also enabled the trialability of new behaviors and a reevaluation of convenience. Additionally, the broader implications of the FOT findings on understanding travelers’ new choices and behaviors are discussed in terms of the future design of MaaS. Service design and demand are not independent of each other, and if a mobility service is to change behavior (i.e. achieve impact) as well as create added value, these goals need to drive design decisions and a deliberate, conscious development of service dimensions such as customization, bundling, and range of the offer. Based on the experiences gained, the authors emphasize a more holistic and flexible perspective on mobility (and design perspective on mobility services) that is focused on serving users’ needs, and that involves capitalizing on synergies between public and private actors, in order to develop the MaaS ‘offer’ and better meet the urban mobility challenge ahead.
The aim of this paper is to present and discuss changes in users’ travel behavior and mode choice during in the six-month Field Operational Test (FOT) of the UbiGo transport broker service in Gothenburg, Sweden. Four user groups are analyzed – car “shedders”, car “keepers”, already carsharing, and car “accessors” – based on data collected via questionnaires, interviews, and travel diaries. Findings suggest that although some groups sought or achieved change more than others, each group’s mode choice shifted in a more sustainable direction, and these changes were perceived positively and with high satisfaction with the service. Despite the user groups’ differing motivations, behaviors, and experiences, the FOT results illustrate that a holistic approach to mobility, in this case a personalized “transportation smorgasbord” package of integrated services, can offer “something to everyone” and promote broader change.
Für strategische Entscheidungen in Politik und Wirtschaft sind Fragen nach mehr oder weniger offensichtlichen oder versteckten Risikopotentialen technologischer Innovationen und damit verbundener Entscheidungsprozesse von besonderer Bedeutung. Betont sei vorab, dass technische Innovationen nicht mehr als isolierte oder rein technische Entwicklungen betrachtet werden können.
Technology Assessment (TA) has been a growing field of management study for the past four decades. An increasing number of studies have been carried out over the years contributing to the development of TA literature. Some of these studies summarized the history and growth of the field during its evolution. However, there has been no effort made to present an overview of the methods and tools that have been cited in TA literature. This paper attempts to fill that void. A thorough review of the TA articles published in leading journals in the management of technology field is conducted to identify the research methods or tools in those studies. The paper provides an introductory review of the use of technology assessment terminology during its development, which helps the readers avoid the confusion of the TA concept since its origination in public decision making forty years ago and where it is now — widely adopted in other sectors. A thorough presentation of the approaches, methods and tools that have been introduced or employed in both mainstream TA and “inverted TA” studies is then provided. The main content of the paper is related to the works published in leading international journals that involve certain research methods or techniques.
A review of prior, relevant literature is an essential feature of any academic project. An effective review creates a firm foundation for advancing knowledge. It facilitates theory development, closes areas where a plethora of research exists, and uncovers areas where research is needed.
The authors explore the concept of software as a serviced, which envisages a demand-led software market in which businesses assemble and provide services when needed to address a particular requirement. The SaaS vision focuses on separating the possession and ownership of software from its use. Delivering software's functionality as a set of distributed services that can be configured and bound at delivery time can overcome many current limitations constraining software use, deployment, and evolution.
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