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Physical Activity and Social Behaviors of Urban Children in Green Playgrounds
Abstract
Introduction:
Nature exposure is associated with many wellbeing benefits. However, the influence of green space on the physical activity and social behaviors of children is not completely understood. The purpose of the study was to complete a stepwise impact evaluation of a large-scale playground greening project at a Title 1 elementary school in Los Angeles, California.
Methods:
Physical activity and social interaction data were collected with direct observation and accelerometers pre-, immediately post-, and 4 months post-greening at control (students enrolled=393) and experimental (students enrolled=538) locations from 2016 to 2017. Effects of relevant variables on recess behavior were analyzed with linear mixed models in 2018.
Results:
Zone popularity and recess behaviors did not change for control students during the study (p>0.05). Areas replaced by green space became the most popular for experimental students who transitioned from traditional playground games/sports to tag/chasing, gymnastics, climbing/jumping, and creative play. The percentage of students observed as sedentary decreased by 10.0% (95% CI=4.9%, 15.0%) at 4 months, p=0.003. Vigorous activity participation increased pre to post at the individual (48.5%, 95% CI=29.1%, 67.9%, p<0.001) and population level (41.2%, 95% CI=27.3%, 55.1%, p=0.003) and remained higher than pre-greening at 4 months (p<0.05) for girls in the experimental group only. The moderate to vigorous physical activity differential between green space and hardscape was greater for fifth graders than all other grades, p=0.002. Student physical and verbal conflict rates decreased below pre-greening rates after 4 months for the experimental group, p<0.001.
Conclusions:
Results suggest that adding green space to asphalt-covered schoolyards helps expose children to nature, increases daily activity levels, and promotes social wellbeing in sex- and age-dependent ways.
... In Wood et al.'s (2014) study, 25 primary school students' PA also significantly increased when they played on the school's greenspace field compared to the playground. Raney et al. (2019) reported a significant increase in PA from pre-to post-intervention for primary school students who had a greenspace schoolyard renovation (i.e., added greenery to schoolyard; experimental school, n = 355). Students in the control school (i.e., paved schoolyard, n = 82) showed non-significant differences in their pre-to post-PA levels. ...
... Social Relationships/Interactions Three studies examined social relationships/interactions, and they all found significant positive results. Raney et al. (2019) reported that primary school students who attended the experimental school (i.e., greenspace schoolyard renovation) improved in their social interactions at 4-month followup compared to pre-intervention, while no significant pre-to 4-month follow-up changes were observed for students in the control school (i.e., paved schoolyard). Raney et al.'s (2021) 16-month follow-up study also found that social interactions significantly improved from pre-intervention to 16-month follow-up for students in the experimental school, while a non-significant difference was observed for control school students. ...
... Furthermore, greenspace schoolyards increased the PA levels of students in 2nd, 5th, and 8th grade (ages 7-14 years), however, 2nd graders were more physically active than 5th and 8th graders (Pagels et al., 2014). Schoolyard greenspace also increased the PA levels of students in 1st-5th grade (Raney et al., 2019), 1st-6th grade (Raney et al., 2021), students aged 8-9 years (Wood et al., 2014), and 8-12 years (Wells et al., 2014). However, non-significant differences in PA from greenspace schoolyards were also found for 4th-6th grade students and students aged 7-11 years (Van Dijk-Wesselius et al., 2018). ...
Promoting children’s and adolescents’ mental, physical, and social wellbeing is highly important to help them learn, create social connections, and stay healthy. Nature has the potential to restore cognition, reduce stress and mental fatigue, and improve wellbeing, all factors that are conducive to learning. There is growing interest in understanding the effects of nature on the wellbeing of children and adolescents, particularly in the school context. This paper presents a PRISMA-guided systematic review of the literature examining the effects of school-led nature interventions on the mental, physical, and social wellbeing of school children and adolescents aged 5 to 19 years. Examples of school-led nature interventions include outdoor learning, walks in nature and green schoolyards. Experimental and quasi-experimental studies employing quantitative measures were selected, yielding 19 studies from 17 papers. Included studies were rated as being of high (n = 6) and moderate quality (n = 13). The results provide some evidence that nature exposure in the school context can improve the wellbeing of children and adolescents, particularly their positive affect, physical activity, and social relationships/interactions. The wellbeing effects of school-led nature interventions were also examined according to age and gender, with results indicating a gender effect, but inconclusive findings for age. Findings from this review support the integration of nature in schools to enhance the mental, physical and social wellbeing of children and adolescents.
... We found very little information on aspects related to disability status, ethnicity and deprivation status (see limitations) but made some assumptions for differential impact across age and gender. • Due to a limited number of quantitative intervention studies targeting adolescents, two study exemplar interventions (PAL [27] and NE [28]) had participants below our NZ adolescent sample (ages 12-17 years old). However, we found qualitative evidence to suggest that the modelled interventions would have a similar effect on adolescents [29,30]. ...
... This study is based on a large and nationally representative survey, which provides data on a range of sociodemographic variables and determinants of future PA. Therefore, to account for these sociodemographic differences, we included relevant information about age and sex differences in effect size [28,39,60]. For example, studies suggest the TAPE intervention will only influence those attending PE classes and not accounting for this would result in overestimated post-intervention determinant values. ...
... However, we acknowledge that caution is required around our confidence in intervention effect sizes by specific ages. For example, the NE and PAL interventions were based on assumptions from qualitative, rather than quantitative literature [27,28]. Additionally, there was little information on some sociodemographic variables, such as disability status or ethnicity, which limited us from exploring the full effect across other sociodemographic variables. ...
Background
Secondary schools are important settings for promoting varied physical activity (PA) opportunities for adolescents to promote PA throughout life. However, research on the effect of secondary school-based interventions on future PA is limited. This study examined the potential impact of secondary school-based interventions on the determinants of future PA participation of Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ) adolescents using simulated modelling.
Methods
We used data from a nationally representative sample of secondary school students (n = 5035) aged 12–17 between 2017 and 2020 in NZ. We modelled four secondary school-based interventions and their projected impact on five determinants of future PA. Modelled interventions were the technological augmentation of physical education (TAPE), a peer-led PA mentoring programme (PL), physically active learning (PAL) and the inclusion of a natural environment play area (NE).
Results
Total weekly PA increased the most from the NE intervention (+ 0.2 h/week), followed by TAPE (+ 0.08 h/week), PAL (+ 0.05 h/week) and PL (-0.06 h/week). Current number of PA settings increased the most in NE (+ 1.75 settings/week), followed by TAPE (+ 1.29 settings/week), PAL (+ 1.21 settings/week) and PL (+ 0.73 settings/week). Current number of PA types increased the most in NE (+ 1.57 types/week), followed by PL (+ 1.05 types/week), TAPE (+ 0.34 types/week) and PAL (+ 0.15 types/week). Physical literacy scores increased the most from PL (+ 3.6%), followed by PAL (+ 3.3%), TAPE (+ 0.43%) and NE (+ 0.12%). Social support scores increased the most from PAL (+ 5%), followed by PL (+ 1.9%), TAPE (+ 1.46%) and NE (+ 0.57%).
Conclusions
On average, all interventions benefitted determinants of future PA participation to a small degree. Results show differing magnitudes of the intervention effect by determinant, indicating the complexities surrounding the promotion of PA adherence. Future interventions could be improved through detailed consultation alongside, and involving, adolescents and stakeholders within schools. Researchers should also prioritise the collection of longitudinal PA data and explore its connection with sociodemographic differences between adolescents.
... Finally, several studies have investigated the impact of significant school playground renovations on children's activity levels. These renovations involved diverse changes, such as introducing age-appropriate play equipment, shaded areas [65][66][67], outdoor gyms [68], and green spaces and natural elements (e.g., hills, trees, boulders, and logs) [69,70]. However, existing research presents mixed findings, with some studies indicating no significant differences in recess activity levels post renovation [66,68], while others suggest increased activity in redesigned school playgrounds compared to control schools [65,67,69,70]. ...
... These renovations involved diverse changes, such as introducing age-appropriate play equipment, shaded areas [65][66][67], outdoor gyms [68], and green spaces and natural elements (e.g., hills, trees, boulders, and logs) [69,70]. However, existing research presents mixed findings, with some studies indicating no significant differences in recess activity levels post renovation [66,68], while others suggest increased activity in redesigned school playgrounds compared to control schools [65,67,69,70]. For example, Raney et al. [69] and van Dijk-Wesselius et al. [70] enhanced playgrounds by incorporating additional green spaces and natural elements. ...
... However, existing research presents mixed findings, with some studies indicating no significant differences in recess activity levels post renovation [66,68], while others suggest increased activity in redesigned school playgrounds compared to control schools [65,67,69,70]. For example, Raney et al. [69] and van Dijk-Wesselius et al. [70] enhanced playgrounds by incorporating additional green spaces and natural elements. These interventions resulted in a 5-19% increase in MVPA among 1st-5th grade students during postintervention assessments, as well as at the 4-month and 1-year follow-ups, in comparison to control students utilizing traditional playground equipment. ...
This chapter highlights the crucial importance of recessing during a child’s school day, providing a necessary break from the structured academic environment. The specific benefits of recess are explored, such as its positive influence on physical activity (PA), body mass index, academic performance, and socioemotional health, underscoring the need for thoughtful interventions to maximize recess experience. Key considerations, such as space design and layout, are addressed, and interventions to increase PA during recess are detailed, emphasizing unstructured, structured, and multicomponent strategies. Finally, the chapter underscores the multifaceted benefits of recess and the importance of thoughtful interventions and policies to optimize this essential period for student well-being, identifying challenges and areas for future research. Creating safe and positive recess environments is crucial for ensuring that students make the most of this vital aspect of their school day.
... Fifteen studies evaluated a total of 22 interventions related to recess. Specific recess strategies included creating activity zones, 45,46 redesigning the playground, 47 adding greenspace, 48 providing new recess play equipment, 49 enhancing and promoting activities available during recess (eg, a game with an award program, a recess activity of the week, the Ready for Recess program, indoor dance videos, or teacher activity prompts to encourage certain activities), [50][51][52][53][54][55] or some combination of staff training, equipment, activity zones, and playground design. [56][57][58][59] Findings were mixed among the 22 recess interventions reporting on PA behavior and fitness outcomes, but 16 of the interventions reported improvements in at least 1 outcome. ...
... 58 Among 5 interventions that reported secondary outcomes, however, 4 found improvements in at least 1 outcome, including improvement in PA-related social behaviors, such as fewer antisocial interactions. 48 Several of the recess interventions were designed to overcome participation barriers or to reach specific populations. An 8-week recess intervention that created activity zones on the playground of an American Indian reservation showed that low-cost strategies increased PA during recess among elementary and middle school female students in a predominately rural setting. ...
... Implementation of recess, for example, can involve providing PApromoting activities or can be infrastructure-based by changing landscapes or upgrading playgrounds. 47,48 It can also be equipment-based by providing new resources for students. 49 Similarly, policies can be fitness-based as a school-level goal, partner-based through collaboration, or CSPAP-based with PA opportunities provided throughout the school day. ...
Background:
There are many ways to increase physical activity (PA) during the school day as part of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Plan. This article reviews policies and practices that can be used during the school day to increase PA for students.
Methods:
We searched systematic reviews for articles that met criteria (2010-2018, phase 1), followed by a search for individual articles addressing topics for which we did not identify a sufficiently relevant or recent review or to update an earlier review that concluded insufficient evidence (2010-2020, phase 2). We included 45 articles (45 studies, 54 interventions).
Results:
We grouped studies by intervention type: school-wide PA approaches to reach all students within the school setting (17), physical education (PE) interventions (13), and interventions related to recess (15). Few studies involved secondary schools or rural settings. Among 45 studies reporting PA behavior or fitness outcomes, 37 reported at least 1 improvement.
Conclusions:
PA policies, PE, and recess can help improve school health by increasing the PA levels of students.
... While some have observed no relationship between the number of supervising adults and MVPA [12], others have identified increases in PA when teachers introduce organized games and attempt to engage students in PA [13]. Access to greenspace may also promote PA during recess; studies of greening interventions suggest that adding natural elements and greenspace to the schoolyard is associated with increases in MVPA, particularly for girls [14][15][16]. Evidence is more mixed for behavioral outcomes, though some suggest a decrease in verbal conflict after a schoolyard greening intervention [14]. ...
... Access to greenspace may also promote PA during recess; studies of greening interventions suggest that adding natural elements and greenspace to the schoolyard is associated with increases in MVPA, particularly for girls [14][15][16]. Evidence is more mixed for behavioral outcomes, though some suggest a decrease in verbal conflict after a schoolyard greening intervention [14]. Evidence from observational studies indicates that greenspace at or around the school location is beneficially associated with several children's outcomes, including higher prosocial behavior and fewer problem behaviors, which may contribute to child health and academic success [6,[17][18][19]. ...
... We were able to use this tool to conduct observations not only at recess, but outside of school hours as well, broadening the scope of our data and potential applications of SOOPEN. Prior studies of schoolyard greening have identified increases in children's PA, particularly among girls, associated with the schoolyard intervention [14,57]. Some of these studies additionally found an association between schoolyard greening and socioemotional health outcomes [21,57]. ...
Background
The schoolyard environment provides key opportunities to promote physical activity and socioemotional development for children. Schoolyards can also serve as a community park resource outside of school hours. We aimed to: (i) implement and evaluate reliability of the System for Observing Outdoor Play Environments in Neighborhood Schools (SOOPEN), (ii) assess schoolyard use by children during recess and community members of all ages outside of school hours, and (iii) investigate relationships of schoolyard and children´s group characteristics with physical activity levels and prosocial interactions.
Methods
In this cross-sectional study, we observed student and community visitor behavior using SOOPEN at three urban elementary schoolyards in Tacoma, Washington, USA, prior to renovations intended to expand each facility’s use as a community park in neighborhoods with poor park access. We assessed interrater reliability using intraclass correlation coefficients and described current levels of schoolyard use (at the group level), physical activity, and prosocial behavior. Physical activity was assessed on a five-point scale and dichotomized to indicate moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Social interactions were coded as prosocial, antisocial, or neutral. We examined associations of selected schoolyard features and group characteristics with group MVPA and prosocial behavior during recess using modified Poisson regression to estimate prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI).
Results
We observed a total of 981 activity-defined, informal groups in the schoolyards, and achieved good to excellent interrater reliability using SOOPEN. Community use of the schoolyards during evenings and weekends was limited (n = 56 groups). During 26, 25–50 min recess periods (n = 833 groups), 19% of groups were engaged in MVPA. Schoolyard areas with paved surfaces were associated with more MVPA (PR = 1.52, 95% CI: 1.04, 2.23) compared to field/grass areas; supervised groups were associated with less MVPA than groups not directly supervised by an adult (PR = 0.59, 95% CI: 0.36, 0.96). Schoolyard characteristics were not associated with prosocial behavior. Mixed-gender groups were associated with more MVPA and more prosocial behavior.
Conclusions
Our study using SOOPEN, a reliable new activity observation tool, highlights the multi-dimensional dynamics of physical activity and social interactions in schoolyards, which could be leveraged to promote healthy behaviors during and outside of school hours.
... For example, the development of new greenspaces may promote improved mental and physical health outcomes. 49 One study investigated the changes in children's physical activity patterns before and after a large-scale playground greening intervention at a low-income Los Angeles Public School. 49 The study found a 10.0% decrease in sedentary activity and a 48% increase in vigorous activity participation after the playground greening intervention was complete. ...
... 49 One study investigated the changes in children's physical activity patterns before and after a large-scale playground greening intervention at a low-income Los Angeles Public School. 49 The study found a 10.0% decrease in sedentary activity and a 48% increase in vigorous activity participation after the playground greening intervention was complete. 49 This is an example of an environmental health solution (greening playgrounds) altering the environmental exposure (playgrounds and greenspace) and, in turn, altering environmental health outcomes (physical activity). ...
... 49 The study found a 10.0% decrease in sedentary activity and a 48% increase in vigorous activity participation after the playground greening intervention was complete. 49 This is an example of an environmental health solution (greening playgrounds) altering the environmental exposure (playgrounds and greenspace) and, in turn, altering environmental health outcomes (physical activity). 49 The main strengths of this study include its use of participatory research methods to examine children's perceptions and develop a children-informed environmental health perspective theoretical framework. ...
Background
Children are amongst the most susceptible groups to environmental exposures, for both immediate and life‐course health outcomes. Despite their increased susceptibility, children's knowledge, experiences and voices are understudied. A deeper understanding of children's environmental health perceptions has the potential to better inform policy, develop targeted interventions and improve public health outcomes.
Methods
In this study, our community–academic partnership used the Photovoice research method to examine how urban children from low‐income communities perceive environmental influences on their health. Twenty children, ages 10–12, took photographs and participated in focus group interviews regarding their perspectives on how the environment influences their health.
Results
Qualitative analyses revealed five major thematic categories: environmental exposures, environmental health sentiments, environmental health outcomes, interest in environmental health and environmental health solutions. We used the findings to develop an environmental health perspective theoretical framework that can inform future work designed to promote the environmental health and well‐being of children from low‐income communities in urban communities.
Conclusion
Photovoice enabled children from low‐income communities to capture and communicate their environmental health perceptions. These findings have the potential to inform and identify potential targets and opportunities for environmental health interventions and promotion in their communities.
Patient or Public Contribution
Partnerships with community‐based organizations were central to the present study. By design, these community‐based partners were involved in the conduct and procedures of the study.
... Por ello, los participantes manifestaron el deseo de tener en su patio espacios verdes y elementos naturales. Resulta importante destacar que la adición de elementos naturales y zonas verdes al patio acerca a los niños a la naturaleza, aumenta sus niveles de actividad diaria (Hazlehurst et al., 2023;Raney et al., 2019) y fomenta el bienestar social (Raney et al., 2019). ...
... Por ello, los participantes manifestaron el deseo de tener en su patio espacios verdes y elementos naturales. Resulta importante destacar que la adición de elementos naturales y zonas verdes al patio acerca a los niños a la naturaleza, aumenta sus niveles de actividad diaria (Hazlehurst et al., 2023;Raney et al., 2019) y fomenta el bienestar social (Raney et al., 2019). ...
El objetivo de este estudio fue valorar el comportamiento motriz de escolares durante el tiempo de recreo, conocer sus percepciones sobre el patio de recreo actual e ideal, y proponer un nuevo espacio. Para ello, se les observó durante el tiempo de recreo, se les entrevistó para conocer sus percepciones sobre el patio actual e ideal, y realizaron un dibujo sobre este último. Los resultados muestran que suelen relacionarse en pequeños grupos y realizan actividades de tipo locomotor, ocupando todo el espacio. Su patio ideal contendría gran cantidad de recursos y zonas naturales, además de posibilidades para desarrollar habilidades motrices.
... A growing international literature documents the multiple and varied contributions of living yards. These include but are not limited to shifting to permeable surfaces to increase the absorptive capacity of cities to reduce rainwater runoff [7,8]; mitigating heat island effects and serving as a community refuge during heat waves by providing shade and cooler temperatures [9,10]; realising biodiversity gains and supporting on-site nature-based learning, which may inspire the next generation of urban environmental advocates [11][12][13][14][15]; improving student well-being and academic performance [16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30]; and reducing the school community's exposure to noise, visual, and air pollution (especially by filtering pollutants from near-by traffic) [31][32][33][34][35][36][37]. Furthermore, a thriving network of living schoolyards could deficiencies, and breakdowns should be of interest to both researchers and practitioners concerned with making schoolyards more adaptable, liveable, and inclusive. ...
... In collaboration with the Medone School since late 2019, the BRP pilot living schoolyard has begun to produce evidence of the intervention's multiple benefits [46] and continues to function and expand as a site with value for both the local community and to monitor and further understand this hybrid model of urban nature-based solutions. Yet, it cannot be realistically expected that our ongoing engagement with a single site will be able to single-handedly demonstrate the multiple and variegated benefits documented in the growing literature, as these extend to realising biodiversity gains, supporting on-site naturebased learning, and improving student well-being and academic performance [11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30]. ...
Schools provide strategic resources for urban sustainability. An international, interdisciplinary research agenda documents the social and ecological benefits of living in green or re-naturalised schoolyards, a hybrid format of urban nature-based solutions. Focussing on low- and middle-income countries, where implementation lags, this paper addresses the challenges of replicating and scaling successful pilots. A better understanding of capacity building challenges is crucial, considering that schools face several concurrent challenges, including historical preservation of heritage buildings, universal access provision, and infrastructure failure in ageing facilities. This study presents primary evidence from action research to build and promote living schoolyards in Argentina, structured as a comparative case study of attempts to co-develop yards with two schools in Buenos Aires. One was an older school with historical preservation status; the other was a more modern, larger school with relative heritage value. Findings show contrastive outcomes. Our programme advanced only in the former. Historical preservation regulations posed relatively manageable contingencies, whereas insurmountable obstacles came from poor general maintenance and governmental risk aversion. Concluding remarks make suggestions on how to co-design projects with communities to synergise heritage schemes, creatively fix infrastructure deficits, and stir a mindset shift for decision-makers to understand and value urban re-greening.
... Naturalized schoolgrounds are known to have a wide range of benefits for schoolchildren and young adults (van den Bogerd et al., 2023). The frequent use of these spaces has been associated with diversified play and physical activity (Raney et al., 2019;Kemple et al., 2016;Mårtensson et al., 2014) leading to enhanced: i) physical and mental health (van Dijk-Wesselius et al., 2018;van Dijk-Wesselius et al., 2022;Marchant et al., 2019;Chawla et al., 2014); ii) emotional well-being (Bikomeye et al., 2021;McCormick 2017); iii) social (cohesion) (Bohnert et al., 2021;Raney et al., 2019;Lucas and Dyment, 2010); iv) cognitive development and academic achievement (Maes et al., 2021;Kuo et al., 2021;van Dijk-Wesselius et al., 2018); along with nature connectedness and socio-ecological consciousness (Jickling and Sterling, 2017;Dyment, 2005). The widespread deployment of green schoolyards could also offer more equitable and gender-neutral play opportunities in a way that encourages creativity and socialization (van Dijk-Wesselius et al., 2022;Lucas, 2010;Paechter and Clark, 2007). ...
... Naturalized schoolgrounds are known to have a wide range of benefits for schoolchildren and young adults (van den Bogerd et al., 2023). The frequent use of these spaces has been associated with diversified play and physical activity (Raney et al., 2019;Kemple et al., 2016;Mårtensson et al., 2014) leading to enhanced: i) physical and mental health (van Dijk-Wesselius et al., 2018;van Dijk-Wesselius et al., 2022;Marchant et al., 2019;Chawla et al., 2014); ii) emotional well-being (Bikomeye et al., 2021;McCormick 2017); iii) social (cohesion) (Bohnert et al., 2021;Raney et al., 2019;Lucas and Dyment, 2010); iv) cognitive development and academic achievement (Maes et al., 2021;Kuo et al., 2021;van Dijk-Wesselius et al., 2018); along with nature connectedness and socio-ecological consciousness (Jickling and Sterling, 2017;Dyment, 2005). The widespread deployment of green schoolyards could also offer more equitable and gender-neutral play opportunities in a way that encourages creativity and socialization (van Dijk-Wesselius et al., 2022;Lucas, 2010;Paechter and Clark, 2007). ...
... Five of the interventions were based solely on introducing loose materials into the spaces where the children used to play (Bundy et al., 2008(Bundy et al., , 2009Chard and Pierse, 2011;Engelen et al., 2018a,b;Fjørtoft et al., 2009;Hyndman et al., 2014). Three interventions were based on redesigning the space to naturalize it, turning spaces into green areas, and introducing shrubs and trees (Raney et al., 2021;Raney et al., 2019; van Dijk-Wesselius, Maas, Hovinga, van Vugt, & van den Berg, 2018). One study evaluated an intervention based only on painting floor markings (Stratton, 2000). ...
... In terms of studies comparing green play settings with other types of environments across multiple outcomes (including PA and others), it was reported that interventions involving natural greenery led to children spending significantly more time in MVPA, exhibiting reduced SB, and engaging in more prosocial interactions (Raney et al., 2019(Raney et al., , 2021. One study demonstrated that greenery intervention positively influenced PA specifically for girls and also had a beneficial effect on attention restoration, social well-being, and children's appreciation of the schoolyard; however, it had no impact on emotional functioning (van Dijk-Wesselius et al., 2018). ...
The decline of children's opportunities to play outdoors raises a new concern about the quality of outdoor play environments, and their developmental and well-being benefits for children. This systematic review aims to synthesize the associations between outdoor play features and children's behavior and health. PRISMA guidelines were followed (2021). The inclusion criteria were studies with children aged between 5 and 12 (Population); that addressed presence, absence or disposition of equipment, natural elements, loose parts, resources availability , type of terrain and space modifications (Intervention or Exposure); in pre-post intervention or between groups (Comparison); related to health and behavior in different domains (Outcomes); with an experimental, observational, descriptive or longitudinal design (Study design). Indoor context, adult-led activities and struc-tured activities were excluded. A literature search of five databases (PubMed, Web of Science, ERIC, Scopus, and PsycINFO) was concluded in March 2022. After identifying 28,772 records, duplicates and irrelevant titles were removed, and abstracts and full-text articles were screened in duplicate. The remaining 51 eligible articles (45 primary studies) were assessed for risk of bias with QualSyst. A narrative synthesis of the results was conducted. The most frequent behavioral or health outcome addressed was physical activity. Included studies focused on the following space features: fixed structures, space naturalness, floor markings, loose parts/equipment, area available, and the combination of factors. Although some positive effects were found, the heterogeneity between studies did not allow to draw firm conclusions on the effects of each environmental feature on primary children's health and behavior. Systematic review registration: PROSPERO CRD42020179501.
... Therefore, it seems that games can enhance physical literacy, which encompasses four behavioral domains... And, physical strength, knowledge and perception, motivation, and self-confidence enhance. 53 Local native games, as a pleasurable physical activity with moderate to low intensity, can have numerous positive effects on children's physical literacy and cognitive functions. 54 Additionally, local native games have sporting advantages that align with the cultural, artistic, and regional tendencies of various areas, making them one of the best agents for providing enjoyable and wholesome entertainment. ...
... 54 Additionally, local native games have sporting advantages that align with the cultural, artistic, and regional tendencies of various areas, making them one of the best agents for providing enjoyable and wholesome entertainment. 53 Local native games can enhance physical literacy in children. 37,55 Local native games can boost the level of physical activity, which is a central part of physical literacy. ...
... Children's ability to play is mentioned in Article 31 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) and Article 12 of the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACRWC). Both articles of these international conventions emphasize the right of every child to "Use their free time and rest, to take part in play and recreational activities appropriate to the child's age, and to participate freely in cultural and artistic life" (Raney et al., 2019). ...
“Children are a kind of indicator species, if we can build a
successful city for children,
we will have a successful city for everyone.” Enrique Peñalosa
(Martin, 2019)
Childhood is an important period in the formation and development of
personality. During this period, play is of great importance in terms of physical,
social and emotional development; children, with friends sharing, each other help
don't, with the environment positive relationship building, taking responsibility and
others to their rights respect hearing like basis rules They learn. Especially with the
increase in population, children's right to play is being taken away from them as a
result of increasing problems every year. Without ignoring children's right to play
for healthy child development, these increasing problems can be prevented or
reduced with the child-friendly cities approach in our country and around the world.
... In terms of data collection, most studies rely on questionnaires to assess engagement in health-related activities [47][48][49], which typically fail to capture all concurrent participants and are prone to subjective bias due to their reliance on self-reported preferences. Although some studies have also employed objective sensor devices, such as accelerometers and GPS trackers, to record participants' movement, their high costs make them less feasible for large-scale studies [59,61,62]. Additionally, systematic observational tools such as the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) and Systematically Observing Social Interaction in Parks (SOSIP) offer promising alternatives for collecting comprehensive evidence on engagement in health-related activities in UGS-health research. ...
With the progression of global urbanization, UGS greenery plays an increasingly important role in encouraging engagement in various health-related activities among sedentary residents, and its quality improvement is widely recognized as a promising strategy for achieving public health benefits. However, existing studies have not reached an agreement on the associations between UGS greenery and engagement in health-related activities, largely due to limited dimensions of greenery measurement and insufficient evidence on health-related activities. To address these gaps, this study proposes a holistic analytical framework that integrates multi-dimensional greenery measurements (measured by the NDVI, GVI, and LVV metrics) with systematic observations of engagement in physical activity and social interaction across the general population, children, and seniors, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of their varied associations. Conducting empirical research in the Xuanwu Lake Scenic Area, the results showed that (1) UGS greenery had stronger explanatory power for activity participant numbers than activity intensity across age groups; (2) top-down greenery (NDVI) was positively associated with engagement in health-related activities (although not statistically significant), while excessive eye-level (GVI) and spatial greenery (LVV) demonstrated negative effects; (3) UGS greenery alone did not sufficiently predict children's engagement in health-related activities; and (4) greenery conditions in adjacent UGS samples also significantly impacted local health-related activities. These findings suggest that UGS greenery measured from a single dimension may not reliably predict engagement in health-related activities across age groups, thereby calling for balanced and context-sensitive greenery design in future UGS planning to support inclusive public health.
... Optimal schoolyard design is a potentially important healthpromotion and equigenic strategy due to the number of children who could be influenced by an intervention of this type, with little ongoing time or monetary burden to school staff or the community [12,13,[20][21][22][23][24]. Full schoolyard redesigns are costly, so evidence-based design is crucial to optimizing the use of limited funds. ...
Background
Schoolyards and/or playgrounds are important settings for fostering children's social, cognitive, and physical development. Optimal schoolyard design is likely an important health‐promoting and equigenic strategy, but prior research does not fully consider multiple dimensions of these spaces, such as vegetation, slopes, ground cover, and equipment.
Aims
We describe the Schoolyard Level Inventory for Describing the Environment (SLIDE) a novel method to compile spatial data from multiple sources, including in‐person audits (e.g., cleanliness), images (e.g., greenness), and geographic information systems (e.g., distance to road), that can be linked with children's device data.
Materials & Methods
We illustrate use of SLIDE in 91 first and second graders from three elementary schools who wore an accelerometer and global positioning system (GPS) device during school recess. Multilevel linear regression was used to test associations between 22 environmental features and children's physical activity intensity and time spent (duration of play).
Results
The auditing process took two researchers ~30 min per 1000 m2 of schoolyard. Some features were consistent across schools (flatness, grass areas, views of the school), while other features varied (views of the road, covered areas, seated areas, slides, and colorful equipment). We found significant, independent, negative associations between physical activity intensity with redness and cleanliness, and positive associations with colorful equipment and distance to road. We detected significant, negative associations between time spent with greenness and fields, and a positive association with equipment condition.
Discussion
While many of our findings align with prior research, we note that SLIDE also provides new insights including a better understanding of the complex inter‐relationships between schoolyard features and outcomes. On a larger sample of more diverse schoolyards, this would allow researchers to identify which specific features should be the focus of future schoolyard designs or renovations.
Conclusion
SLIDE can be used to inform schoolyard design, assess greening or redesign interventions, and examine schoolyard inequalities, while accounting for complex inter‐relationships between features.
... In urban areas, children depend on public and school space for opportunities for social interaction, play, and physical activity (Reuben et al. 2020). Greening interventions in the schoolyard and in playgrounds can contribute to children's physical, cognitive and social development, and well-being (Chawla 2015, Raney et al. 2019). Children spend a large portion of their day at school and thus interventions in school environments have shown the potential to improve child health by promoting pro-social behavior or increasing physical activity (Bonell et al. 2013). ...
Schoolyard environments and public urban spaces are fundamental to promote children’s socialization and physical activity levels. Existing observation tools evaluate children’s play behavior at the individual level. We developed the SOOPEN tool (System for Observing Outdoor Play Environments in Neighborhood Schools) to assess school-aged children’s play behavior using a group dynamics approach and estimated its inter-observer reliability. SOOPEN was based on two systematic observation tools and tested in 11 primary schools. Inter-observer reliability was assessed by calculating Interclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and Kendall’s correlation coefficient tau-b. SOOPEN consists of six variables: group size, sex, physical activity level, activity type, social interactions, and shade cover. Agreement between observers for the number of groups, sex, and shade was excellent (ICCs > 0.9). Inter-rater reliability for physical activity levels, social interactions, and activity types was moderate to high (ICCs > 0.6). Kendall’s tau b indicated a high concordance between observers for all variables (τb > 0.7, p values < 0.05). SOOPEN is a new and reliable tool to assess children’s play behavior at the group level. The tool showed a high inter-observer reliability. SOOPEN can be useful to assess behavior that is related to health and wellbeing in schoolyards and other urban settings.
... Segregating their play physically from the younger children might contribute positively to the process of age segregation happening during the tween years (Weiss, 2004). Tweens prefer to spend time with other at the same age to build and strengthen social relations, e.g. when hanging out (Raney et al., 2019). The importance of social areas aligns with previous studies that highlight the role of the built environment for children's social activities (Dyment & O'Connell, 2013;Herrington, 2008). ...
... The strategic placement of playgrounds holds significant sway over their impact [8]. Research has highlighted that exposure to nature, particularly by introducing green spaces, can amplify daily physical activity and enhance social well-being among children [12,13]. Additionally, playgrounds provide opportunities for children and adolescents to engage in outdoor play with limited adult supervision [14], demonstrating positive effects in reducing stress and anxiety and improving social skills [15]. ...
Playgrounds are envisaged as spaces designed to provide a safe and enjoyable environment that facilitates physical activity among children and adolescents. However, in various instances within cities formerly under socialist governance, these playgrounds have suffered neglect and lacked maintenance, coherent conceptual frameworks, professional oversight, suitable materials for playground structures, and attention to vegetation or potentially toxic elements. They became residual areas in the city’s built environment. Presently, the evaluation and the regeneration of playgrounds in cities have emerged as a significant task. Amidst the densely populated urban fabric, these spaces hold considerable importance for outdoor activities, social interaction, recreational pursuits, and the healthy development of future generations. Simultaneously, these places can play a crucial role in a city’s green infrastructure, local landscapes, and the challenges of sustainability prompted by climate change. The landscape analysis of 22 playgrounds classified them based on land use characteristics, location, functions, equipment, quality, and accessibility. A case study in Târgu-Mureș, scrutinized in detail within this analysis due to its proximity to the city center, within a densely populated urban area, and its multifaceted functionalities, underscores the need for a comprehensive approach encompassing diverse disciplines to address its manifold usage requirements.
... In the international literature, it is well justified that frequent access to the natural environment has significant beneficial effects on children's health, development and wellbeing [1][2][3][4]. This is particularly true in mitigating or coping with stress [5], improving mental health [6,7], improving symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) [8] and providing opportunities for physical activity and exercise [9,10]. ...
International research highlights the potentially valuable contribution of outdoor education to the healthy development and proper holistic education of students. Among the various benefits that students gain from participating in outdoor activities are the mitigation of symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), improved respiration, memory improvement, skills development and others. Despite the well-documented contribution of such activities to children’s wellbeing, there is an increasing trend of younger children lacking contact with nature. The current study investigates to what extent teachers in Greece, at schools where students aged 6–18 attend, provide opportunities for outdoor activities to their students. Furthermore, it investigates the teacher’s perceptions of the benefits the students gain from such activities, based on their personal experience and the experience of other co-teachers in their school. The results presented in this study indicate that the percentage of teachers who choose outdoor activities during the educational process in Greece is rather low, although they identify that such activities provide significant benefits to students. Based on the perceptions of teachers regarding the mental, cognitive and physical benefits that students gain from outdoor activities a positive association was found between the participation of students in such activities and these benefits. Therefore, this study reveals that it is of significant importance to increase the number of opportunities for students’ participation in outdoor learning activities, by supporting teachers, creating learning communities with them and empowering them to provide more outdoor learning opportunities.
... In general, studies have shown a positive association between greenspace and physical activity, with one review concluding greenspace confers stronger benefits for boys than girls and for older versus younger adolescents. Similarly, schoolyard greening has been found to increase students' physical activity (Raney et al., 2019). While findings are mixed, some intervention studies of park improvements have reported positive impacts on physical activity including among adolescents (Hunter et al., 2019). ...
Neighborhoods are one of the key determinants of health disparities among young people in the United States. While neighborhood deprivation can exacerbate health disparities, amenities such as quality parks and greenspace can support adolescent health. Existing conceptual frameworks of greening‐health largely focus on greenspace exposures, rather than greening interventions. In this paper, we develop and propose a Greening Theory of Change that explains how greening initiatives might affect adolescent health in deprived neighborhoods. The theory situates greening activities and possible mechanisms of change in the context of their ability to modify distal social determinants of health factors, stemming from macrostructural and historical processes that lead to resource inequalities, affecting both the social and built environment in which adolescents live and develop. The framework illustrates both short‐ and long‐term health, economic, and security effects of greening. We also describe how the theory informed the development of Project VITAL (Vacant lot Improvement to Transform Adolescent Lives) in Baltimore, MD, which aims to (1) build a citywide sharable database on vacant lot restoration activities, (2) evaluate the impact of greening initiatives on adolescent health outcomes, (3) conduct cost‐effectiveness analyses, and (4) develop best practices for greening programs for improved adolescent health.
... Games and rhythmic education have also been shown to be effective in improving the outcomes of children with autism (13). Sensory-motor exercises are useful for developing motor skills in children with intellectual disabilities (ID) (14). A study found that participation in a basketball movement program improved motor skills in children with educable ID and that the program had a greater impact on gross motor skills in boys. ...
... Increased PA positively impacts quality of life by improving physical and mental health; evidence shows that parks and recreational settings contribute to overall healthcare outcomes (Colabianchi et al., 2011;Valentini & Morosetti, 2021). Access to and availability of facilities and time spent outdoors in the built environment are positively correlated with PA in children in a diversity of socioeconomic conditions (Escaron et al., 2019;Raney et al., 2019;Sallis et al., 2015). Many have called for more research on the specific physical elements of the outdoor environment that can guide policy and lead to strengthened design interventions supporting the health and socialization benefits of getting more people of all abilities outdoors and active (Chow et al., 2016;Cohen et al., 2020;Colabianchi et al., 2011;Costigan et al., 2017;Graham et al., 2021;Kaczynski & Henderson, 2008;Koohsari et al., 2015;Moore & Marcus, 2008;Mowen et al., 2013;Perry et al., 2018). ...
... The majority of research continues to focus on the relationship between the characteristics and quality of park space and the intensity of park visits and interaction activities (Jamila 2018;Raney, Hendry, and Yee 2019;Olsen, Kennedy, and Vanos 2019;Pitsikali and Parnell 2020;Cohen et al. 2020;Kabisch and Kraemer 2020;Pérez del Pulgar, Anguelovski, and Connolly 2020;Huang et al. 2021;Knobel et al. 2021;Putra et al. 2021;Talal and Santelmann 2021;Veitch et al. 2021;Yang et al. 2021;Zhang et al. 2022). Aside from that, most research concentrates solely on the objective aspects of children's behavior, such as testing the intensity of physical activity on the playground or the time children spend doing physical activity and playing while outside (Aggio et al. 2017;Ilvonen, Niemistö, and Sääkslahti 2019;Moreno et al. 2019;Benjamin-Neelon et al. 2019); research exploring the physical activity of boys and girls on the playground (Stanton-Chapman et al. 2018;Amholt et al. 2022;Arlinkasari, Cushing, and Miller 2023); studies looking at interactive activities between children and with play equipment (Amouzegar, Naeini, and Jafari 2010); research exploring children's play with water in urban green spaces (Bozkurt and Woolley 2020). ...
Idealnya anak-anak berinteraksi pada ruang-ruang yang telah disediakan dengan kondisi fisik ruang yang nyaman dan aman untuk anak-anak. Namun anak-anak dapat memiliki kehendak untuk menentukan ruang-ruang interaksi yang disukainya. Maka perlu dilakukan penelitian untuk mengetahui bagaimana neighborhood anak-anak membentuk ruang interaksi dan dimana posisi yang mereka sukai. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode kualitatif dengan pendekatan grounded theory berlokasi di salah satu permukiman di Kabupaten Bogor Jawa Barat Indonesia. Hasil penelitian menunjukan bahwa anak-anak dalam menentukan ruang interaksi dilatarbelakangi oleh keseharian yang meliputi tanggung jawab, aktivitas yang disukai, aktivitas berkumpul; serta kebebasan yang meliputi kebebasan mengkonsumsi waktu dan kebebasan mengkonsumsi ruang. Posisi yang disukai pada ruang interaksi adalah di sekitar lapangan badminton dan di sepanjang pinggiran taman. Penelitian ini bermanfaat bagi arsitek permukiman agar dapat merancang setiap sisi ruang sebagai kemungkinan menjadi ruang interaksi yang sesuai dengan pikiran dan kehendak anak-anak. Studi ini juga bermanfaat untuk dapat meningkatkan level neighborhood anak-anak.
... A positive association between CWN and the development of pro-environmental behaviors was also identified (Chawla 2020). Raney, Hendry and Yee (2019) and Fjørtoft (2004) highlighted the importance of natural environments, especially those in school grounds and surroundings, as promotors of physical activity, social well-being, creativity and of an improved learning process. As underlined by Chawla (2020), there is an important generational effect in this dyadic nature-children interaction, translated by the influence of i) family behaviors and beliefs in the children's levels of CWN (e.g. ...
... Interaction with nature is known to benefit humans psychologically, socially, and physiologically [1,2]. Children are afforded some unique benefits from time spent in nature, such as lower perceived stress [3], reduced symptoms of ADHD [4], increased vigorous physical activity [5], and other benefits to physical and mental health [6]. Collectively, such nonmaterial benefits derived from the natural environment are known as cultural and psychological ecosystem services [7][8][9][10]. ...
The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic rendered daily life overwhelmingly difficult for many children. Given the compelling evidence for the physical and mental health benefits of interaction with nature, might it be the case that time spent interacting with nature buffered the negative effects of the pandemic for children? To address this question, we conducted a longitudinal investigation with a cohort of 137 Girl Scouts across two time periods: right before the onset of the pandemic (December 2019–February 2020) and one year later (December 2020–February 2021). We found that during the pandemic (compared to pre-pandemic), Girl Scouts fared worse on measures of physical activity, positive emotions, negative emotions, anxiety, behavioral difficulties, and problematic media use. However, by using mixed models, we also found that, on average, Girl Scouts who spent more time interacting with nature fared less poorly (in this sense, “did better”) on measures of physical activity, positive emotions, anxiety, and behavioral difficulties, irrespective of the pandemic. Further analysis revealed that these advantageous associations were present even when accounting for the amount of nature near each child’s home (as measured by the normalized difference vegetation index, percent of natural land cover, and self-reported access to nature). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study investigating nature interaction and children’s well-being to use data collected from the same cohort prior to and during the pandemic. In addition, we discuss the importance of opportunities to interact with nature for children’s well-being during future periods of social upheaval.
... x -2359 36,995 -Moore et al. 17 - 67 CA -x --437 IOA= 98.2 Robinson et al. 34 MS -x --97 -Saint-Maurice et al. 68 NE 3 ...
Background:
The System of Observing Play and Leisure Activity in Youth (SOPLAY) has assisted in providing valid and reliable data of youth physical activity and characteristics specific to environmental contexts. The review aimed to examine empirical research that employed the SOPLAY instrument to measure physical activity in leisure-based activity environments in North American countries.
Methods:
The review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. A systematic search was conducted with an exhaustive process using 10 electronic databases to locate peer-reviewed studies implementing SOPLAY that were published between 2000 and 2021.
Results:
A total of 60 studies were included in the review. Most studies (n = 35) reported physical activity findings related to contextual characteristics measured using SOPLAY. Interestingly, a few of the studies (n = 8) found the provision of equipment and supervision, particularly adult supervision, significantly increased child physical activity observed.
Conclusions:
This review provides information relative to the group-level physical activity observed across multiple contexts (ie, playgrounds, parks, recreation centers) using a validated direct observation instrument.
Urban microclimates, which include phenomena such as urban heat islands (UHIs) as well as cooler environments created by shaded areas and green spaces, significantly affect social behavior and contribute to varying levels of social isolation in cities. UHIs, driven by heat-absorbing materials like concrete and asphalt, can increase urban temperatures by up to 12 °C, discouraging outdoor activities, especially among vulnerable populations like the elderly and those with chronic health conditions. In contrast, shaded areas and green spaces, where temperatures can be 2–5 °C cooler, encourage outdoor engagement and foster social interaction. This narrative review aims to synthesize current literature on the relationship between urban microclimates and social isolation, focusing on how UHIs and shaded areas influence social engagement. A comprehensive literature review was conducted, selecting sources based on their relevance to the effects of localized climate variations on social behavior, access to green spaces, and the impact of urban design interventions. A total of 142 articles were initially identified, with 103 included in the final review after applying inclusion/exclusion criteria. Key studies from diverse geographical and cultural contexts were analyzed to understand the interplay between environmental conditions and social cohesion. The review found that UHIs exacerbate social isolation by reducing outdoor activities, particularly for vulnerable groups such as the elderly and individuals with chronic health issues. In contrast, shaded areas and green spaces significantly mitigate isolation, with evidence showing that in specific study locations such as urban parks in Copenhagen and Melbourne, such areas increase outdoor social interactions by up to 25%, reduce stress, and enhance community cohesion. Urban planners and policymakers should prioritize integrating shaded areas and green spaces in city designs to mitigate the negative effects of UHIs. These interventions are critical for promoting social resilience, reducing isolation, and fostering connected, climate-adaptive communities. Future research should focus on longitudinal studies and the application of smart technologies such as IoT sensors and urban monitoring systems to track the social benefits of microclimate interventions.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the development of physical education psychology over the past decade using a bibliometric approach. Physical education plays a role in supporting the overall development of students, including improving physical fitness and acquiring social, emotional, mental, and cognitive competencies. Although many studies have shown the positive impact of physical education interventions on various aspects of student development, the existing literature still lacks integration of all scientific aspects simultaneously—especially regarding the role of psychology in supporting the rehabilitation process for both athletes and non-athletes. This study used systematic literature review methods and bibliometric analysis with data from the Scopus database, considering articles published between 2015 and 2024. Publication and citation trends revealed a total of 825 publications with 18,319 citations during the study period, with a fluctuating yearly distribution. A decrease in citation numbers may indicate a decline in research publications, whereas an increase in citations may reflect a growing research trend, with the United States leading in contributions, followed by Spain and China. This study also highlights the importance of instructional design and teaching strategies in influencing student learning outcomes. Among the reviewed articles, there is a clear direction toward the application of psychological findings in physiotherapy, particularly in the context of movement and learning materials in physical education. The expected outcome is that these findings will provide new insights into the effectiveness of physical education interventions in supporting students' psychological development and encourage further research to strengthen the evidence base for the psychological benefits of physical education.
This study provides insight into the effects of different landscape types on children's stress recovery and emotion regulation. Sixteen participants, aged 6–15, completed the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). By assessing children's stress recovery in different landscape types (comprehensive parks, children's parks, urban squares), facial images were obtained to measure their emotions. The MEGVII Facial Emotion Recognition API was used to identify facial expressions, generating a dataset of facial emotion feature variables. Psychological reactions were recorded using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAI-S) and the Children's Perceived Restorativeness Scale (PRCS-C II). The results indicate that Zhongshan Square, as an urban square landscape space, exhibited the highest recovery potential. The differences in landscape spatial features can lead to significant changes in children's emotions, particularly in terms of “happiness,” “calmness,” and “disgust.” The appropriate proportion of green-leaf trees and shrubs, and increased proportion of sky may further enhance children's stress recovery experience, promoting a sense of “calmness” and reducing feelings of “disgust.” “Conversely, landscape spatial features by more trees and shrubs, a smaller proportion of sky is associated with higher levels of children's happiness.” This study reveals the different impacts of different landscape types on stress recovery and emotions in children. The findings offer insights for urban planning that consider the health needs of children, providing guidance for landscape designers in urban landscape planning.
In the context of a recent decline in mental wellbeing in children and young people, there is increasing policy and practice interest in the benefits of children's engagement with the natural environment to improve mental wellbeing. Although there is a growing evidence base linking health outcomes across populations with exposure to nature, the evidence base for the health, wellbeing and educational attainment benefits of green space interventions in children and adolescents is of lower quality. The aim of this systematic review was to assess whether the current evidence enables us to draw conclusions about the relationship between different educational green space intervention types and different categories of mental wellbeing outcome. The review adopted an approach to mental wellbeing grounded in the field of positive psychology, which sees wellbeing as a positive resource, composed of emotional, psychological and social domains. A number of outcomes was grouped in each domain, for example attention and executive function skills were grouped in the psychological wellbeing domain. Green space interventions were categorised into five sub-types: environmental education, break-time or play in a green environment, school gardening, learning in nature and nature pre-school/forest school. Extensive searches of seven databases, updated in March 2024, identified 36 quantitative studies, including quantitative components of mixed-methods studies. Study quality was assessed using the EPHPP tool. Due to study heterogeneity, meta-analysis was not feasible; instead, a Synthesis Without Meta-analysis (SWiM) based on effect direction was performed; additionally, a narrative synthesis summarising the effect direction at study level was conducted where an outcome was only measured within a single study within the same intervention category. Out of 37 reports of 36 studies, two had a strong overall rating, ten had a moderate quality rating and 25 had a weak overall rating. Based on generally very low certainty of evidence, there was some evidence for the positive effects of environmental education and breaks in green spaces on emotional wellbeing outcomes; for beneficial effects of breaks in green spaces on social wellbeing outcomes; and for improved outcomes in particular categories of psychological wellbeing associated with breaks in green spaces, learning in nature and forest school . Weaknesses identified in studies were often linked to specific features in study design, such as intervention dilution, as well as to lack of sensitivity of measurement instruments. This is the first comprehensive systematic review aiming to assess the effects of green space interventions in educational settings on outcomes across all three dimensions of mental wellbeing in children and young people aged 0-18. Recommendations are made on how study design can be improved in order to generate a stronger evidence base, including by having separate control groups, using a larger exposure dose and duration, extending the length of follow-up, and designing more nuanced interventions.
Background
Few studies have investigated how heat impacts play from the perspective of children. The purpose of this study was to explore children's experiences of recess play during high temperatures.
Methods
We used the draw‐and‐tell method to retrospectively explore the experiences of recess during hot weather among students ( N = 38) between the ages of 5–12 attending four elementary schools in one school district in Arizona (United States). Students were asked to imagine themselves at recess on a hot day, select their preferred playground picture (shaded or unshaded), draw a picture of themselves in the playground, and explain their drawings. Drawings and narrations were analyzed using content analysis and constant comparative methods.
Results
Most students (89%) selected the playground picture with shade. Four themes describing students' experiences were found: (a) discomfort, (b) self‐awareness of heat affecting health and safety, (c) influence of heat on play and physical activity, and (d) adaptive strategies for managing heat during recess.
Conclusions
Students are aware that playing outside in the heat has the potential to negatively impact their health and adapt their play to occur in the shade.
Implications for School Health Policy, Practice, and Equity
Outdoor school play spaces should increase access to shade.
Playgrounds are widely recognized as vital spaces for children's outdoor play and development. However, in Algeria, urban development policies focused primarily on housing quantity have often neglected the quality of outdoor open spaces, particularly playgrounds. This research explores the hypothesis that claims a divergence between the entities of outdoor playgrounds in residential neighborhoods and the children's necessities. Therefore, the central research question of this paper investigates the ways children use their daily outdoor playgrounds. To address this multifaceted inquiry, a combined methodological approach was employed. Qualitative method, including direct observation, was employed to understand the structural composition of play spaces and children's interactions within them in nuanced and contextualized ways. Additionally, the quantitative method elaborated a self-administered questionnaire conducted with children to gather some personal insights and perspectives on the local public play spaces. As a result, initial assessments of the neighborhood playgrounds revealed several significant accessibility and usability challenges that restrict their effectiveness as recreational spaces for children. Moroever, the research paper underscores the necessity for urban design approaches that prioritize children's perspectives, ensuring environments that support their growth and well-being. This study advocates for a child-centered approach to urban planning, emphasizing the importance of designing playgrounds that facilitate children's agency, freedom and creativity in their play activities.
Existing studies generally observed beneficial associations between greenspace and a variety of health outcomes, such as mortality, cardiovascular diseases, and mental health. Meanwhile, there are a growing number of studies exploring the process through which greenspace generates these benefits. The potential pathways linking greenspace to human health mainly included four domains, which also emphasize the general functions of greenspace: reducing environmental hazard, restoring capacities, building capacities, and enriching microbial diversity. In this chapter, we summarized studies focused on the associations of greenspace with these four domains and provide an overview of the recent development in mediation analysis conducted in the field of greenspace.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that continues chronically throughout childhood, adolescence and adulthood, and affects the individual differently in each period (Den Heijer et al., 2017). During childhood; There is a tendency to display inattention, hyperactivity and impulsive behavior patterns (interrupting while speaking, inability to wait one's turn, impatience, acting without thinking, taking risks, etc.). Montalva-Valenzuela et al., 2022; Den Heijer et al., 2017). In addition, it has been reported that executive function disorders frequently seen in individuals with ADHD consist of inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility and working memory components. While inhibitory control is expressed as the prevention of unwanted strong reactions, cognitive flexibility can be expressed as ensuring that attention is transferred appropriately to events or behaviors during changing task probabilities. In short; It functions to produce alternative and appropriate solutions to a problematic situation that arises. Working memory, on the other hand, allows information to be kept in mind while acting with information that will guide actions and behaviors (Nweze & Nwani, 2020; Raver & Blair, 2016). Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder is a condition that has no cure but its symptoms can be reduced and the individual's quality of life can be increased. One of the methods that can reduce ADHD symptoms is medical treatment. However, most of the time, methods that complement medical treatment (therapy through physical activity and sports, music therapy, art therapy, play therapy, etc.) are also needed. One of these complementary methods is physical activity, sports and exercises. In the literature for individuals with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder, there are often studies on structured (activities where an activity is shown, has rules and must continue for a certain period of time) and unstructured exercise programs (activities that are done freely, which physical activity/game/sport will be played and for how long the child needs to participate). It is emphasized that physical activities performed during unstructured outdoor breaks contribute more to the social skill development of children with ADHD (Oakley, 2022). Raney et al. emphasized the need to increase important developmental skill gains such as creative play, communication, cooperation, sharing, problem solving and coping during unstructured breaks (Raney et al., 2019). However, it is reported that structured physical activity activities have positive effects on disease symptoms in addition to their contribution to the social skill development of individuals with ADHD (Sun et al., 2022).
It is frequently emphasized that physical activity, sports and exercise programs contribute to the development of cognitive, emotional and social skills of individuals with ADHD (Novak & Ellis, 2022). For this reason, these programs are recommended as a complement to medical treatment. However, there are limited resources available on how these programs should be. One of this limited information is the work of researcher Lara. Lara expresses the general rules for using exercise to treat ADHD as follows: “It is appropriate to do moderate-intensity cardiovascular activity (65-75% of maximum oxygen consumption-VO2 max) at least 4-5 times a week for 30-40 minutes a day”. In addition, it is argued that multimodal training programs will be more effective in ADHD instead of just a single type of training program (Lara, 2012). However, there is still no “exercise prescription” for ADHD in the literature as a scientific research. Therefore, in this section, information will be provided about special training models related to physical activity, sports and exercise that can be done for individuals with ADHD. It will be discussed what type of training models should be used and what path should be followed during training. In addition, it will be focused on how the scope of the training program to be prepared should contribute to the multifaceted development of individuals with ADHD in terms of physiological, psychological, academic, social and motor skills according to their readiness levels. We believe that in this way, individuals with ADHD can better integrate into society and their quality of life can be increased. We believe that the information in this section will be a guide for individuals with ADHD, their families, academics who do research in this field and especially teachers who provide academic education to children with ADHD.
This account delves into the convergence of green energy technology and its capacity to empower individuals with disabilities. As global attention increasingly turns towards sustainable development and renewable energy, it becomes essential to guarantee that these advancements are all-encompassing and within reach of every segment of society, including those with disabilities. The purpose of this composition is to outline the various methods through which green energy technology can be customized to address the distinct requirements of individuals with disabilities, thereby promoting inclusivity and equal involvement in the shift towards a more sustainable future. The account underscores the wide spectrum of disabilities and the specific obstacles they pose when devising and executing green energy solutions. It examines the potential of assistive technologies, universal design principles, and comprehensive policies in enabling these individuals to actively participate in and reap the benefits of green energy initiatives. Additionally, it showcases the societal impact of integrating these individuals into the green energy sector, emphasizing the value of diverse perspectives and contributions in propelling innovation and advancement. By shedding light on the potential challenges and prospects at the intersection of green energy technology and disability inclusion, this article aims to serve as a catalyst for further research, policy formulation, and industry endeavors that prioritize the empowerment and integration of people with disabilities in the realm of green energy. Ultimately, it advocates for a future in which sustainable energy solutions are genuinely inclusive and accessible to all, ensuring that no one is overlooked in the pursuit of a more environmentally friendly and fairer world.
Hızlı nüfus artışı ve plansız kentleşme nedeniyle kent peyzajında çeşitli yaş grubundaki çocukların ilgisini çeken çocuk oyun alanları yeterli olmamaktadır. Kentsel peyzajda açık yeşil alan sistemi içerisinde çocuk odaklı planlama ve tasarım çalışmaları peyzaj mimarlarının çalışma ve araştırma alanlarıdır. Özellikle nüfusun artmasıyla birlikte her geçen yıl artan sorunlar sonucunda çocukların oyun oynama hakları ellerinden alınmaktadır. Çocuk oyun alanları kentlerde çocuklara oyun hakkının verileceği en önemli alanlardır. Çocuk oyun alanlarının çocuklara kazandırdığı değerler gelecek nesillere aktarılacak ve sağlıklı bir toplum çocukluk döneminde kazanılan değerlerle anlam kazanacaktır. Bu nedenle çocuk için ama çocukla birlikte ve aileyi yadsımayan projelerde çocuğun katılımcı olduğu çok katmanlı ve adil bir kent yaşamı kurgulanmalıdır. Bu projelerden biri de “Çocuk Dostu Kentler” yaklaşımıdır. Araştırmada kent ve çocuklar üzerinde durularak, çocuklar için oyunun önemi, çocuk oyun alanlarının kent peyzajındaki önemi ve ulusal ve uluslararası düzeyde çocukların oyun hakkının önemi ortaya konularak, çocuk oyun alanlarının peyzaj planlaması, peyzaj tasarımı ve peyzaj yönetimi çalışmaları ile çocuk oyun alanlarının değerlendirilmesi, çocuk dostu kent girişimi desteği ile bu boyutlarla değerlendirilecektir.
Neighborhood parks are important venues to support moderate-to-vigorous (MVPA) activity. There has been a noticeable increase promoting physical activity among youth in neighborhood parks. This paper aims to assess the association between park use and MVPA among low-income youth in a large urban area. We recruited a cohort of 434 youth participants during the COVID pandemic years (2020–2022) from low-income households in Washington, D.C. We collected multiple data components: accelerometry, survey, and electronic health record data. We explored the bivariate relationship between the accelerometer-measured daily MVPA time outcome and survey-based park use measures. A mixed-effect model was fitted to adjust the effect estimate for participant-level and time-varying confounders. The overall average daily MVPA time is 16.0 min (SD = 12.7). The unadjusted bivariate relation between daily MVPA time and frequency of park visit is 1.3 min of daily MVPA time per one day with park visits (p < 0.0001). The model-adjusted estimate is 0.7 daily MVPA minutes for 1 day with park visit (p = 0.04). The duration of a typical park visit is not a significant predictor to daily MVPA time with or without adjustments. The initial COVID outbreak in 2020 resulted in a significant decline in daily MVPA time (− 4.7 min for 2020 versus 2022, p < 0.0001). Park visit frequency is a significant predictor to low-income youth’s daily MVPA time with considerable absolute effect sizes compared with other barriers and facilitators. Promoting more frequent park use may be a useful means to improve low-income youth’s MVPA outcome.
Objective
Recess contributes meaningfully to physical activity (PA), but recess time has declined. The study’s purpose was to report PA by age, gender, and playground feature to inform potential playground configurations more conducive to PA during recess.
Methods
Using the System for Observing Play and Leisure Activity in the Youth, kindergarten through 5th grade recesses were observed on at least four days at four schools in Little Rock, Arkansas, United States during May 2023. Target playground features were ball courts, grass, pavement, play structures, and swings. To provide inferential analysis, a comparison of conditional means across playground features, age, and gender was conducted using linear regression with robust standard errors clustered by school.
Results
3,356 playground scans (intercoder correlation = 0.93) were collected and aggregated by school, day, gender, age (grade), and target feature for a sample size of 292 observations. The gender gap was widest among 4-5th graders, 79 % (95 % CI: 72, 86) for males and 64 % (95 % CI: 58, 70) for females. Among females, PA was highest on swings [82 % (95 % CI: 77, 86)] and lowest on paved areas [56 % (95 % CI: 43, 69)]. Among males, it was highest on both swings [81 % (95 % CI: 75, 86)] and ball courts [83 % (95 % CI: 77, 89)] and lowest on grassy areas [64 % (95 % CI: 60, 67)].
Conclusion
Swings, courts, and play structures were associated with a higher proportion of children being engaged in PA. Research is needed to identify whether physical improvements to facilitate access to these features increase PA.
Play spaces for children are important from the point of view of their development and ensuring their safety. Traditional playgrounds originated in the physical culture movement and currently play the most important role in early and middle childhood. This article discusses the basic devices and their functions in the child's development along with the aspect of psychosocial development, as well as the needs that children can meet thanks to activity on the playground.
Playing at recess time in school gives a lot of benefits for children in both physical and social aspects, such as supporting physical, health, and cognitive improvement, and enhancing their learning motivation. Moreover, the outdoor school environment helps to bring back the children’s health condition after the pandemic event that has led to health problems such as obesity and screen fatigue. The physical layout of Indonesian public elementary schools is intended to offer children a learning and playing environment. However, many outdoor school environments are not specifically designed to facilitate children’s play. This study was undertaken at SDN Mendungan 2 to determine how children use outdoor areas in public elementary schools as play spaces during recess time using behavior mapping approach. The results demonstrate that boys tend towards being more active than girls and children with younger age demonstrate play more than the older. Furthermore, results show characteristics of outdoor play spatial characteristics areas used by children in specific play types and are important toward children’s health, growth, and development.
Background:
The school environment, consisting of the physical environment and social-emotional climate (SEC), plays a crucial role in both student and employee health; however, there is a lack of recent literature synthesizing school environment interventions in K-12 settings. We describe updated evidence about school environment interventions to support K-12 student and employee health in the United States.
Methods:
A 2-phase search included a review of reviews (2010-2018), followed by a search for individual articles (2010-2020) that targeted school physical environment and/or SEC to address physical activity (PA) and/or nutrition. We also investigated how nutrition and PA interventions with an SEC component improves social-emotional and/or mental health outcomes. Because research on dietary and PA behaviors for school employees is limited; we included studies on other worksites (eg, hospitals and offices) to provide insight for school employees.
Findings:
We identified 40 articles describing 40 unique studies and 45 interventions and grouped them by intervention type. Physical environment interventions demonstrated significant and positive nutrition and PA behavioral outcomes for students; outcomes among employees were mixed. Interventions with SEC components reported improvements in some mental health outcomes.
Implications:
The school environment can affect dietary and PA behaviors as well as mental health for students and employees.
Conclusions:
Establishing healthy school environments can support student and employee PA, dietary behaviors, and mental health.
Children from low-income families are increasingly growing up in urban areas with limited access to nature. In these environments, strategies that promote access to natural outdoor spaces, such as green schoolyards, may enhance positive youth development outcomes by promoting physical activity (PA) and prosocial behavior, as well as increasing perceptions of safety. The current study examines children’s PA and social interactions, as well as caregiver and teacher perceptions of safety, injuries, teasing/bullying, and gang activity on three newly renovated green schoolyards in low-income urban neighborhoods. A multi-method strategy, including behavioral mapping and caregiver- and teacher-reported surveys, was utilized at three time points to examine positive youth development outcomes and maintenance of effects over time. Analyses revealed that children evidenced a range of PA on the green schoolyards and demonstrated significant decreases in sedentary activity over time. The majority of children were engaged in social interactions with peers on the green schoolyards when observed. Less than 3% of interactions were negative and follow-up analyses found significant increases in positive interactions on the green schoolyards up to 24 months post-renovation. Caregivers and teachers reported increased perceptions of safety, fewer injuries, less teasing/bullying, and less gang-related activity on the renovated green schoolyards in comparison to the pre-renovation schoolyards, and these effects were maintained up to 32 months post-renovation. Overall, the study suggests that green schoolyards may promote positive development outcomes among youth living in urban, low-income neighborhoods by providing natural and safe spaces for PA and prosocial behavior.
Teachers wishing to offer lessons in nature may hold back for fear of leaving students keyed up and unable to concentrate in subsequent, indoor lessons. This study tested the hypothesis that lessons in nature have positive—not negative—aftereffects on subsequent classroom engagement. Using carefully matched pairs of lessons (one in a relatively natural outdoor setting and one indoors), we observed subsequent classroom engagement during an indoor instructional period, replicating these comparisons over 10 different topics and weeks in the school year, in each of two third grade classrooms. Pairs were roughly balanced in how often the outdoor lesson preceded or followed the classroom lesson. Classroom engagement was significantly better after lessons in nature than after their matched counterparts for four of the five measures developed for this study: teacher ratings; third-party tallies of “redirects” (the number of times the teacher stopped instruction to direct student attention back onto the task at hand); independent, photo-based ratings made blind to condition; and a composite index each showed a nature advantage; student ratings did not. This nature advantage held across different teachers and held equally over the initial and final 5 weeks of lessons. And the magnitude of the advantage was large. In 48 out of 100 paired comparisons, the nature lesson was a full standard deviation better than its classroom counterpart; in 20 of the 48, the nature lesson was over two standard deviations better. The rate of “redirects” was cut almost in half after a lesson in nature, allowing teachers to teach for longer periods uninterrupted. Because the pairs of lessons were matched on teacher, class (students and classroom), topic, teaching style, week of the semester, and time of day, the advantage of the nature-based lessons could not be attributed to any of these factors. It appears that, far from leaving students too keyed up to concentrate afterward, lessons in nature may actually leave students more able to engage in the next lesson, even as students are also learning the material at hand. Such “refueling in flight” argues for including more lessons in nature in formal education.
Background: Acute physical activity breaks lasting 10–60 min have been related to positive effects on student focus and academic performance. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of repeated brief physical activity-infused academic lessons (1–5 min) on student retention and on-task behavior. Methods: One class from each K-2 grade level (N = 114) was randomly assigned to the control or experimental condition. Teachers introduced two health and science lessons lasting no more than 5 min every day for six weeks using the 1-Minute Energizer (experimental) or sedentary equivalent (control) curriculum. Student knowledge and behavior was assessed pre- and post-intervention with curriculum-specific oral quizzes and classroom observations. Results: Improvement in quiz performance with the intervention (+80.5 ± 12.4%; p < 0.001) was not different between groups (F(1, 89) = 0.05, p > 0.05) despite greater lesson time in control classrooms. Experimental students exhibited fewer disruptive behaviors (DB) and spent more time on-task (OT) post-intervention (DB: F(1,89) = 10.72, p = < 0.01; OT: F(1,89) = 5.56, p < 0.05). Conclusions: 1-Minute Energizers are an effective instructional tool for increasing health and science knowledge with the added benefits of improving student focus and providing more opportunities for physical activity participation.
Chronic absenteeism is associated with poorer academic performance and higher attrition in kindergarten to 12th grade (K-12) schools. In prior research, students who were chronically absent generally had fewer employment opportunities and worse health after graduation. We examined the impact that environmental factors surrounding schools have on chronic absenteeism. We estimated the greenness (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)) and fine particulate matter air pollution (PM2.5) within 250 m and 1000 m respectively of each public school in Massachusetts during the 2012–2013 academic year using satellite-based data. We modeled chronic absenteeism rates in the same year as a function of PM2.5 and NDVI, controlling for race and household income. Among the 1772 public schools in Massachusetts, a 0.15 increase in NDVI during the academic year was associated with a 2.6% (p value < 0.0001) reduction in chronic absenteeism rates, and a 1 μg/m³ increase in PM2.5 during the academic year was associated with a 1.58% (p value < 0.0001) increase in chronic absenteeism rates. Based on these percentage changes in chronic absenteeism, a 0.15 increase in NDVI and 1 μg/m³ increase in PM2.5 correspond to 25,837 fewer students and 15,852 more students chronically absent each year in Massachusetts respectively. These environmental impacts on absenteeism reinforce the need to protect green spaces and reduce air pollution around schools.
Objective
It is often hypothesised that neighbourhood green space may help prevent well-known declines in physical activity and increases in sedentary behaviour that occur across childhood. As most studies in this regard are cross-sectional, the purpose of our study was to use longitudinal data to examine whether green space promotes active lifestyles as children grow older.
Methods
Data came from participants (n = 4983; age = 4–5) of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children, a nationally representative study on health and child development. Physical activity and screen time were measured biennially (2004–2012) using questionnaires and time use diaries. Quantity of neighbourhood green space was objectively measured using Australian Bureau of Statistics mesh block data for each participant’s statistical area level 2. Multilevel regression was used to test for associations between physical activity and screen time with green space quantity, adjusting for socio-economic confounders.
Results
Boys living in areas with 10 % more neighbourhood green space had a: 7 % (95 % CI = 1.02, 1.13) greater odds of choosing physically active pastimes; 8 % (95 % CI = 0.85, 1.00) lower odds of not enjoying physical activity; 2.3 min reduction in weekend television viewing (95 % CI = −4.00, −0.69); and 7 % (95 % CI = 1.02; 1.12) and 9 % (95 % CI = 1.03; 1.15) greater odds of meeting physical activity guidelines on weekdays and weekends, respectively. No statistically (or practically) significant results were observed for girls.
Conclusion
Current provisions of neighbourhood green space may be more amenable to promoting active lifestyles among boys than girls. Research is needed to explore what types of green space promote active lifestyles in all children.
An emerging public health priority is to enhance children’s opportunities for active play. Children spend a large proportion of weekdays in schools, making schools an influential and suitable setting to promote children’s active play. Rather than continually increasing the burdens placed upon busy teaching staff, the use of school playground interventions have emerged as a critical strategy within schools to facilitate and develop children’s active play via an informal curriculum. This scholarly article provides a research-based commentary on a range of school playground interventions to encourage both structured and unstructured active play opportunities. Additionally, future research directions for school playground research to encourage children’s active play will be discussed. Teachers, educational leaders, designers, researchers and play professionals can consider the findings from this article for future school playground intervention and planning to facilitate children’s active play within school playgrounds.
Research on the association between the physical environment and physical activity in children has focused on built and developed features or total green space. The impact of natural, undeveloped green spaces is unknown. The objective of this study was to determine whether the presence of undeveloped green spaces in the home neighborhood are associated with physical activity in 11 to 13-year-olds.
This was a cross-sectional study of grade 6 to 8 urban residing Canadian students who participated in the 2009/10 Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children survey. Children self-reported the frequency they participated in physical activity in their free-time outside of school hours. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) were used to assess the proportion of land area within 1 km of participants' homes that was devoted to publicly accessible meadows (i.e., field vegetated primarily by grass and other non-woody plants) and treed areas (i.e., field vegetated primarily by trees and shrubs). Ordinal logistic regression models were used to examine the relationships between the undeveloped green space areas and free-time physical activity. Several intrapersonal, family, and neighborhood environment factors were controlled for in these regression models.
The proportion of neighborhood land covered by meadows was not associated with the physical activity outcome (p > 0.6). However, the proportion of neighborhood land covered by treed areas was independently associated with the physical activity outcome (p = 0.02). For each additional 5% increase in the proportion of neighborhood land covered by treed areas there was a corresponding 5% increase (95% confidence interval: 1-10% increase) in the relative odds of increasing free-time physical activity outside of school hours.
The physical activity levels of 11 to 13-year-old children was associated with the amount of space in their home neighborhood devoted to treed areas.
Physical activity (PA) in childhood is related to a multitude of short- and long-term health consequences. School recess can contribute with up to 40% of the recommended 60 min of daily moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This paper aims to investigate how schoolchildren use different schoolyard areas during recess and whether these areas are associated with different levels of PA. Time spent by 316 students (grade 5–8) in five types of schoolyard area was measured during at least two days and four separate recess period per person (in total 1784 recess periods), using global positioning system (GPS) and the level of activity was measured using accelerometers. Total time spent and proportions of time spent sedentary and in MVPA were calculated per area type. Significant differences in PA levels were found. Grass and playground areas had the highest proportion of time in MVPA and solid surface areas had the highest proportion of time spent sedentary. Boys and children spent a higher proportion of time in MVPA. Girls accumulated more sedentary time in all area types compared to boys. This finding emphasizes the importance of investigating various settings and features in schoolyards in promoting PA. Grass and playground areas may play an important role in promoting PA in schoolyards, while a high proportion of time in solid surface areas is spent sedentary. In future, more detailed studies of the exact schoolyard setting using a combination of GPS, accelerometer and direct observation would be beneficial.
School playtime provides opportunities for children to engage in physical activity (PA). Playground playtime interventions designed to increase PA have produced differing results. However, nature can also promote PA, through the provision of large open spaces for activity. The purpose of this study is to determine which playtime interventions are most effective at increasing moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and if this varies by school location. Fifty-two children from an urban and rural school participated in a playground sports (PS) and nature-based orienteering intervention during playtime for one week. MVPA was assessed the day before and on the final day of the interventions using accelerometers. Intervention type (p < 0.05) and school location (p < 0.001) significantly influenced MVPA; with PS increasing MVPA more than nature-based orienteering. Urban children seemed to respond to the interventions more positively; however, differences in baseline MVPA might influence these changes. There was a positive correlation for fitness and MVPA during PS (r = 0.32; p < 0.05), but not nature-based orienteering (p > 0.05). The provision of PS influences PA the most; however, a variety of interventions are required to engage less fit children in PA.
Knowledge on domain-specific physical activity (PA) has the potential to advance public health interventions and inform new policies promoting children's PA. The purpose of this study is to identify and assess domains (leisure, school, transport, home) and subdomains (e.g., recess, playgrounds, and urban green space) for week day moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA) using objective measures and investigate gender and age differences.
Participants included 367 Danish children and adolescents (11-16 years, 52% girls) with combined accelerometer and Global Positioning System (GPS) data (mean 2.5 days, 12.7 hrs/day). The Personal Activity and Location Measurement System and a purpose-built database assessed data in 15-second epochs to determine PA and assign epochs to 4 domains and 11 subdomains. Frequencies and proportions of time spent in MVPA were determined and differences assessed using multi-level modeling.
More than 90% of MVPA was objectively assigned to domains/subdomains. Boys accumulated more MVPA overall, in leisure, school and transport (all p < 0.05). Children compared with adolescents accumulated more MVPA, primarily through more school MVPA (p < 0.05). Boys spent a large proportion of time accumulating MVPA in playgrounds, active transport, Physical Education, sports facilities, urban green space and school grounds. Girls spent a significant proportion of time accumulating MVPA in active transport and playgrounds. No gender or age differences were found in the home domain.
Large variations were found in PA frequency and intensity across domains/subdomains. Significant gender differences were found, with girls being less active in almost all domains and subdomains. Objectively measured patterns of PA across domains/subdomains can be used to better tailor PA interventions and inform future policies for promoting child PA.
Routine moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) is associated with better health outcomes; the purpose of this work was to evaluate healthy preschooler physical activity patterns with objective measurement.
An objective prospective study of 50 normally developing children 3-5 years old who were ≥50th and <95th BMI percentile and enrolled in a family-based healthy lifestyle study in 2011-2012. Participants wore a tri-axial accelerometer for 7 continuous days. Outcome measures consisted of wear time examining four common MVPA patterns: isolated spurt (IS), isolated sustained activity (ISA), clustered spurt (CS), and clustered sustained activity (CSA).
Participants were 4.3 years, 56% female, 52% African-American, and 26% overweight. Forty-five children met wear time criteria. On average, children spent 14.5% of wake-wear time in MVPA, requiring 11.3 h to complete 90% of their daily MVPA. Children spent the majority of MVPA in CS (62.1%, followed by CSA (20.1%). Remaining MVPA was spent in IS (15.5%) and ISA (2.3%).
It takes most of the waking day for preschoolers to attain their PA. They engage in short spurts of small duration, in four common MVPA patterns. Utilizing this method could better characterize preschooler physical activity needs in practice and policy guidelines.
Childhood obesity rates have risen dramatically over the past few decades. Although obesity has been linked to poorer neurocognitive functioning in adults, much less is known about this relationship in children and adolescents. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review to examine the relationship between obesity and obesity-related behaviors with neurocognitive functioning in youth. We reviewed articles from 1976 to 2013 using PsycInfo, PubMed, Medline and Google Scholar. Search terms included cognitive function, neurocognitive function/performance, executive function, impulsivity, self-regulation, effortful control, cognitive control, inhibition, delayed gratification, memory, attention, language, motor, visuo-spatial, academic achievement, obesity, overweight, body mass index, waist-hip ratio, adiposity and body fat. Articles were excluded if participants had health problems known to affect cognitive functioning, the study used imaging as the only outcome measure, they were non-peer-reviewed dissertations, theses, review papers, commentaries, or they were non-English articles. Sixty-seven studies met inclusion criteria for this review. Overall, we found data that support a negative relationship between obesity and various aspects of neurocognitive functioning, such as executive functioning, attention, visuo-spatial performance, and motor skill. The existing literature is mixed on the effects among obesity, general cognitive functioning, language, learning, memory, and academic achievement. Executive dysfunction is associated with obesity-related behaviors, such as increased intake, disinhibited eating, and less physical activity. Physical activity is positively linked with motor skill. More longitudinal research is needed to determine the directionality of such relationships, to point towards crucial intervention time periods in the development of children, and to inform effective treatment programs.
This study investigated the impacts of playing in a natural environment on motor development in children. Methods from landscape ecology were applied for landscape analysis and entered into a Geographic Information System (GIS). Localization of play habitats was done by use of Global Positioning Systems (GPS). A quasi-experimental study was conducted on five-, six-, and seven-year old children with an experimental group playing in a natural environment and a control group playing in a more traditional playground. When provided with a natural landscape in which to play, children showed a statistically significant increase in motor fitness. There were also significant differences between the two groups in balance and co-ordination in favor of the experimental group. The findings indicate that landscape features influence physical activity play and motor development in children.
Background:
Neighborhood safety, green space, walkability, and sociodemographics may influence physical activity and childhood obesity.
Methods:
Data on measured height and weight, demographic characteristics, and home ZIP code were collected from year 2004 enrollees in a means-tested preschool program in New York City. Each ZIP code was surrounded by a 400-m buffer and characterized using data from the US census, local government departments, New York Times website, and Transportation Alternatives. Linear and Poisson models were constructed using cluster robust standard errors and adjusting for child's sex, race, ethnicity, age, and neighborhood characteristics.
Results:
Analyses included 11,562 children ages 3-5 years living in 160 residential ZIP codes. A higher homicide rate (at the 75th vs 25th percentile) was associated with a 22% higher prevalence of obesity (95% CI for the prevalence ratio (PR): 1.05 to 1.41). A higher density of street trees (at the 75th vs 25th percentile) was associated with 12% lower prevalence of obesity (95% CI for the PR: 0.79 to 0.99). Other neighborhood characteristics did not have significant associations with childhood obesity.
Conclusions:
Among preschool children from low-income families, neighborhood homicide rate was associated with more obesity and street tree density was associated with less obesity.
One of the aims of Identification and Prevention of Dietary- and Lifestyle-Induced Health Effects in Children and Infants (IDEFICS) validation study is to validate field measures of physical activity (PA) and Energy expenditure (EE) in young children. This study compared the validity of uni-axial accelerometry with heart-rate (HR) monitoring vs. tri-axial accelerometry against doubly labeled water (DLW) criterion method for assessment of free-living EE in young children. 49 European children (25 female, 24 male) aged 4-10 years (mean age 7 ± 2 years) were assessed by uni-axial ActiTrainer with HR, uni-axial 3DNX and tri-axial 3DNX accelerometry. Total energy expenditure (TEE) was estimated using DLW over a 1 week period. The longitudinal axis of both devices and tri-axial 3DNX counts per minute (CPM) were significantly (P<0.05) associated with physical activity level (PAL) (r = 0.51 ActiTrainer, r = 0.49 uni-axial-3DNX and r = 0.42 tri-axial ∑3DNX). 86% of the variance in TEE could be predicted by a model combining body mass (Partial r(2) = 71%; P<0.05), CPM-ActiTrainer (Partial r(2) = 11%; P<0.05) and difference between HR at moderate and sedentary activities (ModHR - SedHR; Partial r(2) = 4%; P<0.05) The standard error (S.E) of TEE estimate for ActiTrainer and 3DNX models ranged from 0.44-0.74 MJ/d or approximately 7-11% of the average TEE. The S.E of activity-induced energy expenditure (AEE) model estimates ranged from 0.38-0.57 MJ/d or 24-26% of the average AEE. It is concluded that the comparative validity of hip-mounted uni-axial and tri-axial accelerometers for assessing PA and EE is similar.
Neighborhood parks play an important role in promoting physical activity. We examined the effect of activity area, condition, and presence of supporting features on number of park users and park-based physical activity levels.
37 parks and 154 activity areas within parks were assessed during summer 2008 for their features and park-based physical activity. Outcomes included any park use, number of park users, mean and total energy expenditure. Independent variables included type and condition of activity area, supporting features, size of activity area, gender, and day of week. Multilevel models controlled for clustering of observations at activity area and park levels.
Type of activity area was associated with number of park users, mean and total energy expenditure, with basketball courts having the highest number of users and total energy expenditure, and playgrounds having the highest mean energy expenditure. Condition of activity areas was positively associated with number of basketball court users and inversely associated with number of green space users and total green space energy expenditure. Various supporting features were both positively and negatively associated with each outcome.
This study provides evidence regarding characteristics of parks that can contribute to achieving physical activity goals within recreational spaces.
This study examined relationships between greenness exposure and free-living physical activity behavior of children in smart growth and conventionally designed communities. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was used to quantify children's (n=208) greenness exposure at 30-s epoch accelerometer and GPS data points. A generalized linear mixed model with a kernel density smoothing term for addressing spatial autocorrelation was fit to analyze residential neighborhood activity data. Excluding activity at home and during school-hours, an epoch-level analysis found momentary greenness exposure was positively associated with the likelihood of contemporaneous moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). This association was stronger for smart growth residents who experienced a 39% increase in odds of MVPA for a 10th to 90th percentile increase in exposure to greenness (OR=1.39, 95% CI 1.36-1.44). An individual-level analysis found children who experienced >20 min of daily exposure to greener spaces (>90th percentile) engaged in nearly 5 times the daily rate of MVPA of children with nearly zero daily exposure to greener spaces (95% CI 3.09-7.20).
To better understand and promote youth physical activity (PA) it is important to determine settings and characteristics that promote or influence behavior. This study evaluated the utility of a multi-method approach (accelerometers plus direct observation) to better understand youth PA at recess. A total of 100 third through fifth grade children (52 males and 48 females) wore an Actigraph accelerometer during school recess for five consecutive days in both Fall and Spring. Trained observers coded PA behaviors at the same recess periods using the System for Observing Play and Leisure Activities (SOPLAY). Overall, gender comparisons based on both instruments indicated that boys were more active than girls. MVPA levels were higher during climbing/sliding activities (40-50%) and when the activity setting was supervised and equipped (30%). Both assessments indicated that boys were more active but the contextual data from the SOPLAY indicate that differences may vary according to the environmental context.
School break times provide a daily opportunity for children to be active; however, research indicates this time is underutilized. Reasons for low children's playground activity levels have primarily focused on physical barriers. This research aimed to contribute to physical environmental findings affecting children's playground physical activity levels by identifying additional variables through the interview process. Thirteen public schools were included in the sample (total 2946 children). Physical activity and environmental data were collected over 3 days. Environmental variables were manually assessed at each of the 13 schools. Observational data were used to determine which three schools were the most and least active. The principal, three teachers and 20 students in Grades 4-6 from these six schools (four lower and two average socioeconomic status) were invited to participate in the interview process. Student interviews involved the paired interview technique. The main themes generated from the school interviews included the effect of non-fixed equipment (including balls), playground markings, playground aesthetics, activity preference, clothing, the amount of break time available for play, teacher playground involvement, gender, bullying, school policies, student confidence in break-time activity and fundamental movement skills. The effect of bullying on playground physical activity levels was concerning.
Children in poor and minority neighborhoods often lack adequate environmental support for healthy physical development and community interventions designed to improve physical activity resources serve as an important approach to addressing obesity. In Denver, the Learning Landscapes (LL) program has constructed over 98 culturally-tailored schoolyard play spaces at elementary schools with the goal to encourage utilization of play spaces and physical activity. In spite of enthusiasm about such projects to improve urban environments, little work has evaluated their impact or success in achieving their stated objectives. This study evaluates the impacts of LL construction and recency of renovation on schoolyard utilization and the physical activity rates of children, both during and outside of school, using an observational study design.
This study employs a quantitative method for evaluating levels of physical activity of individuals and associated environmental characteristics in play and leisure environments. Schools were selected on the basis of their participation in the LL program, the recency of schoolyard renovation, the size of the school, and the social and demographic characteristics of the school population. Activity in the schoolyards was measured using the System for Observing Play and Leisure Activity (SOPLAY), a validated quantitative method for evaluating levels of physical activity of individuals in play and leisure environments. Trained observers collected measurements before school, during school recess, after school, and on weekends. Overall utilization (the total number of children observed on the grounds) and the rate of activity (the percentage of children observed who were physically active) were analyzed. Observations were compared using t-tests and the data were stratified by gender for further analysis. In order to assess the impacts of LL renovation, recently-constructed LL schoolyards were compared to LL schoolyards with older construction, as well as un-renovated schoolyards.
Overall utilization was significantly higher at LL schools than at un-renovated schools for most observation periods. Notably, LL renovation had no impact on girl's utilization on the weekends, although differences were observed for all other periods. There were no differences in rates of activity for any comparison. With the exception of the number of boys observed, there was no statistically significant difference in activity when recently-constructed LL schools are compared to LL schools with older construction dates and there was no difference observed in comparisons of older LL with unrenovated sites.
While we observed greater utilization and physical activity in schools with LL, the impact of specific features of LL renovation is not clear. However, schoolyard renovation and programs to encourage schoolyard use before and after school may offer a means to encourage greater physical activity among children, and girls in particular. Additional study of schoolyard renovation may shed light on the specific reasons for these findings or suggest effective policies to improve the physical activity resources of poor and minority neighborhoods.
We examined whether schoolyard improvements led to increased physical activity levels among both boys and girls and assessed the aspects of schoolyard design that have an impact on physical activity.
In a quasi-experimental research design, 6 schools with renovated schoolyards and 3 control schools were divided into activity areas. We calculated measures of children's physical activity by area during school hours as well as after-school hours.
The volume of schoolyard use was significantly higher at schools with renovated schoolyards than at control schools, and students were significantly more active at these schools. Also, activity levels were significantly higher among both boys and girls in certain schoolyard areas, such as those with soft surfaces.
Because few public elementary schools in the United States provide daily physical education or its equivalent for all students throughout the school year, noncurriculum approaches to increasing children's physical activity are important. Renovated schoolyards increase the number of children who are physically active, as well as their overall activity levels, and reduce sedentary behaviors.
Recess is an opportunity for children to engage in daily physical activity. The aim of this study was to investigate the 12-month effects of a playground intervention on children's moderate-to-vigorous (MVPA) and vigorous physical activity (VPA) during morning and lunchtime recess.
Four hundred and seventy children (232 boys, 238 girls) from 26 elementary schools participated in the study. Fifteen schools redesigned the playground environment using playground markings and physical structures. Eleven schools served as socioeconomic matched controls. Physical activity levels were quantified using heart rate and accelerometry at baseline, 6 months, and 12 months post-intervention. A 3-level (time, pupil, and school) multilevel analysis was used to determine the effects of the intervention across time on MVPA and VPA.
Positive yet nonsignificant intervention effects were found for MVPA and VPA during morning and lunchtime recess. Intervention children were more active during recess than control children. Interactions revealed that the intervention effect was stronger at 6 months than 12 months post-intervention.
A playground markings and physical structures intervention had a positive effect on intervention children's morning and lunchtime MVPA and VPA when assessed using heart rate and accelerometry, but this effect is strongest 6-months post-intervention and decreased between 6 months and 12 months.
Children frequently engage in diverse activities that are broadly defined as play, but little research has documented children's activity levels during play and how they are influenced by social contexts. Assessing potentially modifiable conditions that influence play behavior is needed to design optimal physical activity interventions.
System for Observing Children's Activity and Relationships during Play (SOCARP) was developed to simultaneously assess children's physical activity, social group sizes, activity type, and social behavior during play. One hundred and fourteen children (48 boys, 66 girls; 42% overweight) from 8 elementary schools were observed during recess over 24 days, with 12 days videotaped for reliability purposes. Ninety-nine children wore a uni-axial accelerometer during their observation period.
Estimated energy expenditure rates from SOCARP observations and mean accelerometer counts were significantly correlated (r = .67; P < .01), and interobserver reliabilities (ie, percentage agreement) for activity level (89%), group size (88%), activity type (90%) and interactions (88%) met acceptable criteria. Both physical activity and social interactions were influenced by group size, activity type, and child gender and body weight status.
SOCARP is a valid and reliable observation system for assessing physical activity and play behavior in a recess context.
School represents a suitable setting for intervention programmes aiming to promote physical activity to benefit health. During the school day, physical education and school playtime offer children regular opportunities to engage in physical activity. However, there is growing concern that, internationally, curricular time allocated to physical education is not meeting statutory guidelines. The effectiveness of the playground environment to promote physical activity has been considered as a complementary setting to physical education. Physical activity guidelines state that children should engage in at least 1 hour of moderate intensity physical activity a day. Currently no empirically tested guidelines exist for physical activity levels during playtime. However, studies cited in this article indicate that playtime can contribute between 5-40% of recommended daily physical activity levels when no interventions have been utilised. The limited school-based investigations that have been reported in the literature suggest that boys engage in more physical activity during playtime than girls. Studies that have implemented intervention strategies in order to promote physical activity levels indicate that playtime can substantially contribute towards daily optimal physical activity guidelines. Energy expenditure and physical activity levels have increased during playtime following the implementation of playtime-based interventions. In order to advance knowledge of children's physical activity during playtime, a number of key issues for consideration in future research are detailed. Research on children's use of playtime to be physically active and the extent of the contribution of playtime to daily physical activity guidelines is warranted.
This Policy Statement was reaffirmed April 2023
Recess is at the heart of a vigorous debate over the role of schools in promoting the optimal development of the whole child. A growing trend toward reallocating time in school to accentuate the more academic subjects has put this important facet of a child’s school day at risk. Recess serves as a necessary break from the rigors of concentrated, academic challenges in the classroom. But equally important is the fact that safe and well-supervised recess offers cognitive, social, emotional, and physical benefits that may not be fully appreciated when a decision is made to diminish it. Recess is unique from, and a complement to, physical education—not a substitute for it. The American Academy of Pediatrics believes that recess is a crucial and necessary component of a child’s development and, as such, it should not be withheld for punitive or academic reasons.
In recent decades, the role of recess during the school day has been called into question. This chapter addresses the critical issue of whether recess adds value to education by describing research examining the effects of recess on development and achievement. This topic is of critical importance for educational settings and wellbeing: To ensure the best practices are being utilized, school policies should be based on scientific investigations. Thus, research examining recess and play is described.
More children from lower social backgrounds are physically inactive than those from higher ones. We studied whether bullying was a mediating factor between lower social background and physical inactivity. We also examined the combined effect of low social class and exposure to bullying on physical inactivity. The Danish sample of the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study 2006 included 6269 schoolchildren in three age groups: 11-, 13-, and 15-year-olds from a random sample of 80 schools. The students answered the internationally standardized HBSC questionnaire. The applied definition leaves 4.0% in the category physically inactive. The sex and age-adjusted OR (95% CI) for physical inactivity was 2.10 (1.39-3.18) among students with low social class and unclassifiable 3.53 (2.26-5.53). Exposure to bullying was associated with physical inactivity, sex and age-adjusted OR = 2.39 (1.67-3.41). Exposure to bullying did not explain the association between social class and physical inactivity. The association between social class and physical inactivity was more pronounced among participants also exposed to bullying. In conclusion, there was a significantly increased odds ratio for physical inactivity among students from lower social classes and for students exposed to bullying. There was a combined effect of low social class and bullying on physical inactivity.
This paperback edition is a reprint of the 2000 edition.
This book provides a comprehensive treatment of linear mixed models for continuous longitudinal data. Next to model formulation, this edition puts major emphasis on exploratory data analysis for all aspects of the model, such as the marginal model, subject-specific profiles, and residual covariance structure. Further, model diagnostics and missing data receive extensive treatment. Sensitivity analysis for incomplete data is given a prominent place. Several variations to the conventional linear mixed model are discussed (a heterogeity model, conditional linear mixed models). This book will be of interest to applied statisticians and biomedical researchers in industry, public health organizations, contract research organizations, and academia. The book is explanatory rather than mathematically rigorous. Most analyses were done with the MIXED procedure of the SAS software package, and many of its features are clearly elucidated. However, some other commercially available packages are discussed as well. Great care has been taken in presenting the data analyses in a software-independent fashion.
Geert Verbeke is Professor in Biostatistics at the Biostatistical Centre of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in Belgium. He is Past President of the Belgian Region of the International Biometric Society, a Board Member of the American Statistical Association, and past Joint Editor of the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A (2005--2008). He is the director of the Leuven Center for Biostatistics and statistical Bioinformatics (L-BioStat), and vice-director of the Interuniversity Institute for Biostatistics and statistical Bioinformatics (I-BioStat), a joint initiative of the Hasselt and Leuven universities in Belgium.
Geert Molenberghs is Professor of Biostatistics at Universiteit Hasselt and Katholieke Universiteit Leuven in Belgium. He was Joint Editor of Applied Statistics (2001-2004) and Co-Editor of Biometrics (2007-2009). He was President of the International Biometric Society (2004-2005), and has received the Guy Medal in Bronze from the Royal Statistical Society and the Myrto Lefkopoulou award from the Harvard School of Public Health. He is founding director of the Center for Statistics and also the director of the Interuniversity Institute for Biostatistics and statistical Bioinformatics.
Both authors have received the American Statistical Association's Excellence in Continuing Education Award in 2002, 2004, 2005, and 2008. Both are elected Fellows of the American Statistical Association and elected members of the International Statistical Institute.
This review examines different ways that contact with nature can contribute to the health and well-being of children. Applying the capabilities approach to human development for a broad definition of well-being, it traces research from the 1970s to the present, following shifting research approaches that investigate different dimensions of health. A compelling body of evidence exists that trees and natural areas are essential elements of healthy communities for children. They need to be integrated at multiple scales, from landscaping around homes, schools, and childcare centers, to linked systems of urban trails, greenways, parks, and “rough ground” for children’s creative play.
In this study, we investigated the relationship between school ground design and children's physical activity levels. In particular, we were interested in understanding the contribution of 'green' school ground design to physical activity levels. Data for this study were collected at an elementary school in Australia and in Canada. At each school, scans of Target Areas were completed to record the students' location and intensity of physical activity, based on the System for Observing Play and Leisure Activity in Youth (SOPLAY) (Australia: 23 scans, 6 Target Areas; Canada: 18 scans, 7 Target Areas). At both schools, the highest percentage of children present was engaged in vigorous physical activity on the manufactured equipment (42% of children/scan). Similarly, at both schools, the green area encouraged the highest percentage of children present to be engaged in moderate physical activity (47% of Australian children/scan, 51% of Canadian children/scan). The patterns of sedentary behavior differed slightly between countries. At the Australian school, the paved sporting courts (57%) and the paved canteen courtyard (50.5%) promoted the highest degree of sedentary play. At the Canadian school, the treed grassy berm (42%) and the treed concrete steps (43%) encouraged the highest percentage of sedentary behavior, followed by the open asphalt (34%). These results are also discussed in light of gender distribution. We conclude with a discussion of the design and cultural factors that influence children's physical activity on school grounds. We argue that if school grounds are to realize their potential to promote physical activity, they should include a greater diversity of design features and 'green' elements that engage children of varying interests and abilities in active play.
Background
There is evidence to suggest that increasing physical activity (PA) improves academic achievement (AA) in children and that aerobic fitness is associated with both cognitive function and AA. However, it is not known how these variables are interrelated and analyses with adequate control for socioeconomic variables are needed. It was hypothesized that PA would not directly affect AA but would have an indirect effect on AA through its effect on aerobic fitness. The purpose of this study was to test this hypothesized mediation using path analysis.
Methods
Cross-sectional data including AA, aerobic fitness, and daily PA assessed through accelerometry were collected from a large sample (N = 687) of 2nd and 3rd grade students. Demographic data were assessed via parent self-report.
Results
A total of 401 students wore the accelerometer for at least 10 h on 3 days or more and were included in the final path analysis to evaluate potential relations among PA (predictor), aerobic fitness (mediator), and WIAT-III subtest standard scores (outcomes; i.e., reading, spelling, and mathematics). Findings showed a direct effect of PA on aerobic fitness (b = .009, p < .001) and an indirect effect (mediation) of PA via fitness on math achievement (b = .003, p < .01) after controlling for student's grade, gender, body mass index, mother's education level, and household income, as well as intraclass correlations among classes and schools. Neither PA nor aerobic fitness were correlated with WIAT-III reading or spelling scores.
Conclusions
Mediation analysis indicated that PA exerted an influence on math achievement through its effects on aerobic fitness but was not associated with reading or spelling achievement scores.
Greenery is assumed to promote physical activity at school grounds by facilitating open and flexible play situations that engage many children. The role of greenery for school ground activity was investigated at two schools, one of which contained a substantial amount of greenery and the other one little greenery. All in all 197 children from 4th (10–11 years) and 6th grade (12–13 years), were involved in a one week field study, documenting self-reported school ground use, their favourite places and favourite activities and counting their steps by pedometer. The most common school ground activities were related to the use of balls as part of different sports, games and other playful activity. The more extensive green areas belonged to children's favourite places, but were little used, whereas settings with a mix of green and built elements in proximity to buildings were well-used favourites. Physical activity in steps was similar at the two schools, but on average girls got less of the activity they need during recess. Greenery was found important by contributing to settings attractive to visit for girls as well as boys and for younger as well as older children, if located in ways that also supported peer interaction and various games.
This study examined the association between physical fitness and academic achievement and determined the influence of socioeconomic status (SES) on the association between fitness and academic achievement in school-aged youth.
Overall, 1,701 third-, sixth-, and ninth-grade students from 5 school districts participated in the assessments. Fitness was assessed using FITNESSGRAM (aerobic fitness, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition). Results were used to determine individual fitness scores. Academic achievement was measured by standardized tests for Math (all grades), English (all grades), and Social Studies (sixth and ninth grades only). The SES was determined using eligibility for free and reduced lunch program.
There were no significant differences between fitness groups for Math and English in third-grade students. Sixth- and ninth-grade students with high fitness scored significantly better on Math and Social Studies tests compared with less fit students. Lower SES students scored significantly worse on all tests. Muscular strength and muscular endurance were significantly associated with academic achievement in all grades.
Compared with all other variables, SES appears to have the strongest association with academic achievement. However, it also appears that high fitness levels are positively associated with academic achievement in school-aged youth.
The current childhood obesity rates raise concern about youths' health and the role that a sedentary lifestyle plays in this growing trend. Focusing on how children choose to spend their free time is one approach that may yield ideas for reducing childhood obesity. Recess is a regularly occurring “free time” period in elementary schools. It is, however, often overlooked as a good time to help children discover enjoyable physical activities and increase their motivation to engage in more movement, thus forming physical activity habits that can potentially reduce the prevalence of obesity. This article presents information on best practices for promoting children's free-time physical activity; offers guidelines for increasing children's intrinsic motivation to be active during recess; and discusses the various environmental, personal, and social barriers to children's recess physical activity.
Physical activity is an essential element in reducing the prevalence of obesity, but much is unknown about the intensity and location of physical activity among youth-this is important because adolescent health behaviors are predictive of behaviors in adults.
This study aims to identify the locations where youth moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) occurs, and to examine how MVPA varies according to urbanicity (urban, suburban, rural).
Participants included adolescent students (N=380, aged 12-16 years) from Halifax, Nova Scotia. Locations of MVPA were measured using accelerometers and GPS data loggers for up to 7 days. Specialized software was developed to integrate and process the data. Frequencies of MVPA by location were determined, and differences in MVPA were assessed for association with urbanicity.
Active commuting accounted for the largest proportion of time in MVPA among urban and suburban students. Rural students achieved most MVPA at school. Other residential locations, shopping centers, and green spaces accounted for a majority of the remaining MVPA. Minutes in MVPA varied significantly overall (196.6 ± 163.8, 84.9 ± 103.2, 81.7 ± 98.2); at school (45.7 ± 45.2, 18.6 ± 28.0, 29.8 ± 39.7); while commuting (110.3 ± 107.1, 31.5 ± 55.2, 19.5 ± 39.7); and at other activity locations (19.7 ± 27.1, 14.8 ± 26.8, 12.0 ± 22.1) and by urbanicity.
Findings reveal that the journeys between locations are as important as home and school settings in contributing to greater MVPA in adolescent youth. The relative importance of context as a contributor to MVPA varies with urbanicity. Combining actimetry and GPS data provides a precise link between physical activity measurements and contexts of the built environment.
To compare activity counts from the ActiGraph GT3X to those from the ActiGraph GT1M during treadmill walking/running. A secondary aim was to develop tri-axial vector magnitude (VM3) cut-points to classify physical activity (PA) intensity.
Fifty participants wore the GT3X and the GT1M on the non-dominant hip and exercised at 4 treadmill speeds (4.8, 6.4, 9.7, and 12 km h(-1)). Vertical (VT) and antero-posterior (AP) activity counts (counts min(-1)) as well as the vector magnitudes of the two axes (VM2) from both monitors were tested for significant differences using two-way ANOVA's. Bland-Altman plots were used to assess agreement between activity counts from the GT3X and GT1M. Linear regression analysis between VM3 countsmin(-1) and oxygen consumption data was conducted to develop VM3 cut-points for moderate, hard and very hard PA.
There were no significant inter-monitor differences in VT activity counts at any speed. AP and VM2 activity counts from the GT1M were significantly higher (p<0.01) than those from the GT3X at 4.8, 9.7 and 12 km h(-1). High inter-monitor agreement was found for VT activity counts but not for AP and VM2 activity counts. VM3 cut-points for moderate, hard, and very hard PA intensities were 2690-6166, 6167-9642, >9642 counts min(-1).
Due to the lack of congruence between the AP and VM2 activity counts from the GT1M and the GT3X, comparisons of data obtained with these two monitors should be avoided when using more than just the VT axis. VM3 cut-points may be used to classify PA in future studies.
To quantify the volume and intensity of children's physical activity after school in greenspace and elsewhere.
Data were collected between 2006 and 2008 from 1,307 children aged 10-11 in Bristol, UK. Accelerometers and Global Positioning System receivers measured activity and location every 10 s (epoch) after school for four days. Data were mapped in a Geographic Information System with a greenspace dataset. Activity volume (accelerometer counts per minute), time in moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and the odds of an epoch being MVPA (using logistic regression) were compared for greenspace, non-greenspace and indoors.
13% of monitored time was spent outdoors (2% in greenspace), during which time 30% of activity volume and 35% of MVPA was accumulated. 7% of boys' activity volume and 9% of MVPA were in greenspace with girls slightly lower (5% and 6% respectively). The odds of an epoch being MVPA in greenspace relative to outdoor non-greenspace was 1.37 (95% CI 1.22-1.53) for boys and 1.08 (95% CI 0.95-1.22) for girls.
Most activity occurring outdoors is not in greenspace and non-green urban environments are therefore very important for children's activity. However, when boys are in greenspace, activity is more likely to be of higher intensity.
Understanding the determinants of physical activity behavior in children and youths is essential to the design and implementation of intervention studies to increase physical activity. Objective methods to assess physical activity behavior using various types of motion detectors have been recommended as an alternative to self-report for this population because they are not subject to many of the sources of error associated with children's recall required for self-report measures. This paper reviews the calibration of four different accelerometers used most frequently to assess physical activity and sedentary behavior in children. These accelerometers are the ActiGraph, Actical, Actiwatch, and the RT3 Triaxial Research Tracker. Studies are reviewed that describe the regression modeling approaches used to calibrate these devices using directly measured energy expenditure as the criterion. Point estimates of energy expenditure or count ranges corresponding to different activity intensities from several studies are presented. For a given accelerometer, the count cut points defining the boundaries for 3 and 6 METs vary substantially among the studies reviewed even though most studies include walking, running and free-living activities in the testing protocol. Alternative data processing using the raw acceleration signal is recommended as a possible alternative approach where the actual acceleration pattern is used to characterize activity behavior. Important considerations for defining best practices for accelerometer calibration in children and youths are presented.