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Journal of Human Kinetics volume 70/2019, 125-134 DOI: 10.2478/hukin-2019-0038 125
Section II ‐ Exercise Physiology & Sports Medicine
1 - Center for Research in Health Sciences. University of Northern Paraná, Londrina, Brazil.
2 - Metabolism, Nutrition, and Exercise Laboratory, Physical Education and Sport Center. Londrina State University, Londrina,
Brazil.
3 - Exercise Science Department, CUNY Lehman College, Bronx, New York, USA.
Authors submitted their contribution to the article to the editorial board.
Accepted for printing in the Journal of Human Kinetics vol. 70/2019 in December 2019.
Effects of Different Dietary Energy Intake Following Resistance
Training on Muscle Mass and Body Fat in Bodybuilders:
A Pilot Study
by
Alex S. Ribeiro1, João Pedro Nunes2, Brad J. Schoenfeld3, Andreo F. Aguiar1,
Edilson S. Cyrino2
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of different amounts of energy intake in combination
with progressive resistance training on muscle mass and body fat in bodybuilders. Eleven male bodybuilders (26.8 ± 2.3
years, 90.1 ± 9.7 kg, and 176.9 ± 7.1 cm) were randomly assigned into one of two groups: a group that ingested higher
amounts of energy (G1, 67.5 ± 1.7 kcal/kg/d, n = 6), and a group that ingested moderate amounts of energy (G2, 50.1 ±
0.51 kcal/kg/d, n = 5). Both groups performed resistance training 6 days per week over a 4-week study period. Measures
of body composition were assessed before and after the intervention period. For body fat, only the G1 presented
significant changes from pre- to post-training (G1 = +7.4% vs. G2 = +0.8%). For muscle mass, both groups showed
significant increases after the intervention period, with G1 presenting a greater increase compared to G2 (G1 = +2.7%
vs. G2 = +1.1%). Results suggest that greater energy intake in combination with resistance training induces greater
increases in both muscle mass and body fat in competitive male bodybuilders.
Key words: strength training; bodybuilding; muscle mass; body fat; split routine.
Introduction
Bodybuilding is an aesthetic sport
whereby competitors aspire to achieve a
combination of high levels of muscularity,
symmetry between muscles, and very low levels
of body fat (Hackett et al., 2013). Provided similar
muscular symmetry, proportion and definition,
the competitor with the largest muscles
necessarily has a decided advantage over his
opponents.
Bodybuilding preparation generally
involves two phases. An off-season phase, in
which hypertrophy is the primary goal, and a pre-
contest phase, where the main objective is to
reduce body fat levels while maintaining muscle
mass. Thus, maximizing muscle growth,
especially during the first phase, is critical for
success in the sport. Accordingly, the proper
manipulation of resistance training variables as
well as precise attention to nutrient and energy
intake are essential off-season considerations.
Energy intake has an important effect on
the capacity to build muscle (Millward et al.,
1994). For example, studies have shown that
caloric restriction induces a chronic decrease in
muscle protein synthesis (McIver et al., 2012;
Pasiakos and Carbone, 2014), which necessarily
would limit muscle growth given that a positive
muscle protein balance over time is what
ultimately drives hypertrophic changes. On the
other hand, a positive energy balance, even in the
absence of strength training, is a potent stimulator
of anabolism (Churchward-Venne et al., 2013;
Millward et al., 1994).
126 Effects of different dietary energy intake following resistance training on muscle mass and body fat...
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Several studies have shown that higher
energy intake in combination with progressive
resistance training induces greater increases in
hypertrophy when compared to lower caloric
conditions (Garthe et al., 2013; Rozenek et al.,
2002). However, overconsumption of energy also
can be accompanied by an increased fat
deposition (Garthe et al., 2013). Therefore,
elucidating a caloric surplus threshold that would
induce maximal hypertrophy with minimal
increases in body fat would be beneficial for
coaches and athletes to optimize body
composition. However, such a threshold remains
undetermined. Moreover, the adaptive response
to resistance training is dependent on an
individual’s training experience, whereby
untrained individuals are more responsive to
resistance exercise compared to those with
resistance training experience, displaying a higher
hypertrophic potential and a faster rate of muscle
growth (Ahtiainen et al., 2003). Thus, highly
trained individuals conceivably would need more
energy for building muscle.
Despite the aforementioned information,
there is a dearth of research as to how energy
consumption impacts body composition in highly
trained individuals. Therefore, the purpose of this
study was to investigate the effects of distinct
levels of energy intake in combination with
resistance training on muscle mass and body fat
in elite male bodybuilders.
Methods
Participants
Eleven male bodybuilders (26.8 ± 2.3
years) volunteered to participate in the study; all
athletes were competitors in Brazil, affiliated with
an amateur bodybuilding federation (IFBB Brazil).
The participants were randomly assigned into one
of two groups: a group that ingested higher
amounts of energy (G1, n = 6), and a group that
ingested moderate amounts of energy (G2, n = 5).
The following inclusion criteria were required for
participation: bodybuilding competitors for at
least one year; reported to having abstained from
anabolic steroid use for a minimum of 3 months
leading up to the study; non-smokers; and
currently abstained from consumption of
alcoholic beverages. All participants were in their
off-season period aiming to increase muscular
hypertrophy, and all had been regularly training 6
days per week with varied routines. Written
informed consent was obtained from all
participants after a detailed description of study
procedures. This study was performed in
accordance with the declaration of Helsinki, and
the experimental protocol was approved by the
Londrina State University Ethics Committee.
Measures
Body composition
Body mass was measured to the nearest
0.1 kg using a calibrated electronic scale (Balmak,
Laboratory Equipment Labstore, Curitiba, PR,
Brazil), with participants wearing light workout
clothing and no shoes. Height was measured with
a stadiometer attached to the scale; values were
obtained to the nearest 0.1 cm with participants
standing shoeless and head aligned in the
horizontal Frankfurt plane. The body mass index
was calculated as body mass in kilograms divided
by the square of height in meters.
Skeletal muscle mass was estimated using
the prediction equation of Lee et al. (2000),
validated by Gobbo et al. (2013) as follows:
SMM (kg) = 0.244 x BW + 7.8 x H + 6.6 x S – 0.098 x
A + R – 3.3
where BW = body weight (kg), H = height (m), S =
sex (male = 1, female = 0), A = age (years), R = race
(−1.2 for Asians, 1.4 for African-Americans and 0
for Caucasians).
Body fat was estimated by the skinfold
technique using a Lange skinfold caliper at 7 sites
(chest, axilla, triceps, sub-scapula, abdomen,
supra-iliac, and thigh). The equation of Jackson
and Pollock (1978) was used to estimate body
density. Three measures were taken by the same
evaluator at each point, in a rational sequence, on
the right side of the body. The median value was
recorded. The equation of Brozek et al. (1963) was
then used to determine body fat.
Resistance training program
Resistance training was carried out for 4
weeks employing a program designed to promote
muscular hypertrophy. All participants were
personally supervised by physical education
professionals throughout each training session to
reduce deviations from the study protocol and to
ensure participant’s safety.
Resistance training was performed six
times a week parceled into three routines (A, B,
by Alex S. Ribeiro et al. 127
© Editorial Committee of Journal of Human Kinetics
and C). Routine A was carried out on Mondays
and Thursdays and included exercises for the
chest, shoulders, triceps, and abdomen in the
following order: bench press, incline dumbbell fly,
cable crossover, barbell military press, lateral
raise, lying triceps French press, triceps
pushdown, crunch, and cable crunch. Routine B
was performed on Tuesdays and Fridays and
consisted of exercises for the back, biceps, and
forearms in the following order: lat pulldown,
bent over barbell row, seated cable row, arm curl,
inclined dumbbell curl, seated palm-up barbell
wrist curl, and seated palm-down barbell wrist
curl. Routine C was carried out on Wednesdays
and Saturdays and comprised exercises for the
thigh and calf in the following order: squat, leg
press, knee extension, stiff leg deadlift, lying leg
curl, standing calf raise, and seated calf raise. All
exercises consisted of 4 sets with the magnitude of
load increasing and the number of repetitions
decreasing simultaneously for each set (ascending
pyramid method). The number of repetitions for
each set was 12/10/8/6 repetition maximum (RM),
respectively. In accordance with the ascending
pyramid routine, training loads were
progressively increased for each set by 2-4 kg for
upper body exercises and 4-10 kg for lower body
exercises. The number of repetitions per set was
higher for exercises of the wrist and calves (15-20
RM), and the abdominals (150 to 300 repetitions
per session). The greater volume of repetitions for
the wrist, calves and abdominals was based on the
premise that these muscles are more endurance-
oriented and thus need a greater time under
tension to maximize muscular development.
Participants were instructed to perform each
repetition with a velocity of 1 and 2 s in the
concentric and eccentric phases, respectively.
Participants were afforded a rest interval of 1-2
min between sets and 2-3 min between each
exercise.
Dietary control
All diets were individually prescribed by
a nutritionist. The diets, in printed sheets, were
delivered to the athletes before the first week of
training. The diet plans were weekly readjusted
according to body weight changes. Participants
were oriented to distribute the meals every 3-4 h.
Foods included: rice, bean, potato, manioc, pasta,
fruits, vegetables, nuts, oats, juices, meats, eggs,
milk, yogurt, and oils. Total dietary energy,
protein, carbohydrate and fat content were
calculated using nutrition analysis software
(Avanutri Processor Nutrition Software, Rio de
Janeiro, Brasil; Version 3.1.4).
Design and Procedures
The study was carried out over a period
of 6 weeks, with 4 weeks dedicated to the
resistance-training program and 2 weeks allocated
for measurements and evaluations.
Anthropometric and body composition
measurements were performed at weeks 1 and 6,
while the resistance training program was carried
out during weeks 2-5. All sessions were directly
supervised by trained fitness personnel.
Participants refrained from performing any other
type of exercise during the entire study period.
The resting metabolic rate was individually
predicted for each athlete using the Harris and
Benedict equation (Harris and Benedict, 1918).
Statistical analysis
Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
for repeated measures was used for intra- and
inter-group comparisons followed by Fisher’s
post hoc. Baseline scores as well as the relative
change differences between groups were explored
with an independent t-test. Effect size (ES) was
calculated as post-training mean minus pre-
training mean divided by the pooled pre-training
standard deviation (Cohen, 1992), where an ES of
0.00 - 0.19 was considered trivial, 0.20-0.49 small,
0.50-0.79 moderate and ≥ 0.80 large (Cohen, 1992).
For all statistical analyses, significance was
accepted at p ≤ 0.05. The data were analyzed using
STATISTICA software version 10.0 (Statsoft Inc.,
Tulsa, OK, USA).
Results
Table 1 displays participant characteristics
at baseline. No significant differences were
observed between groups (p > 0.05) for age, body
mass, height, and resting metabolic rate at
baseline. However, as expected, the G1 had a
greater surplus of energy beyond the resting
metabolic rating compared to the G2.
Total macronutrients and energy intake of
both groups are displayed in Table 2. The G1
ingested significantly (p < 0.001) higher relative
amounts of carbohydrate, energy, and non-
protein kcal, but lower relative amounts of
protein (p < 0.01) and lipids compared to the G2.
Table 2 shows the pre- and post-training
128 Effects of different dietary energy intake following resistance training on muscle mass and body fat...
Journal of Human Kinetics - volume 70/2019 http://www.johk.pl
values for muscle mass and body fat according to
the group. For body fat, only the G1 showed
significant (p < 0.01) changes from pre- to post-
training, in which an increase was observed. Both
groups significantly increased measures of muscle
mass after the intervention period, with the G1
showing greater increases (p = 0.03) compared to
the G2.
Table 4 presents the effect size and values
for groups as well as the difference between
groups. A difference of small magnitude was
observed for muscle mass and body fat.
Pre- to post-study percentage changes in body
fat and muscle mass for each group are presented
in Figure 1. The G2 presented greater changes
than the G2 both for muscle mass (p = 0.04) and
body fat (p = 0.04). Figure 2 illustrates the
individual percentage changes from pre- to post-
training in muscle mass and body fat according to
the group.
Table 1
General characteristics of the participants at baseline. Data are presented as mean
and standard deviation.
G1 (n = 6) G2 (n = 5) p
Age (years) 26.5 ± 2.8 27.2 ± 1.7 0.64
Body mass (kg) 90.2 ± 13.3 89.8 ± 3.8 0.94
Height (cm) 179.1 ± 9.2 174.2 ± 2.3 0.27
RMR (kcal) 2025.0 ± 218.1 1989.9 ± 69.5 0.73
Energy above RMR (kcal) 4062.6 ± 635.6 2511.6 ± 109.5 < 0.001
Note: RMR = resting metabolic rate. G1 = higher energy intake. G2 = moderate energy intake
Table 2
Dietary intake of bodybuilders according to groups. Data are presented as mean
and standard deviation.
G1 (n = 6) G2 (n = 5) p
Carbohydrates
Grams 1170.2 ± 161.5 726.0 ± 30.8 < 0.05
g/kg 12.9 ± 0.32 8.0 ± 0.05 < 0.05
Energy (kcal) 4681.0 ± 646.2 2904.2 ± 123.4 < 0.05
Energy (%) 76.9 ± 0.99 64.5 ± 0.81 < 0.05
Proteins
Grams 162.2 ± 26.1 185.0 ± 6.9 0.08
g/kg 1.8 ± 0.15 2.0 ± 0.05 < 0.05
Energy (kcal) 648.8 ± 104.4 740.1 ± 27.7 0.08
Energy (%) 10.6 ± 0.80 16.4 ± 0.39 < 0.05
Lipids
Grams 84.1 ± 13.5 95.2 ± 5.8 0.12
g/kg 0.93 ± 0.05 1.06 ± 0.05 < 0.05
Energy (kcal) 757.7 ± 121.6 857.0 ± 52.3 0.12
Energy (%) 12.4 ± 0.59 19.0 ± 0.81 < 0.05
Energy
kcal 6087.6 ± 853.3 4501.4 ± 177.9 0.05
kcal/kg 67.5 ± 1.7 50.1 ± 0.51 < 0.05
Non-protein kcal/g protein 33.7 ± 3.1 20.3 ± 0.6 < 0.05
Note: G1 = higher energy intake. G2 = moderate energy intake.
by Alex S. Ribeiro et al. 129
© Editorial Committee of Journal of Human Kinetics
Table 3
Participants’ scores at baseline (pre) and post the 4-week intervention period.
Data are expressed as mean and standard deviation
G1 (n = 6) G2 (n = 5) p
Pre Post Δ% Pre Post Δ%
Muscle mass (kg) 36.7 ± 3.7 37.7 ± 3.9* +2.7 36.1 ± 1.1 36.5 ± 1.2* +1.1 < 0.05
Body fat (%) 16.2 ± 4.6 17.4 ± 4.6* +7.4 13.3 ± 2.7 13.4 ± 2.6 +0.8 < 0.05
Note: * p < 0.05 pre vs post. G1 = higher energy intake. G2 = moderate energy intake.
Table 4
Effects size values according to groups
G1 (n = 6) G2 (n = 5) Differences
Skeletal muscle mass 0.42 0.17 0.25
Body fat 0.33 0.03 0.30
G1 = higher energy intake. G2 = moderate energy intake
Figure 1
Percentage changes from pre- to post-training according to groups. G1 = higher energy
intake. G2 = moderate energy intake. * p < 0.05 pre- vs post-training. # p < 0.05 G1 vs.
G2. Data are presented as mean and standard deviation.
130
Effects of different dietary energy intake following resistance training on muscle mass and body fat...
Journal of Human Kinetics - volume 70/2019 http://www.johk.pl
Figure 2
Individual percentage changes from pre- to post-training on muscle mass (Panel A)
and body fat (Panel B) according to the group. G1 = higher energy intake. G2 =
moderate energy intake.
Discussion
To our knowledge, this is the first study to
investigate the effects of alterations in energy and
macronutrient intake on body composition in
highly trained competitive bodybuilders. The
main and novel finding was that greater energy
intake elicited greater increases in both muscle
mass and body fat. The lack of previous literature
in the population studied makes a detailed
comparison with literature difficult. However,
several experiments in a non-bodybuilding
population indicate that energy surplus is
associated with higher muscle growth (Garthe et
al., 2013; Rozenek et al., 2002). Rozenek et al.
(2002) reported that untrained young adult males
increased fat-free mass (estimated by hydrostatic
weighing) after 8 weeks of resistance training
combined with an energy surplus of ~2000 kcal/d,
while a control group consuming a eucaloric diet
did not significantly change fat-free mass.
Interestingly, the group consuming an energy
surplus did not gain body fat, indicating that all
of the additional calories were used for the
development of fat-free mass. In a study of elite
athletes participating in a variety of sports
(rowing, kayaking, soccer, volleyball, taekwondo,
skating, and ice hockey), Garthe et al. (2013)
allocated participants to a diet providing a ~500
kcal/d surplus or ad libitum intake. All subjects
participated in the same 4-day-per-week
hypertrophy-type resistance training program,
which was carried out over a period of 8 to 12
weeks. Results indicated a greater increase in
lower body fat-free mass (estimated by dual-
energy X-ray absorptiometry) favoring those
consuming a caloric surplus versus those at
maintenance (0.5 kg vs. 0.0 kg, respectively).
However, the greater energy surplus was also
accompanied by an increase in body fat
deposition compared to the control condition (1.1
kg vs. 0.2 kg, respectively). The mechanism by
which energy surplus induces greater
hypertrophic changes is seemingly related to an
augmented muscle protein synthetic response
during periods of positive energy balance
(Millward et al., 1994). Evidence shows that even
in the absence of regimented resistance exercise, a
by Alex S. Ribeiro et al. 131
© Editorial Committee of Journal of Human Kinetics
positive energy balance alone drives increases in
lean mass provided sufficient dietary protein is
consumed (Churchward-Venne et al., 2013).
Moreover, muscle growth is an ATP-dependent
process (Lambert et al., 2004), thus adequate
energy needs to be available to build muscle
beyond what is expended by bodily tissues and
physical activity.
The relative energy intake in our
experiment was 67.5 kcal/kg/d and 50.1 kcal/kg/d
for the G1 and the G2, respectively. The G2
energy intake was in accordance with previous
findings in literature, but intake of the G1 was
above that previously observed. For example,
Slater and Phillips (2011) reviewed 7 studies that
investigated relative energy intake in male
bodybuilders and reported consumption ranged
from ~30 to ~60 kcal/kg/d. More recently, a review
by Spendlove et al. (2015) determined that energy
intake in male bodybuilders across 16 studies
ranged from ~24.3 to ~65.7 kcal/kg/d. This wide
range of energy consumption observed in the
literature may be related to the competition
phases, in which energy intake is typically greater
in the off-season compared to pre-contest, as well
as differences in the size of subjects between
studies.
Given the large inter-individual
variability generally seen in exercise and
nutritional trials, insight into each participants’
responsiveness is of relevance to draw evidence-
based inferences. Individual analysis indicated
that the G2 displayed the most non-uniform
variability. For example, all participants in the G1
increased muscle mass. Alternatively, one
participant in the G2 lost muscle mass, while the
second greatest increase in muscle mass of all
individuals in the study was observed for a
participant in the G2. A large inter-individual
variability was also noted for body fat changes in
the G2; while two participants reduced body fat
from pre- to post-study, the other three
participants showed an increase. Participants in
the G1 displayed more consistent body
composition outcomes, individually showing
accretion of both muscle mass and body fat.
Adequate intake of macronutrients is of
foremost importance for maximizing muscle
hypertrophy. Differences observed between
groups as to energy intake was chiefly due to
variation in carbohydrate intake. Carbohydrates
are an important substrate for maintaining
training intensity in resistance exercise. Research
shows that approximately 80% of ATP used in a
typical hypertrophy-oriented resistance exercise
session is obtained from glycolysis (Lambert and
Flynn, 2002; MacDougall et al., 1999; Pascoe et al.,
1993). Leveritt and Abernethy (1999) found that
reductions in muscle glycogen stores significantly
impaired performance in resistance exercise.
Nevertheless, although dietary carbohydrate has
been shown to enhance exercise performance,
only moderate amounts appear to be required to
achieve beneficial effects. For example, Mitchell et
al. (1997) found that a diet consisting of 7.66 g/kg
of CHO had no greater effect on the amount of
work performed during 15 sets of 15 RM lower-
body exercise when compared to consuming 0.37
g/kg. It should be noted that this was an acute
finding; it is not clear whether alterations in
carbohydrate intake affected training capacity
between groups in the present study and, if so,
whether this influenced lean mass gains.
Meeting daily needs for protein intake is a
key factor for promoting an accretion of lean mass
(Jager et al., 2017; Morton et al., 2018).
Hypertrophy-based recommendations suggest
relative protein intake ranging from 1.4 up to 2.0
g/kg/d in resistance practitioners (Jager et al.,
2017; Thomas et al., 2016), where consuming
beyond this amount would not induce further
benefits. Specific to novice bodybuilders, Lemon
et al. (1992) found that daily needs were
approximately 1.6 to 1.7 g/kg/d in the early phase
of training. Similar findings were reported by
Tarnopolsky et al. (1992). Most recently,
Bandegan et al. (2017) estimated protein needs in
male bodybuilders to be 1.7 g/kg/d with an upper
95% confidence interval of 2.2 g/kg/day as
determined by the indicator amino acid oxidation
technique. Both groups in the present
investigation met protein recommendations as
outlined in the literature. However, results
revealed that the G1 which ingested 1.8 g/kg/d
achieved a greater increase in muscle mass than
the G2 consuming 2.0 g/kg/d. This finding would
seem to indicate that once adequate daily needs
have been achieved (Jager et al., 2017; Morton et
al., 2018), additional increases do not contribute to
greater hypertrophy and non-protein kcal may be
a key factor for building muscle. It is noteworthy
that the difference between groups for protein
132 Effects of different dietary energy intake following resistance training on muscle mass and body fat...
Journal of Human Kinetics - volume 70/2019 http://www.johk.pl
intake was narrow; it is possible that wider
variances may elicit different alterations in body
composition (Antonio et al., 2015). The optimal
protein intake for high-caliber bodybuilders to
optimize body composition remains to be
determined; future trials are warranted to better
elucidate this topic.
The present study has some limitations
that should be taken into account when drawing
evidence-based inferences. First, the duration of
the study was quite short, lasting only 4 weeks.
Thus, it is not clear whether results would have
changed had the intervention been carried out
over a longer time-frame. Second, the sample size
was small therefore reducing statistical power;
thus, this study would best be classified as pilot
work and further research is needed to clarify and
quantify findings. That said, given the difficulty
in recruiting highly trained competitive
bodybuilders to participate as subjects in an
experimental study, our findings nevertheless are
quite novel despite this limitation. Third, the
participants reported abstaining from anabolic
steroid usage for the last 3 months via a
questionnaire. However, we did not test for
anabolic agents and thus cannot rule out the
possibility that subjects were in fact using such
agents during the study period nor can we rule
out the possibility that previous use of
performance-enhancing drugs may have affected
results. Fourth, we did not monitor physical
activity levels outside the study protocol; thus,
any changes in physical activity, other than the
training program, or changes in sedentary
behavior may have confounded results. Fifth, we
did not assess participants’ eating habits prior to
the intervention; it is not known how previous
nutritional behaviors may have influenced the
observed findings. Finally, while the
anthropometric measures used to determine body
composition are important and viable tools in
practice, they lack the sensitivity to detect subtle
changes in body composition and did not allow
the ability to evaluate hypertrophic changes in
specific muscles.
Our results suggest that greater energy
intake in combination with regimented resistance
training induces greater increases in both muscle
mass and body fat in competitive male
bodybuilders.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express thanks to the bodybuilding athletes for their engagement in this
study.
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Corresponding author:
João Pedro Nunes, BSc.
Metabolism, Nutrition and Exercise Laboratory.
Physical Education and Sport Center, Londrina State University.
Rodovia Celso Garcia Cid, km 380, Londrina, Brazil.
Phone: +5543999700301.
E-mail: joaonunes.jpn@hotmail.com
ORCID: 0000-0001-8144-5906.
