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Intercultural, intermolecular: An ethnobotanical examination of the potential
therapeutic value of LSD for the treatment of depression*
KARSTEN FATUR**
Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
(Received: October 9, 2018; accepted: January 8, 2019)
Lysergic acid diethylamide holds great therapeutic potential in the treatment of depression, although currently illegal
in many parts of the world and seen as a recreational drug. An intercultural ethnobotanical examination of plant
substances with similar chemical profiles and effects displays the true potential value of this substance and justifies an
increased focus on clinical trials and studies involving it.
Keywords: psychedelic, LSD, ayahuasca, depression, serotonin
Despite its current status as an illegal substance, lysergic
acid diethylamide (LSD) has an extensive history of being
the subject of scientific investigation into its potential
therapeutic benefits. Originally synthesized from ergot fun-
gus known for infecting grains and causing hallucinations to
those who consumed it, LSD was an accidental discovery in
1938 that rapidly gained attention and interest from the
scientific community (Freedman, Ebin, & Wilson, 1962;
Montagne, 1993). Despite its unconventional nature, a fair
deal of acceptance for clinical use even existed at this time
(Freedman et al., 1962). However, in the 1970s, LSD came
to be associated with counter-cultural anti-war movements,
which led to governments labeling the substance as illegal in
order to tarnish public opinion of these groups (Dyck, 2005;
Tupper, Wood, Yensen, & Johnson, 2015). This, combined
with issues in sampling procedures from previous experi-
ments, largely ended the scientific obsession with LSD
(Dyck, 2005). In recent years, however, this interest has
been rekindled, and clinical studies continue to be run to test
the efficacy of this substance for the treatment of a wide
range of medical problems (Garcia-Romeu, Kersgaard, &
Addy, 2016). Although the older studies are limited by their
sampling issues, the sheer volume of identical findings
points toward clinical usefulness (Dyck, 2005). Of particular
noteworthiness is the growing body of evidence that shows
the utility of LSD in treating chronic treatment-resistant
depression. Despite this, it continues to be classified as a
restricted substance. Studies in this area have focused on
clinical tests of the drug. What has been lacking, however, is
an anthropological approach, which shows that LSD is
likely to be a useful tool in the treatment of depression.
LSD is a substance within a broad category of chemical
compounds known as hallucinogens. Despite the name,
hallucinogens do not in fact produce hallucinations, but rather
changes in perceptual processing (Winkleman, 2007). Spe-
cifically, LSD falls within the subcategory of psychedelics,
along with psilocybin and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT)
(Garcia-Romeu et al., 2016). Other groups include empatho-
gens (3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine), dissociative
anesthetics (ketamine and dextromethorphan), and atypical
hallucinogens (deliriants such as atropine fall into this cate-
gory, as does marijuana, among many others) (Garcia-Romeu
et al., 2016). It is worth noting that the following argument
focuses only on the psychedelics, as other groups of
hallucinogens work through different biochemical processes
(Garcia-Romeu et al., 2016).
Due to their chemical structure, psychedelics are able to
bond with receptor sites for the neurotransmitter serotonin
(5-HT)
2A
, allowing neural impulses to pass to otherwise
inaccessible regions of the brain (McClay, 1976;Nichols,
2004). It is worth noting that low serotonin levels have long
been implicated as the main culprit in depression (Gorwood,
Batel, Adès, Hamon, & Boni, 2000). The primary pharma-
ceutical interventions for depression involve the use of
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors that prevent serotonin
from being absorbed back into the pre-synaptic cell. In
forcing the serotonin to stay between cells longer, it is more
likely to be able to bind with the post-synaptic cell’s
receptors and carry on the neural impulse. Despite wide-
spread use, meta-analysis has shown that most results of the
patients gain from these standard medications are due to
placebo effects (Kirsch & Low, 2013). In addition, these
drugs come with a plethora of side effects, some as severe as
a significant increase in the risk of suicide. LSD, by contrast,
has proven to have no severe side effects when properly
administered (Gasser et al., 2014).
*The article was written during MSc. ethnobotany studies at the
University of Kent; however, the author is now affiliated with the
Biotechnical Faculty of the University of Ljubljana as a PhD student.
** Corresponding address: Karsten Fatur; Biotechnical Faculty,
University of Ljubljana, 101 Jamnikarjeva ulica, Ljubljana 1000,
Slovenia; E-mail: karsten.fatur@gmail.com
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial purposes, provided the original author and
source are credited, a link to the CC License is provided, and changes –if any –are indicated.
© 2019 The Author(s)
ORIGINAL ARTICLE Journal of Psychedelic Studies 3(1), pp. 32–34 (2019)
DOI: 10.1556/2054.2019.002
First published online February 12, 2019
Of central importance to the anthropological argument
for the use of LSD in treating depression is the chemical
structure of this substance. As previously mentioned, LSD
falls into a group with psilocybin and DMT. These sub-
stances are so similar in fact that they have identical
biological effects, and even individuals well experienced
in consuming all three are unable to tell them apart in blind
trials (Halberstadt, 2015). The level of similarity is so high
that tolerance built up for any one type applies to the others
(Halberstadt, 2015). All can cause altered thinking patterns,
change in emotional expression, varied manners of inter-
preting significance and meaning, and feelings of rejuvena-
tion (Moxley, 1996). Although LSD has only been present
since the mid 20th century, psilocybin and DMT have a
much longer history. Psilocybin is found in “magic”mush-
rooms, which have histories of use by humans spanning
back thousands of years (McKenna, 2004). Similarly, DMT
is the active ingredient in ayahuasca brews (generally a
combination of Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis),
which similarly spans back thousands of years, and today
has even become a tourist attraction in South America (Dos
Santos et al., 2011;Garcia-Romeu et al., 2016). As such,
traditional knowledge of these substances and their uses has
been refined over millennia. This traditional knowledge,
however, is not enough to convince biomedicine.
There is a large body of research on ayahuasca pointing to
its safety for use in humans (Garcia-Romeu et al., 2016). In
addition, regular drinkers of ayahuasca have been observed
to have an increase in the number of serotonin bonding sites
in the brain, meaning more opportunities for serotonin to
carry on a neural impulse (Callaway, Airaksinen, McKenna,
Brito, & Grob, 1994). Those who take it regularly have also
been observed to have an undeniable improvement in mental
health condition, a finding present in all study participants
(Baumeister, Barnes, Giaroli, & Tracy, 2014). Although it
has also been used for spiritual reasons, its history as a
medicine is extensive and it has proven to be more effective
than placebo (Dos Santos et al., 2011). Healing with aya-
huasca focuses on communal sessions that bring the group
together and foster a sense of closeness between those
present (Winkleman, 2007). Participants in these ceremonies
tend to observe them silently, with a focus being given to
their individual experiences and self-reflection (Winkleman,
2007). It is precisely this act of reflecting that shows another
usefulness in treatments for depression, as the ayahuasca
becomes a sort of therapist guiding the person who has taken
it. Ayahuasca here is creating the mindset necessary for
healing. These rituals are also often associated with self-
transformation and rebirth, both of which are central to
someone suffering from depression in order to escape from
their preexisting and harmful ways of being (Winkleman,
2007). This is accomplished by directing neural impulses to
less imprinted regions of the brain, thus helping the individ-
ual escape their engrained habitus of depressed thinking and
feeling (McClay, 1976). In shifting the mental state of the
participant, ayahuasca and other psychedelics are able to
induce these transformative notions, as well as decreasing
rumination, which is an incredibly powerful process in the
maintenance of depression (Baumeister et al., 2014).
Ayahuasca is seen as a teacher, and the teacher is able to
show the individual how to help themself; interestingly,
LSD is often described in this same manner (Blackmore,
2011;Lee & Shlain, 1985). Such narratives are reminiscent
of psychotherapy in which the therapist essentially functions
as a teacher and shows the patient ways to think and
overcome their struggles. However, while therapy is incred-
ibly inaccessible to many due to its cost and time investment
as well as being limited by the number of therapists in a
given region, psychedelics provide a much more feasible
alternative.
Psilocybin (magic mushrooms) has similarly played a
crucial role in healing among many traditional cultures
through the years. Perhaps the best studied of the psyche-
delics, psilocybin has been shown to bring about feelings of
joy and harmony in those taking it, though technically its
derivative, psilocin, which it transforms into after oral
ingestion, is what causes this effect (Baumeister et al.,
2014;Nichols, 2004). Unsurprisingly, it has been used
traditionally to treat a range of culture-specific illnesses
whose symptoms overlap with those of the Western con-
ception of depression (Winkleman, 2007).
Both DMT and psilocybin then may unequivocally be
seen as a medication, which aids in a variety of ills, including
those that resemble biomedical definitions of depression. As
mentioned previously, due to the similarity of their chemical
structures, these two compounds and LSD all have identical
neurological and cognitive effects. As such, basic deduction
points to the ability of LSD to accomplish the same goal. Not
only this, but all three substances have been proven to have
no adverse effects on humans in an incredibly large number
of studies (Garcia-Romeu et al., 2016). Unlike other sub-
stances, however, LSD is much more potent,meaning smaller
doses may be administered to obtain clinically significant
results (Maqueda, 2018). In addition, DMT requires the
presence of a monoamine oxidase inhibitor to allow it to
persist long enough in the body to be effective when con-
sumed orally (Sayin, 2014). This naturally produces more
issues in clinical trials as two substances would be involved
and have to be studied simultaneously to form a complete
“product.”LSD is without this drawback.
With all this in mind, the question remains as to why LSD
has not seen a greater number of modern clinical trials.
Research supports that it is of great benefit, and through the
above intercultural perspective, we are able to see exactly why
it would be so (Garcia-Romeu et al., 2016). Studies have even
shown its practical effects on the symptoms of depression in
participants, such as feeling like moving more, showing an
increase in their level of interest, talking more, and more
positive emotions emerging (Busch & Johnson, 1950).
Although this is a question that cannot be answered without
looking at an array of factors, it is incredibly likely that stigma
plays a large role here. In branding LSD as a recreational drug
needing to be controlled and making it illegal, the discourse as
well as public perception naturally go in a direction that is at
odds to a medical view of the substance. Even today, this
stigma remains strong despite the proof of its usefulness, as
well as many studies finding that legal drugs such as alcohol
and nicotine are in fact injurious for humans (Garcia-Romeu
et al., 2016). Although the arbitrariness of laws should appear
obvious, many do not think to question them.
It is here that the value of an anthropological eye on the
subject becomes immensely important. In taking a holistic
Journal of Psychedelic Studies 3(1), pp. 32–34 (2019) |33
Intercultural perspectives
approach rather than focusing solely on one culture, we are
able to draw upon information otherwise inaccessible.
Comparing LSD to psilocybin and DMT within cultural
contexts not only legitimizes the use of it, but also shows
manners in which it could be employed. Further research is
needed focusing on the medicinal aspects of traditional
healing with psychedelics and how they may fit in with
our own notions of mental illness. Where biomedical re-
search largely dismisses “culture-bound syndromes”as
illegitimate, an anthropological approach allows a true
investigation into such conditions to occur. Thousands of
years of research and experimentation have gone into the
traditions with psychedelics that live today, and to ignore
such a wealth of knowledge is not only illogical, but also
vastly arrogant.
Still, despite the lack of appropriate research, it is plain to
see that LSD holds great potential in the treatment of
depression, as well as many other ailments. With the
capacity to help in both cognitive and neurological manners
as well as its lack of the adverse side effects so often found
in modern pharmaceutical medications, LSD represents a
great step forward in the ongoing development of better
treatments for those living with this debilitating and
widespread disorder.
Acknowledgements: This article has been written without
financial support or other assistance. KF is the sole author of
this entire article and responsible for the submission of the
final version of the manuscript.
Conflict of interest: The author declares no conflict of
interest.
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