Social Media, Visual Culture and Contemporary Identity

Abstract

In developed nations, university students lead a rich digital life which includes maintaining connections through image-based social networks such as Instagram, Snapchat and Tinder. These ubiquitous technologies are shaping student identities and social practices in an ongoing manner. Social media is used to construct identity through visual branding, wherein individuals utilise imagery designed to attract followers and maintain careful curation of an online persona. In this digital economy, social capital is attached to attributes such as trustworthiness, authenticity and attractiveness. Regular social media use assists in the development of sophisticated visual practices, through which the everyday user shifts their own representation. Network members draw upon increased compositional knowledge and digital tools to depict themselves in a flattering manner which conveys a positive message about their identity as brand. Attractiveness and creativity become dominant factors in these online fora, whereas the widespread use of image editing tools draws trustworthiness and authenticity factors into question. This paper uses Social Learning Theory to explore the use of social media for identity construction, identifying issues inherent for students who place themselves in constant comparison to a wide range of peers, and ways in which educators can utilise these perspectives to inform teaching.

Full text

Social Media, Visual Culture and Contemporary Identity
Jennifer STOKES
UniSA College, University of South Australia
Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
and
Dr. Bianca PRICE
UniSA College, University of South Australia
Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
ABSTRACT
In developed nations, university students lead a rich digital life
which includes maintaining connections through image-based
social networks such as Instagram, Snapchat and Tinder. These
ubiquitous technologies are shaping student identities and social
practices in an ongoing manner. Social media is used to
construct identity through visual branding, wherein individuals
utilise imagery designed to attract followers and maintain
careful curation of an online persona. In this digital economy,
social capital is attached to attributes such as trustworthiness,
authenticity and attractiveness. Regular social media use assists
in the development of sophisticated visual practices, through
which the everyday user shifts their own representation.
Network members draw upon increased compositional
knowledge and digital tools to depict themselves in a flattering
manner which conveys a positive message about their identity
as brand. Attractiveness and creativity become dominant factors
in these online fora, whereas the widespread use of image
editing tools draws trustworthiness and authenticity factors into
question. This paper uses Social Learning Theory to explore the
use of social media for identity construction, identifying issues
inherent for students who place themselves in constant
comparison to a wide range of peers, and ways in which
educators can utilise these perspectives to inform teaching.
Keywords: Social Media, Social Learning Theory, Identity,
Authenticity, and Attractiveness.
1. INTRODUCTION
In developed nations, university students lead a rich digital life
which includes maintaining connections through image-based
social networks such as Instagram, Snapchat and Tinder. These
ubiquitous technologies are shaping student identities and social
practices in an ongoing manner. Social media is used to
construct identity through visual branding, wherein individuals
utilise imagery designed to attract followers and maintain
careful curation of an online persona. This paper uses Social
Learning Theory [1] to explore the use of social media for
identity construction and the issues inherent for students who
place themselves in constant comparison to a wide range of
peers. In this digital economy, social capital is attached to
attributes such as trustworthiness, authenticity and
attractiveness. However, this research will argue that
attractiveness becomes a dominant factor in these online fora,
whereas the widespread use of image editing tools draws
trustworthiness and authenticity factors into question. Through
exploring the construction of contemporary identity through
image-based tools and the impact of constant online comparison
to high status peers, this paper will offer insight into the
complex digital lives of contemporary university students and
provide directions for future research.
Deaton notes that ‘the most immediate consideration of
Educators exploring the use of social media in the classroom is
an evaluation of the students’ context’ [2]. People aged 18-29
are the most prolific users of social media in developed nations,
such as Australia [3] and the United States of America [4]. This
coincides with the commencement of university for many and
also aligns with the identity development of adulthood. Heavy
social media use amongst adolescents has been directly linked
to esteem, anxiety and depression, demonstrating the ways in
which ‘social media has a greater impact on teens and plays a
role in their identity formation and their search for a sense of
self’ [5]. In order for educators to understand the lived reality of
contemporary university students, it is important to explore the
information systems they are immersed in and the ways
students utilise these systems to construct identity in visual
culture.
2. CONSTRUCTING ONLINE IDENTITIES: SOCIAL
LEARNING THEORY AND SOCIAL MEDIA
Social Learning Theory can be observed in everyday
interactions with friends, family, colleagues or even strangers
across a variety of environments and social spaces. Social
Learning Theory (SLT) is considered as one of the most
influential learning theories given its focus on the learning that
occurs in social contexts [6]. The theory proposes that people
learn from one another and that people can learn new
information and behaviours through observation [7]. Research
suggests that often people in social situations will observe the
behaviours and actions of others and this will subsequently
affect their thoughts, attitudes and behaviours. This does not
always result in direct behavioural change; rather, it is argued
that social learning may occur if the subject is influenced
enough by others.
Bandura (1977) developed Social Learning Theory (SLT) to
explain how learning may occur within a social context and
how people can learn from one another [7]. The theory gained
drive in the 1950s as it provided a platform for exploring how
people can learn, adapt and develop both cognitively as well as
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behaviourally across social situations. Centred on the principles
of learned behaviour including Pavlov’s classical conditioning
and Skinner’s operant conditioning, SLT provides a strong
theoretical foundation for the present study. Where Bandura
agreed with traditional behavioural learning theories, he went
on to add that mediating processes may occur between the
stimuli and the response and that learning behaviours may be
attributed to social interactions and that through these
observations, imitations and replications may follow. In other
words, we have the capacity to learn from others and our social
environment is a powerful learning tool that can influence
behaviours and attitudes. As far as social learning theory is
concerned there is both a cognitive and operant view of
learning. Humans learn from others through socialisation and
imitation, as Bandura notes: ‘most human behaviour is learned
observationally through modelling: from observing others one
forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on
later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for
action’ [cited in 8]. Conditions for effective modelling include
attention and retention, reproduction of the image or behaviour,
and motivation to imitate, all of which support ‘reciprocal
determinism’ wherein the individual’s behaviour is both shaped
by and shapes their environment [9].
The growth of social media in Web 2.0 and beyond has
transformed the way people experience the internet. For
everyday users, no longer is it a one way communication
channel for information, data and resources; instead, it is now a
thriving ground of social interactivity and social connections.
Indeed social media now plays an increasingly important role in
the lives of users, with some reporting social media as a key site
in their sociality and identity [10]. Social media produces rich
and observable sites of identity construction wherein SLT
provides a strong theoretical explanation for the behavioural
practices demonstrated online. SLT can be used to explore
users’ experience and identity development online, as well as
the rise of social capital in online fora, as seen through
followers and likes, attractiveness and other valued attributes.
3. IDENTITY REPRESENTATTION IN VISUAL
CULTURE
Regular social media use assists in the development of
sophisticated visual practices, through which the everyday user
shifts their own representation and presents their identity to the
online world. Network members draw upon increased
compositional knowledge and digital tools to depict themselves
in a flattering manner which conveys a positive message about
their identity as brand. Here, SLT can be applied to observe the
strategies used by individuals to attract attention, encourage
retention, and reproduction of desirable imagery through the
adoption of valued practices in online environments. As the
importance of physical attractiveness increases [11], engaging
in social media is becoming a key self-presentation tactic and
behaviour in online cultures. The possibility of making a living
as a YouTuber, Instagrammer or ceWebrity encourages students
to channel effort and time into their online representation and
connect with a wide range of people in the hope that they too
may be selected for such a lucrative role. The ability to ‘friend’
or ‘follow’ celebrities and individuals in positions of power
builds a sense of connection amongst followers. This perceived
closeness encourages identification and mimicry, with many
followers adopting the visual practices employed by famous
identities who have professional teams working to curate their
images.
Greater internet speeds and convergent devices have contributed
to the current information age where much communication
occurs through visual forms [12]. Users are engaged in a
continual practice of identity construction and maintenance,
specifically through photographs and videos on social
networking sites (SNS). For university students who have
grown up with these technologies, the act of maintaining an
authentic and engaging online persona is a continual and time-
consuming process. Most students arriving at university today
were born at the turn of the millennia and have grown up with
the presence of SNS alongside their schooling. With the growth
of SNS in the 2000s, today’s students have borne witness to the
waves of visual trends and meaning-making emerging online
throughout their lives. The proliferation of low cost, convergent
digital tools allowed Millennials to document their lives in an
unprecedented manner. The ability to constantly communicate
in visual forms has created a generation of new media
bricoleurs, who draw upon these creative tools to construct
identity in multiple and shifting ways [13]. Early adopters used
basic coding of multimodal elements on SNS such as MySpace,
to engage in creativity and taste-making which contributed to an
acceleration of trends through rapid dissemination in
participatory culture. The rise of MySpace and its significance
to music subcultures was a noteworthy moment in internet
culture [14], which led to the emergence of a subcultural
photographic style which was rapidly adopted in the
mainstream. Members experimented with the growing
availability of digital cameras and an emotional punk (“emo
kid”) aesthetic to create shots with high angle, flattering
framing which became a signature visual representation of
MySpace and was adopted across other sites. In the 2010s,
internet culture has moved away from anonymity and toward
authenticity, as ‘people began to see the internet as a tool for
presenting and promoting their real selves rather than taking
anonymous action’ [15].
As Facebook and Instagram gathered popularity worldwide,
they provided broader platforms for the distribution of selfies,
which became a ubiquitous visual means of personifying and
sharing experiences. In 2013, this compositional style gained
popularity by 17000% and became Oxford Dictionary word of
the year [16]. These portraits of the self allow the individual to
capture their own image and present their lived experience as
they want to be seen. Here, individuals focus on the aspects of
identity which they wish to highlight, such as ‘Mavens’ who
showcase specific individual skills online, such as knowledge
and artistry [Gladwell 2000 cited 15]. Individuals valued in
visual culture subscribe to the dominant trend of identity
construction through presenting attractive imagery on a regular
basis. Sappey and Maconachie [17] suggest that physical
attractiveness is a central concept to self-identity. Physical
attractiveness is often constructed through social networks,
wherein both physique and attractiveness form the basis of
many individuals’ identity and self-concept [17; 18]. In SNS,
individuals engage in social learning, identifying which imagery
is ‘successful’ and approved of by peers through positive
reception in the form of likes, sharing and positive comments.
Constant communication through visual forms combines with
social learning, so that users mimic valued identities and style
themselves online in compositions which showcase their
physical and intellectual traits in a stylised manner which is
attractive to their desired audience.
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Consistent branding of identity across sites becomes possible;
although different SNS’ privilege particular types of visual
representation. Instagram is renowned for trendsetting, ‘hipster’
imagery of food, design and culture, whereas Snapchat allows
users to share ‘private’ observations to their select distribution
list with content which disappears in 24 hours. Tinder provides
an image-driven, location-based dating service, wherein users
aim to attract each other through visual content and minimal
text. These SNS are largely used on smartphones, making it
possible to broadcast everyday activities in a rapid manner,
accelerating trend-spotting and the primacy of the visual to
engage the audience. Constant engagement with these tools has
allowed users to develop strong visual literacies, both as
consumers and creators of the texts. These literacies assist in the
construction of engaging online personas, which draw upon the
affordances of the image to establish an identity ‘brand’ to
attract the desired audience. SNS users also connect to interest
groups and sort images through the use of relevant hashtags.
Students use these in informed and sometimes excessive ways
to reach a wide range of potential audience members and
connect with trends and interest groups. Occasionally the
hashtag #TBT (throwback Thursday) is invoked to allow the
repeat posting of favoured images from the past; however, new
material is constantly needed and this encourages the user to
engage in a constant process of identity construction and
maintenance.
As visual culture shifts and online social learning proliferates,
trends are cycled through at an increasingly rapid rate, and
authenticity becomes an increasingly problematic concept.
Social media histories are rife with dated trends from ‘duckface
girls’ to ‘planking’; however, current visual culture valorises
moments designed to look authentic. These are often captured
by ‘Insta-boyfriends’ [19] whose subject dictates the content
and action, then delegates the photographer to capture these
moments as though natural excerpts of a glamorous existence,
rather than a constructed media artefact. A range of images
captured at one time may be systematically released over weeks
to the audience in order to continue engagement and maintain
the perception that the orchestrator enjoys an envious life.
Authenticity is further challenged by the ability to change
imagery through use of filters and editing tools, such as
Photoshop. The existence of apps which can change the user’s
physical shape, apply make-up and edit out imperfections has
led to the value placed on the hashtag #nofilter to highlight the
authenticity of the image and the talent of the creator. It
behoves SNS users to employ critical approaches to the image
to determine the authenticity of the representation.
4. IDENTITY CHALLENGES AND OTHER RISKS OF
SOCIAL LEARNING ONLINE
Constant connection provides the benefit of engagement in
visual communities at an unprecedented level; however, there
are many emerging negative effects of this immersion in
internet culture. Much attention has been paid to issues like
cyberbullying and harassment, so here we turn a lens instead to
issues created by simple everyday transactions with a focus on
students. We focus directly on issues related to the elements
required for effective modelling in SLT, specifically attention,
retention, reproduction of imagery and motivation [9]. By
exploring some of risks and complexities, this section will offer
insight and strategic approaches for educators.
In the information age, some economists argue that attention is
actually the most valuable commodity [15], and social media
are designed to attract user attention through frequent rewards
for attentive use. Users are lured through continual notifications
and updates, drawing them back into the SNS. This can have
negative impacts for users, including intense and compulsive
use of technology, and subsequent impact on sleeping patterns
and mental health [20]. Students looking for behavioural
models may be drawn to the most popular profiles, without
fully understanding the construction and financial elements
embodied in the construction and maintenance of these
identities. To complicate this situation, there are many fake
users such as ‘sock puppets’ and ‘bots disseminating false
information through attractive mechanisms online [21], so it is
important that users develop critical faculties to avoid this
misinformation, scams and other subsequent consequences. In
order to minimise student addiction to social media and
attention to timewasting pursuits, educators can limit SNS use
in class and embed information literacy elements in teaching
practice, working with students’ real-world experiences to
construct relevant practices for lifelong learning.
For an undergraduate student working through identity
development, the public arena of SNS presents desires and
challenges. Individuals draw constant comparisons between
their own lives and the lives of those in their social network;
comparisons which may result in status anxiety [22]. The
perceived status of everyday users may be reduced when placed
in an online network which includes regular contact with
celebrities and sponsored identities. Comparing a picture of the
self taken under standard conditions with a constructed image
which has been professionally shot and edited creates untenable
and unrealistic expectations regarding attractiveness. Retaining
these comparisons of individual experience to higher status
peers or, even toward closer peers with a strongly promoted
online persona, results in ongoing negative reflections on self,
alongside the fear of missing out (FOMO). Constant social
media comparison and subsequent perception of reduction in
status is leading to increased rates of anxiety and depression in
adolescents with high social media use [5]. This is exacerbated
through extended time spent on social media which may distract
from enjoyable pursuits, and further limits the opportunity to
create desirable SNS imagery. It is important for university
students to be given tools to manage their social media use and
minimise comparison online, in order to discourage the
development of status anxiety and FOMO. The educator can
play a role through raising awareness and providing students
with strategies to manage social media use, which will have
beneficial flow on effects for the individual.
Much of the social learning exhibited online can ultimately be
seen in the reproduction of imagery by the users themselves.
While much of this reproduction of imagery is standard practice
for identity development in visual culture, a growing body of
research highlights the dangers of normalising extreme behavior
through repeat viewing of imagery. For example, excessive
alcohol consumption and other dangerous behavior is often
normalised through university student posts [23; 24]. While
desirable physical capital is showcased through the ‘pursuit of
forms of physical capital that are increasingly mediated’ [11];
the darker side of this phenomena of idealising physical capital
through online visuals can be seen in research demonstrating
links between body image issues and engagement with thin-
ideal visuals [25]. A much-publicised version of this was the
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#Thinspo hashtag which was banned from Instagram and other
SNS once criticism revealed that this online affinity group
showcased imagery of dangerously thin individuals as a form of
inspiration for eating disorders [26]. In responding to these
issues, critical media literacy can act as an antidote, supporting
students to analyse the construction of thin-ideal or other
deplorable imagery in order to provide a protective factor for
body satisfaction against the negative effects of exposure to
thin-ideal images’ [27]. When students engage in reproducing
imagery to show their identities, it is important the students
strive to reproduce behavior which is positive and healthy.
Long-term effects can be incurred through careless or
uninformed use of SNS. Ongoing risks for social media users
include public embarrassment or permanent reputation damage
caused through ineffective use of networks, lack of followers,
or minimal reciprocation of effort. The presence of
embarrassing material on social media may cause an employer
to reject a potential employee; however, the lack of social
media presence is also considered suspicious by employers
[28]. Students may be motivated to adopt positive or negative
behaviours through social learning and this can be leveraged to
help them safeguard their digital identities. Here, educators
have an important role to play by encouraging students to adopt
positive practices through sharing educative examples, rather
than offering strict guidelines. For example, discussing privacy,
identity and SNS in the context of the affordances of facial
recognition technology appeals to students’ intellect in order
create impact and support informed use of imagery. Students
will often share examples from their lived experiences,
reinforcing the seriousness of these issues to their peers in the
classroom. Educators can then provide helpful strategies,
encouraging students to engage in careful curation of their
digital identity and minimal sharing of sensitive information.
5. CONCLUSION
Identity construction in visual culture is a complex and ongoing
process. SLT is an effective approach for considering the ways
in which identity is constructed through behavioural modelling
on SNS. Contemporary students have grown up online, being
encultured in visual literacies through successive SNS and
identifying strategies to maintain online popularity through
image composition and other tactics. There are negative
elements to this presentation of the self online which can be
managed through careful guidance and informed approaches.
Educators can guide students toward critical analysis and extend
their ability to make informed choices in visual culture. In
online fora, where attractiveness has primacy and students with
critical skillsets and strong visual literacies will be able to best
employ these tools for successful use of SNS and ongoing
reputation management in a digital world.
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