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A Cultural History of Chinese Gambling I (From Ancient Period to Yuan Dynasty): A Cultural and Historical Perspective

January 2019

In book: The Psychology of Chinese Gambling (pp.1-34)

Authors:

China is a land of diverse cultures and peoples. Kiang Fan in his book The Gambling Chinese (好賭的中國人) has argued that gambling in China began as Chinese civilization began. While contemporary academics from the United States and Australia define gambling as “risking something of value on the unknown outcome of some future event…, the ultimate hope of gambling is to realize a value greater than that risked” (Aasved 2003, p. 3), the Chinese conception of gambling carries a behavioral connotation much more than wagering. The Chinese words for gambling are“賭”and “博.” These two words “gambling in the Chinese way means wagering in a risky fashion.” The ancient word for gambling in Chinese is “簙.” This word means playing a chess game together with others. On this particular word, Shuowen Jiezi (說文解字), the earliest Chinese dictionary compiled by Xu Shen (許慎, 58–147) in the Han Dynasty, has this description – “Gambling is a table game: it is a game with six sticks and twelve chesses (簙,局戲也。六箸十二棋也).”

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Chapter 1: A cultural history of Chinese gambling I (from ancient period to

Yuan dynasty)

1.1 Chinese gambling history

China is a land of diverse cultures and peoples. Kiang Fan in his book “The

Gambling Chinese‖ (好賭的中國人) has argued that gambling in China began as

Chinese civilization began. While contemporary academics from the United States

and Australia define gambling as "risking something of value on the unknown

outcome of some future event..., the ultimate hope of gambling is to realize a value

greater than that risked." (Aasved, 2003, p.3), the Chinese conception of gambling

carries a behavioral connotation much more than wagering. The Chinese words for

gambling is“賭”and “博”. These two words ―gambling in the Chinese way

means wagering in a risky fashion.‖ The ancient word for gambling in Chinese is

“簙”. This word means playing a chess game together with others. On this

particular word, “Shouwen Jiezi (說文解字)‖, the earliest Chinese dictionary

compiled by Xu Shen (許慎, 58-147) in the Han Dynasty has this description------

―Gambling is a table game: it is a game with six sticks and twelve chesses (簙，局戲

也。六箸十二棋也).‖

Before going into the gambling history in China, a brief discussion of Chinese

history is in order. Since ancient times, it has been home for a variety of tribes and

clans who ruled specific locations for lengthy periods. Emperor Qin Shihuang (秦始

皇, 259 B.C. – 210 B.C.) achieved the first unification of ancient China in 221 B.C.

The establishment of dynasties and kingdom brought peace and prosperity to the land

and her people. Table 1.1 illustrates a history of dynasties or ruling families in power

over China’s 4000 years of history. In each of these dynasties, the ruling emperor

never believed in true democracy. He was the source of all power based on the

mandate he received from heaven. Further, there were no limits on his jurisdiction as

the idea of a constitution with limits on power is a later foreign, mostly European,

heritage. As such, he would be responsible for all rules, including those on gambling,

for the country. The only checks and balances on his authority were his moral values

and adherence to the Confucian beliefs that stress family relationships and

interpersonal protocol known as Li (禮) or etiquette, which we will discuss in detail

later in this chapter. The rule of kingship and feudalism lasted until Mr. Sun Yat-sen

(孫逸仙, 1866 - 1925), who overthrew the government of Qing and put an end to

feudalism in 1911. However, the beginning of the modern period did not immediately

bring peace and prosperity to China. The warlord era and later the Japanese invasion

in 1937 and the Civil War between the Nationalist Party and the Communist Party

(1927 – 1937; 1946 – 1949) created enormous hardships for the majority of the

Chinese people. Political instability continued when Mao Zedong (毛澤東, 1893 -

1976) became the first President of People’s Republic of China established in 1949 as

he instigated a series of political campaigns (1950 – 1966) and the Cultural

Revolution (文化大革命 1966 – 1976) in China. Not until the enforcement of ―Four

Modernizations (四個現代化),‖ the economic reforms proposed by President Deng

Xiaoping (鄧小平, 1904 – 1997) since 1980s, have Chinese people begun living in a

relatively stable political environment.

Table 1.1 Ancient dynasties and modern political rulers of China

1.1.1 Beginning of Chinese

gambling

The earliest Chinese

game is Liubo (六博)

(Figure 1.1). It was

reportedly invented by Wu

Cao (烏曹), a minister of

the Emperor Xia Jie (夏桀,

1728 B.C. – 1675 B.C.)

during Xia Dynasty ( 2100

B.C. – 1600 B.C.), the

earliest dynasty in Chinese

history (Guo & Xiao,

1995) . Liubo is a kind of

board game played by two

or four persons. In the

beginning of each game set,

the players have six chess

to play with. The players

have to employ specific

strategies to beat the

opponent, although there is

a chance element in the

game as the player has to

roll a dice that has 18 sides,

each signaling a specific

number (see Figure 1.2).

The basic strategy is to take

or kill the opponent’s chess.

It’s been found that

Mawangdui Han Tombs

(漢代馬王堆古墓) contain

Liubo with dice made of

jade and precious stones.

The gaming instruments

were skillfully constructed

and served more as cultural

artifacts. The famous

Ancient Period

The era of Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors

Xia

2100 B.C. – 1600 B.C.

Shang

1700 B.C. – 1100 B. C.

Zhou

1100

B.C.-

256

B.C.

Western Zhou 1100 B.C. – 771 B.C.

Eastern Zhou

770 B.C. –

256 B.C.

Era of Spring and Autumn

770 B.C. – 476 B.C.

Warring States Period

476 B.C. – 221 B.C.

Periods of Empires (Era of Feudalism)

Qin

221 B.C. – 207B.C.

West Chu (206 B.C. – 202 B.C.)

Han

202 B. C. –

A.D. 220

Western Han

202 B.C. – A.D. 9

Xin 9 – 23

Hyun Han 23 – 25

Eastern Han Dynasty

25 – 220

Three Kingdoms

220 – 280

Jin

265 – 420

Western Jin

265 – 316

Eastern Jin

317 – 420

Five Barbarians and Sixteen

Kingdoms

304 – 439

Northern and Southern Dynasties

420 – 589

Sui

581 – 619

Tang

618 – 907

（Wu Zhou 690 – 705）

Five Dynasties and

Ten Kingdoms

907 – 979

Liao

916 - 1125

（

Western Liao

1124 - 1218

）

Western Xia

1038 – 1227

Song

960 -

1279

Northern

Song

960 - 1127

Southern

Song

1127 - 1279

Jin

1115 - 1234

Great Mongolia

1206 – 1271

Yuan

1271 - 1368

(Northern Yuan 1368 – 1388)

Ming

1368 – 1644

(Southern Ming 1644 - 1662）

Qing

1636 – 1912

Modern period

Republic of China

1912 – 1949

People’s Republic of China

(Mainland China)

1949 – now

Republic of China

(Taiwan)

1949 – Now

Chinese philosopher Han Fei Tze (韓非子, 281 B.C. – 233 B.C.) once wrote: ―In

order to win the game, it is important to kill the opponent’s chess (博者貴梟，勝者

必殺梟).‖ Han pictured the game as a competition and rivalry between opponents.

And the winning of the game involves an element of hurting and destroying the

opponent. No wagering was involved in the early version of the game ------ it was

started as a mind game for the elite class. As the inventor of Liubo, Wu Cao was

worshiped as a god by people running gambling stalls during Qing (清朝) dynasty

(Fan & Zheng, 2010).

Figure 1.1 Liubo Figure 1.2 18-sided dice

The figures were drawn by Olga, a professional artist. The copyright of these figures belongs to the

authors.

Historical records indicated that Liubo was popular among upper class society or

nobles in the late Shang (商) dynasty (Shi, 2005). According to the《Record of the

Grand Historian》 (史記) written by Sima Qian (司馬遷, 145 B.D. – 90 B.D.), a

great historian and scholar in Western Han (西漢), Wu Yi (武乙), the emperor of late

Shang, played Liubo with a ―god,‖ an imaginary opponent that represents a spiritual

force. The emperor won the games and insulted the ―god.‖ This interesting story

nonetheless indicated the popularity of Liubo among the elite class at that period.

Modern scholars have doubts on the assertion that Wu Cao invented Liubo. It

has long been a Chinese traditional belief that good emperors would promote all

policies beneficial to the people while atrocious emperors carried out policies that are

harmful to them. As Xia Jie was notorious for his cruel policies, it is thus not

surprising that Chinese people would attribute the invention of the gambling devices

and tools (which are integral components of gambling, a social vice) to the associates

of Xia Jie. In the earliest days of the game, Liubo was considered an elegant

entertainment of the aristocrat class. The game was even employed as a form of

political propaganda for Emperor Wu Yi ------ betting with a god and overcoming it

symbolized the supernatural and the heavenly mandate of the emperor.

Notwithstanding its popularity among the elite class, the game of Liubo was not

popular among the common people.

1.1.2 Gambling during Era of Spring and Autumn (春秋時代) and Warring States

Period (戰國時代)

The nature of gambling was concerned mainly with leisure and entertainment in

Xia and Shang. As gambling became more popular among the common people, the

wagering component was slowly added into games during the Era from Spring and

Autumn (700 B.C to 476 B. C.) Gambling among commoners in this period was

characterized by two main features:

1) The monetary component: In every game, the losing party, by virtue of the rules,

was obliged to lose the bets, mostly money, to the winner;

2) The diversified nature of the games: Types of gambling were diversified in this

period. In addition to the popularity of Liubo, chess (奕棋), kickball (蹴鞠), pitch-

pot game (投壺, Figure 1.3), cockfighting (鬥雞), and dog fighting (鬥狗) were

widely enjoyed by common people.

Compared with the elite class, the gambling patterns of commoners differed

mainly on the monetary returns of the games. During this period, some

experienced gamblers relied on gambling for a living. And many gambling-related

conflicts were reported. Gambling events causing violence or even death were

recorded (Guo & Xiao, 1995).

Figure 1.3 Pitch-pot game

The figure was drawn by Olga, a professional artist. The copyright of this figure belongs to the

authors.

1.1.2.1 Philosophers’ perspectives toward gambling

Philosophers and sages were active during eras of Spring and Autumn and

Warring States Period in Chinese history. These sages often traveled from state to

state persuading the rulers of their political theories and strategies to manage a

country. Good examples of these sages were Confucius (孔子, 551 B.C. - 479 B.C.)

and Mencius (孟子, 372 B.C. – 289 B.C.). The following is a summary of their

teachings:

- Confucius and Mencius: The two philosophers are the founders of Confucianism

(儒家). The sayings of Confucius are recorded in《Confucian Analects》 (論語).

Confucianism preaches the practice of virtues of life. The following is a list of

virtues that a man should have: benevolence (仁), righteousness (義), etiquette

(禮), wisdom (智), filial piety (孝), fraternity (悌), loyalty (忠), and credibility

(信). For him, these virtues are essential elements for human dignity and elegance,

which can be trained or cultivated through the arts: namely music, archery,

painting, calligraphy, chess and mathematics. Etiquette lays a foundation for

relationships in the family and society. Confucius believed that the training of Li

among the common people is important as it can help people develop a strong

sense of morality. In politics, Confucianism teaches obedience and loyalty to the

emperor. For instance, Confucius once said that ―a benevolent individual is

invincible; a brave person has no need to fear; a person who has wisdom has no

need to be puzzled (仁者無敵,勇者無懼,智者不惑).‖

- However, Confucius’s attitude towards gambling is ambiguous. Confucius

believed: ―People who gamble are better than those who have nothing to do.‖

Thus, it is probable that many people have rationalized gambling as a kind of

―play.‖

- Mencius was another famous scholar in Confucianism during mid-Warring States

Period (476 B. C. to 221 B.C.). He taught that individuals were born with four

good qualities: compassion, independence, the judgment of what is right or wrong

and a good sense of propriety. Unlike his master, Confucius, Mencius had a clear

position towards gambling by considering it ―one of the five sinful behaviors.‖

He proposed that people who were addicted to gambling were prone to ignore

their families and did not care for their parents. As filial piety is the major duty

and responsibility of a person, Mencius opposed gambling in terms of conduct and

moral value.

- Li Kui (李悝, 455 B.C. -395 B.C.), Shang Yang (商鞅, 390 B.C. – 338 B.C.), Han

Fei: These philosophers were advocates of Legalism (法家), a system of thought

that emphasizes the role of law and justice in the management and social system

of the country. This approach carries a totally different perspective from

Confucianism, which puts an emphasis on human relationships rather than an

external system. Legalism, however, advocates political and economic reforms

instead of maintaining the traditional and Confucian culture. For the legalist, the

law is both the rules and the moral basis of the country. Thus, a well-defined

system should govern the many aspects of taxation, civil services and criminal

proceedings. Legalism supports the centralization of monarchical power and

succinct rewards and punishments through a legal and penal code. A famous

logion of Legalism captures well the basic ideal of legalism: Even if the son of the

emperor committed an offense, he should be guilty like a commoner (天子犯法與

庶民同罪). In the area of foreign policies, while Confucianism favors a more

benign government that emphasized humility and family relationships, legalism is

more aggressive in military development of the state.

In the area of gambling policies, Legalism strongly prohibited gambling. For

the legalist, there was a clear line between what is right and wrong and gambling,

with its emphasis on beating the opponent and winning money, was a definite social

vice. During the Warring States Period, several legalist philosophers proposed laws to

ban gambling. Commoners who violated laws would be heavily fined. Further, nobles

or members of the elite class who were guilty of gambling would be punished

severely. There are records of crown princes being stripped of their titles because of

their gambling (Lau, 1998).

1.1.3 Gambling during Qin (秦) and Han Dynasties (西漢、東漢)

Emperor Qin Shihuang ended the 250-year Warring States Period as he

conquered all other states and established a united empire - Qin Dynasty. He was an

infamous dictator as he ruled the country with strict rules and policies. A follower of

legalism, he relatively suppressed (it is believed) gambling activities during his rule.

Individuals arrested for illegal gambling were punished by marking a tattoo on the

face or beating with wooden staves (Luo & Xu,1994).

The laws did not take into account human freedom and dignity. Qin dynasty only

lasted for 15 years before it was overthrown by West Chu (西楚). Nevertheless, anti-

gambling laws were enforced during Qin and heavy punishments on underground

gambling were effective in controlling gambling among common people (Ge, 1995).

A series of wars between West Chu and Han (楚漢相爭) lasted for five years

after Qin’s death. At that period, one of the new popular games was football betting.

The game was invented by the Great General Han Xin (韓信, 231 B.C. – 196 B.C.),

one of the most outstanding founding ministers of Western Han. He designed the

game primarily for the soldiers who left from their hometowns for wars. Han

understood the pains and the difficulties of these young soldiers. Participating in

football betting, whether by actually playing the game or placing a small wager and

enjoying the game on the sidelines, provided the warriors a source of emotional

escape. This is the first record of a major state-sponsored gambling activity that

brought social benefits and enjoyment for the common people.

1.1.3.1 Ambivalence between promoting and prohibiting gambling in Han

Emperors during Han followed the anti-gambling laws of the Qin Dynasty.

Paradoxically, a number of emperors in Han loved gambling. Emperor Han Jing (漢

景帝, 188 B.C. – 141 B.C.) (ruled China during 157 B.C. - 141 B.C.) is one good

example. Legend has it that before he became the emperor, he once gambled Liubo

with another prince of the feudal vassal. They had a serious conflict during gambling.

Jing lifted the chessboard and crushed the prince to death. This triggered a civil war

between Han and the relevant vassal state when Jing succeeded his father Emperor

Han Wen (漢文帝, 202 B.C. – 157 B.C.) (ruled China during 180 B.C. - 157 B.C.) as

the emperor several years later (Chan, 2014). This is a famous historical event known

as ―Civil War of the Seven Vassal States‖ (七王之亂), which was supposedly

initiated by a conflict in gambling. These two legends might well be fictional stories.

However, they demonstrate how the historians and scholars pictured gambling as a

source of social conflicts and war. The moral is plain and simple: gambling is a social

vice and a good moral person should not gamble -------- an assumption that underlies

the traditional beliefs of four major sins of Chinese men; visiting prostitutes (嫖),

gambling (賭), drinking (飲), and smoking (吹).

During the rule of Emperor Han Wu (漢武帝, 156 B.C. – 87 B.C.) (ruled China

during 141 B.C. - 87 B.C.) of the Western Han Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu (董仲舒,

179 B.C. – 104 B.C.), the chancellor of the state formally adopted Confucianism as

the guiding political ideology of the state. From that time onward, almost all emperors

in Chinese history advocated Confucianism, which preached moral values and family

relationships as the basis of political stability. For Dong and his successors, strict

legal laws and severe punishment should not be the priority in government policies.

Instead, people should be taught the principles of Li and family virtues and values. In

the area of gambling, Dong opposed severe punishment to ban all gambling.

Consequently, gambling among the common people flourished during this time. Some

Chinese historians generally believed even Emperor Han Wu loved gambling (Guo &

Xiao, 1995; Ge, 1995).

Emperor Han Xuan (漢宣帝, 91 B.C. – 48 B.C.) (ruled China during 74 B.C. -

48 B.C.), great-grandson of Han Wu, gambled even more seriously than his ancestors.

According to《History of the Former Han Dynasty》 (前漢書) composed by Ban Gu

(班固, A.D. 32 – A.D. 92) in A.D. 92, an outstanding historian in Eastern Han, Han

Xuan started to gamble when he was young. Han Xuan once owed a huge debt to a

civilian named Chen Sui (陳遂). At the time Han Xuan became the emperor, he

returned the debt to Chen Sui by appointing him the prefecture chief in Taiyuan (太

原), the provincial capital of current province Shanxi (山西). This historical event

demonstrates the widespread nature of gambling in the Han Dynasty (Tu, 2006).

Gambling among the commoners had become more popular, secularized, and

diversified. Some gamblers even took gambling as their professions. A great number

of people were addicted to gambling (Shi, 2005).

We have examined briefly the development of gambling from the Xia Dynasty

(2000 B. C.) to the Han Dynasty (A.D. 220). The following is a list of our analysis:

1. Gaming precedes gambling

The earliest reported games required cognitive skills and strategies. The wagering of

money was not a major element in the game. Instead, the players invested mental

efforts in the gaming process. As noble pastimes, the games were often played by

members of the elite class during festivals and dinners. Thus, the gaming instruments

were considered a part of the cultural artifacts and treasures. Contemporary theories

of gambling argue that gambling, especially disordered gambling, represents the

outcome of a complex interplay of multiple factors—a paradigm that resembles the

public health triad of host, environment, and agent (Griffiths, Hayer, & Meyer, 2009).

In this vein of thought, the earliest gambling in China was mainly geared to the

particular needs of the aristocratic ruling class at that time.

A similar scenario can be found in the historical development of horse racing in

Hong Kong. Chan, Li and Leung (2016) argue that horse racing started in Hong Kong

in the late 19th century and in the first few years of operation, there was no wagering

on the winning horses. Horse racing was mostly enjoyed by the European elite class

who worked in Hong Kong. It was only in the early twentieth century when the game

became more popular among the Hong Kong people that horse racing evolved into a

gambling activity.

2. There are strong discrepancies between public policies and the gambling

behavior of the ruling class.

While most emperors in Han Dynasty passed laws which strictly prohibited

gambling, a number of emperors actively participated in gambling. They

gambled heavily with royal members and ministers. A detailed reading of the

historical records indicate that some of them (e.g. Emperor Han Xuan) were

probable disordered gamblers. Gambling was a popular pastime for

commoners as well as the elite class.

3. There was a significant shift in the motivation for gambling in the Han

Dynasty among commoners.

The motivation for gambling changed from a cultural pastime to a channel of

becoming rich. As more people gambled, there were more reported cases of

disordered gamblers and professional gamblers simply because they wanted to

take a shortcut to earn money in gambling. In practice, gambling changed

from a cultural pastime to a channel for becoming rich.

4. Games experienced a gradual change during 400-years of Han dynasties.

Towards the end of Eastern Han, Liubo gradually faded out. A new game

called Chupu (樗蒲, figure 1.4) became more popular. The main element of

Liubo was entertainment while the gambling ingredient was dominant in

Chupu. In Western Jin (A.D. 265 - A.D.316), Liubo was completely phased

out of the gambling history of China.

Chupu is one of the oldest dice games in Chinese history. The game was very

popular among commoners in the period of Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern

Dynasties (魏晉南北朝, A.D. 420 - A.D. 589) and the Late Tang Dynasty (唐朝, A.D.

618 - A.D. 907). To date, there is little substantive evidence on the origins of Chupu.

Among the available literature, Zhang Hua (張華, A.D. 232 - A.D. 300) in the Jin

Dynasty (晉朝, A.D. 265 - A.D. 420) once wrote a book called “Bowu Zhi”《博物

誌》, in which he argued that Chu Pu was invented by the Chinese philosopher, Laozi

(老子). Ma Rong (馬融, A.D. 79 - A.D. 166) in the East Han Dynasty put a similar

account forward. Ma argued, in a paper named ―Chupu Fu‖《樗蒲賦》, that ―Laozi

traveled around the capital city. He was a moral person. As the country was invaded

by foreign powers, he invented Chupu for the people as their entertainment so that

they might not worry about the wars.‖ (「昔玄通先生遊於京都，道德既備，號此

樗蒲。伯陽入戎，以斯消憂。」《樗蒲賦》, 東漢馬融) (Chen & He, 2006).

The suggestion that Chupu was originally a foreign game has been presented by

historians. In the book ―The Ancient Chinese Gambling Cultures”《中國古代賭博習

俗》, Luo and Xu (1994) suggested that Chupu was first invented in the Western

Regions (西域) ( meaning Persia and Iran at that time) and later, with the increased

trade and economic activities during the period of Qin and Han Dynasty, introduced

to China by foreigners. This assertion might be convincing as the Chinese

pronunciation of ―Chupu‖ is similar to that of an Indian game ―Chaupar.‖ In the

earlier version of the game, Chupu was restricted to the elite class.

Figure 4:

Combination

of Teeth

Nickname

Points

Class

Results

Combination

B B B Ca Ca

盧

王采

B B B Ca Ch

塞

氓采

B B Ca Ca W

禿

氓采

B B B Ch Ch

雉

王采

B B Ca Ch W

梟

氓采

B Ca Ca W W

梟

氓采

B B Ch Ch W

撅

氓采

B Ca Ch W W

撅

氓采

Ca Ca W W

犢

王采

B Ch Ch W W

塔

氓采

Ca Ch W W

開

氓采

Ch Ch W W

白

王采

Remark: Black (B), Ca (Calf), Ch (Chick), W (White)

Figure 1.4 Chupu

The figure was drawn by Olga, a professional artist. The copyright of this figure belongs to the authors.

The exact rules of the game were lost to history by the Late Tang Dynasty. Guo

and Xiao (1996), in their book “The History of Chinese Gambling,” stated that the

movement of the chess are governed by the tossing results of five small wooden sticks.

Consequently, Chupu was also called ―Five Wood‖ (五木). A more detailed

explanation about the game was published by Li Ao (李翱, A.D. 772 – A.D. 841) in

the Tang Dynasty. Li in his ―Wumu Jing‖《五木經》or Book of Five Woods,

described a full Chupu game to include the following components: (1) the Chupu

board for moving chesses (枰), (2) the ―cup‖ (桮) for holding the dice, (3) wooden

teeth (博齒), i.e. the dice, (4) counting sticks (箸), (5) the chess (馬), and (6) the chips

(籌). The key of the Chupu game is the ―five teeth,‖ which are almond-shaped

wooden sticks. These sticks function like dice. One side of the stick is painted black

while the other side is painted white. Two of the five wooden teeth are marked with a

word ―犢 (calf) on the black side and ―雉‖(chick) on the white side. Each

combination was given its own name, for example, ―3 black and 2 calf‖ was named

―Donkey‖ (盧); ―3 black and 2 chick‖ was named ―Chick‖ (雉). In each round, the

player throws out the five wooden teeth altogether. Points will be given according to

the number of ―black‖ and ―calf‖ the player gets, for example, ―3 blacks and 2 calf‖

will get the highest point 16. In the “Wumu Jing”《五木經》, Li categorizes the

teeth combinations into two main groups: “Wangcai” (王采) and “Mangcai” (氓采).

There were a total of 10 combinations of the sticks: four in “Wangcai” (盧，白，雉，

牛) and six in “Mangcai” (開，塞，塔，禿，撅，梟). Li Zhao (李肇) wrote the

―Supplementary to the History of Tang Dynasty‖《唐國史補》, which described the

game in more detail. In the book, he added two more combinations of sticks, bringing

the total combinations to 12.

Recent archaeological discovery has thrown more light on the popularity of the

game. In 1973, archaeologists unearthed a painting from Weijun tombs (魏晉古墓),

in Jiayuguan (嘉峪關), a rural village in China. The painting pictures two people

kneeling in front of a chessboard and playing Chupu. One person (in a white gown)

lifts up his hands and throws the dice onto the chessboard, while the other party (in a

red gown) is looking intently at the dice for the result. Similar findings were

unearthed from China’s Gansu Province (甘肅省) in 2001. These paintings indicate

that Chupu was a popular game during the Period of Northern & Southern Dynasties

(Pictures 1-3) (Huang, 2015).

Picture 1 Chupu Brick from Jiayuguan Xinchengxiang Weijin Tomb Room #7 (嘉峪關新城鄉 7號魏

晉墓室) Source: Huang (2015). Supplementary history of Chupu. Journal of Pingdingshan University,

Vol. 30, No. 6.

Picture 2 Chupu Brick in Gansu Province Gaotai City Luotuo Cheng Weijin Tomb (甘肅省高台縣駱

駝城魏晉墓) Source: Huang (2015). Supplementary history of Chupu. Journal of Pingdingshan

University, Vol. 30 No. 6.

Picture 3 Chupu Brick from Gaotai Province Xusanwan Weijin Tomb (高台縣許三灣魏晉墓室)

Source: Huang (2015). Supplementary history of Chupu. Journal of Pingdingshan University, Vol. 30

No. 6.

Unlike the game of Liubo, the chessboard of Chupu does not have any route

lines on it. Instead, there are three main gates (關) on the chessboard. In between the

gates, there is a gap called the chasm (坑). The game strategies are to transfer all the

chess through the gates to the other side of the board. During the process, the player

has to obtain the “wangcai,” which allows him to move the chess. Thus, in

comparison to Luibo, Chupu does not require much cognitive skill or investment.

Perhaps this was the main reason for its popularity among the common people. In the

Tang Dynasty, the game gradually developed into a simple dice game. Thus, instead

of moving the chess, people simply enjoyed the excitement of dice tossing. Further,

the game attracted spectators, who did not actually play the game. Standing at the

back of the players, these individuals would cheer and participate in the fun and

excitement of the game. Very often, they would put bets on the dice. In Chinese

literature, an idiom known as ―呼盧喝雉‖(which literally means playing Chupu and

yelling on the chick), describes the excitement and fun of Chupu players and the

surrounding spectators. The ―chick‖ is one of outcomes of the combination of the

―sticks.‖ This idiom carries a negative and somewhat debasing picture of the gamblers.

Later, as more people became addicted to this game, the Song (宋朝) government

outlawed the game. Players were punished by the state. Thus, after the Song Dynasty,

Chupu gradually disappeared from the gaming tables of ancient China.

The story of Chupu has highlighted a number of important developments in the

gambling history in ancient China. Firstly, it is one of the first table games originally

from foreign countries. Compared to Luibo, Chupu relies more on chance factors than

cognitive skills. The outcome of the game is largely determined by the throwing of

the ―sticks.‖ It is a much quicker game. Secondly, this game includes spectators who

can bet and share in the fun and excitement of the game. In other words, twenty

gamblers can put wager on a Chupu game while only two of them throw and move the

chess. The inclusion of spectators expands the numbers of eligible gamblers in a

single game and contributes to the popularity of Chupu.

Contemporary gambling researchers have investigated the role of spectators in

Chinese gambling. Lam (2005), in his study with casino players, found that baccarat

players in Macao enjoyed gambling in a crowded table. Many of these players never

touched the cards------- they only followed the advice of fellow players and put bets

with the persons they trust. Chan and his students, in their study of elderly gamblers

in Hong Kong (Li, Lee, Lo, Cho & Chan, 2011), have reported similar accounts. In

their observation, they found that elderly gamblers like to gamble in a park in the

afternoons (Figure 1.5). These elderly enjoyed card games and Chinese chess games.

Very often, many of them were spectators who would bet with their favorite players.

Chan, Li, and Leung (2014) have explained why many Chinese gamblers prefer being

spectators to actually playing the card games. Chinese people are more inclined to

follow a strong and intelligent leader. Chinese like to conform to social norms and

regulations. In other words, as Chinese, we are natural followers. Thus, in the area of

gambling, we like to follow the winners. The actual playing of the game or holding

the cards is not important. And if our players win, we would share the same level of

fun and excitement as if we had actually played the game.

Figure 1.5: Senior male gamblers gamble in a park of a public housing estate in Hong Kong (Photo by

Li Wai Lim in September 2016)

1.1.4 Gambling during Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties (魏晉南北朝)

During three hundred years of Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties,

China was in a state of war and chaos. This is also a very special period in Chinese

history in which society suffered from prolonged instability due to political turmoil

and invasion of foreigners. For example, a famous historical event known as ―The

upheaval of the eight princes (八王之亂)‖ took place during the Western Jin when

eight feudal lords fought in ferocious battles. A famous war ―Battle on the Fei-shui

(淝水之戰)‖occurred in A.D. 383 between Eastern Jin and Qianqin (前秦). Qianqin

was defeated with 700,000 soldiers killed in this battle. After Eastern Jin perished in

A.D. 420, China was split up into several northern and southern kingdoms, known as

Northern and Southern Dynasties (南北朝). Wars among these kingdoms remained

constant for another 170 years until Emperor Yang Jian (楊堅, A.D. 541 – A.D. 604)

(ruled China during A.D. 581. – A.D. 604), founder of Sui Dynasty, reunited China in

A.D. 589. The warring period and the resulting poverty and social unrest made

gambling a good pastime for emotional escape for the common people.

A drastic change occurred in the nature of the games during Wei, Jin, and Northern

and Southern Dynasties. From the beginning of Western Jin, Liubo faded out. It was

then replaced by Chupu, Backgammon (雙陸), Tan Qian (攤錢), Go (圍棋), and

Archery (射箭). Among these gambling activities, Chu Po was the most popular one

during this period (Lau, 1998).

Another reason for the popularity of the game is political instability at that time.

During these three hundred years, wars among the states were frequent. For a great

majority of the commoners, the Confucian ideals of Li and morals could not solve

their social problems. For them, getting rich seemed to be appropriate goals in life (Tu,

2006). The following historical characters can present a hint on gambling during that

period.

1.1.4.1 Xie An (謝安, A.D. 320 – A.D. 385)

A prime minister of Eastern Jin, Xie An was famous for his distinguished and

admirable characteristics. He purposefully expressed his unruly and open-minded

traits by donating a villa obtained by gambling to others. During The Battle on the

Fei-shui, Xie An was playing Go with his friend at home. When his nephew, Xie

Xuan, the responsible general in this significant battle, sent him a victory message, he

unexpectedly threw the memo to one side and continued gambling with his friend.

Superficially, he did not show any excitement about winning the battle. However,

after his friend had left, he was so excited that he did not find his shoe broken while

rushing to his inner house to celebrate the victory (Fang & Chu, A.D. 648). Xie An’s

attitude reflected the gambling behavior of people of the upper class ------ casting

away materialistic concerns and worries of oneself (物我兩忘) and with no

significant emotional reactions of happiness and grief (不以物喜, 不以己悲). This

interesting story portrays the ideal mannerism in gambling of a noble politician-----

politically ambitious with emotionally controlled gambling behavior.

1.1.4.2 Seven sages of the bamboo grove (竹林七賢)

Seven sages refer to Xi Kang (嵇康, A.D. 224 – A.D. 263), Ruan Ji (阮籍, A.D.

210 – A.D. 263), Shan Tao (山濤, A.D. 205 – A.D. 283), Xiang Xiu (向秀, A.D. 227

– A.D. 272), Liu Ling (劉伶, A.D.221 – A.D. 300), Ruan Xian (阮咸, birthdate

unknown), Wang Rong (王戎, A.D. 234 – A.D. 305). They were famous intellectuals

of this period. Dissatisfied with the government and politics, they went on a passive

protest by retreating into a bamboo forest at Shangyang county (currently

northwestern Henan province), where they spent their days drinking, gambling and

discussing philosophical issues. Their unconventional and anti-government attitude

can be seen as a disappointment in the political system and social unrest (Shum, 1994).

Some of the seven sages such as Xi Kang, Ruan Ji, and Liu Ling refused to

compromise with the political regime while others gradually chose to take part in the

pro-establishment camp. Due to the philosophical discrepancy among them, the seven

sages of the bamboo grove finally broke up. Zhong Hui (鍾會, A.D. 225 – A.D. 264),

a high-ranking general of Wei, later killed Xi Kang. Other members such as Shan Tao

served the Jin dynasty as a major chancellor.

Employing the Blaszczynski and Nower (2002) pathways model in the

psychological analysis of the gambling behavior of the seven sages, we can see their

gambling development best describes pathway 2 pathological gamblers – emotionally

vulnerable gamblers. This type of gamblers have significant emotional problems prior

to their acquisition of gambling behavior. They are dissatisfied with their lives and the

situational context they are living in. Thus, their excessive gambling behavior can be

a form of escape from reality.

1.1.4.3 People from lower social class

Most people in the lower social class lived in poverty during Wei, Jin, and Northern

and Southern Dynasties. The years of social unrest and wars made traditional farming

difficult. On top of this, there were famines and heavy taxation. Children were less

likely to receive formal education while adults found it hard to earn a living in a

traditional farming society. For many individuals in this era, Confucian moral

ideologies and Legalism such as Li and righteousness were no longer appealing.

Instead, making fast money was the goal for many. Historical records indicated that

there was heavy gambling among individuals in the lower social classes and violence

arising from gambling disputes were frequent (Guo & Xiao, 1995).

1.1.4.4 Gambling development and anti-gambling policies

Gambling activities and types developed rapidly during these 300 years. New

games such as prasena (波羅賽戲) were introduced to the working class in China.

Prasena is a chess game derived from ancient India / Tianzhu (天竺). This game was

popular as it combined skills and chance in the gaming process. During Wei, Jin, and

Northern and Southern Dynasties, the government did not have any concrete and

formal policies on gambling.

1.1.5 Gambling during Sui, Tang, Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (隋、唐、五代

十國時期)

In 589, Yang Jian (楊堅), the first emperor of Sui Dynasty, conquered other states

and united China. A diligent politician, he turned the country’s storehouses of rice

from loss to profit during his rule (04. 03. 581 – 13. 08. 604). In addition, Yang Jian

was a frugal person who did not like gambling. However, there is a legend that his

second son, Yang Guang (楊廣, A.D. 569 – A.D. 618) (ruled China during A.D. 604

– A.D. 618), once employed gambling as a tactic to win the support of others. Yang

Guang and his elder brother, Yang Yong (楊勇, A. D. 568 - A.D. 604), were

competing for the honored position of crown prince, which in Chinese history is the

heir who becomes the next emperor when the king dies. Once he discovered that the

younger brother of an influential chancellor Yang Su (楊素, A.D. 544 – A.D. 606)

loved gambling very much, Yang Guang ordered his accomplice Zi Wen Shu (宇文述,

A.D. 546 – A.D. 616) to gamble with Yang Su’s younger brother and intentionally

lose heavily at the gambling, all for the purpose of winning the political support of

Yang Su. Consequently, Yang Guang successfully made a strong connection with

Yang Su and, with the assistance of Yang Su, Yang Guang successfully defeated

Yang Yong, and later became the second emperor of Sui dynasty after his father’s

death in 604 (Wong, 2016). In this story, we can see that gambling during the feudal

era in China was not only a tool for entertainment, but also an effective strategy to

achieve certain political purposes. Yang Guang’s story is a typical example

supporting our hypothesis.

Yang Guang was a cruel and unpopular emperor and the Sui dynasty only lasted

37 years. It came to an end on 18. 06. 618. It was overthrown by Li Yuan (李淵, A.D.

566 -A.D. 635) (ruled China during A.D. 618 – A.D. 626), who founded the Tang

Dynasty. Li was the first emperor of Tang while his son Li Shi Min (李世民, A.D.

599 – A.D. 649) (ruled during A.D. 626 – A.D. 649) was one of the most intelligent

and successful emperors in Chinese history. The Tang dynasty lasted nearly 300 years.

This is the golden period in the history of China as during the Tang Dynasty the

people lived in a relatively stable environment. In Chinese literature, a great number

of famous poets came from the Tang Dynasty. Good examples are Li Bai (李白, A.D.

701 – A.D. 762), Du Fu (杜甫, A.D. 712 – A.D. 770), Han Yu (韓愈, A.D. 768 – A.D.

824), Liu Zong Yuan (柳宗元, A.D. 773 – A.D. 819), Wang Wei (王維, A.D. 701 –

A.D. 761), and Bai Ju Yi (白居易, A.D. 772 – A.D. 846).

Gambling was popular in the Tang Dynasty, especially during the era of Sheng

Tang (盛唐), which was the first 30 year rule by emperor Li Long Ji (李隆基, A.D.

685 – A.D. 762) (ruled China during A.D. 712 – A.D. 756). This was the most

glorious age of Tang Dynasty (713-741), known as ―Kaiyuan rule (開元之治).‖ At

this time, the country was financially secure and politically stable. Drinking, partying

and gambling, especially among intellectuals, were everyday events. In fact, most of

the emperors in Tang loved gambling, especially Li Long Ji and Wu Zetian (武則天,

A.D. 624 - A.D. 705) (ruled China during A.D. 690 – A.D. 705), the only female

emperor in Chinese history. Both of them were heavy gamblers. Many governmental

officials and ordinary people also enjoyed or were even addicted to gambling. In an

extensive review of historical records, Lau (1998) concluded that the combination of

gambling and drinking was the important element during dinners and parties in Tang

dynasty. Compared with during Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties,

gambling problems were widespread among the working class in Tang.

1.1.5.1 Anti-gambling policies in Tang dynasty

In A.D. 652, Zhang Sun Wu Ji (長孫無忌, A.D. 594 – A.D. 659) wrote

―Comments on Laws of Tang Empire” (唐律疏議) the first official law book since

“Fa Jing‖ (法經) of Li Kui during Warring States Period. The new law book has an

integrated policy on anti-gambling:

1) A person who participates in gambling will be punished by paddling (beating with

wooden cane 100 times); those who gamble heavily will be sentenced to prison

for 1 year;

2) A person who takes part as a banker or provides gaming tools in gambling in

Changan (長安), the capital of Tang, will be sentenced to death; those who open

gambling venues in areas other than Changan will be sent to a distant exile;

3) A person who obtains money or materials from others through gambling will be

found guilty of the offense of larceny.

It is worthwhile mentioning that the Chinese name ―Gambling‖ and ―Du Bo‖ first

appeared together in ―Comments on Laws of Tang Empire‖ (Wong & Yu, 2006).

Notwithstanding the completed articles of anti-gambling laws, gambling was common

among the elite class and the common people. The main reason is that many emperors

in Tang were active gamblers. Thus, they were unwilling to strictly enforce the

relevant laws.

Representatives of excessive gamblers in Tang dynasty were as follow:

1.1.5.2 Li Long Ji (or named as emperor Xuanzong of Tang (唐玄宗))

Emperor Xuanzong was not only famous for his ―Kaiyuan rule‖ in his first 29

years of rule, but he was also notorious for his heavy gambling and later in his rule

spending much of his time with concubine Yang Yuhuan (楊玉環, A.D. 719 – A.D.

756). In the last 15 years of his rule, Xuanzong’s policies came much under the

influences of Eunuch Gao Lishi (高力士, A.D. 684 – A.D. 762), prime minister Li

Linfu (李林甫, A.D. 683 – A.D. 753), and heavily corrupted prime minister Yang

Guozhong (楊國忠). Chinese historians have pinpointed the weaknesses of

Xuanzong’s administration which, in many ways, contributed to the social instability

of the state. During his rule, a civil war known as An Shih Revolution (安史之亂,

16.12.755 – 17.02.763) broke out. This war was started by An Lushan (安祿山, A.D.

703 – A.D. 757), an important provincial governor who defended the northern

territory of Tang’s empire. The An Shih rebellion critically undermined the internal

stability of the Tang Dynasty.

In the last 15 years of Emperor Xuanzong’s kingship, a number of stories

demonstrates his indulgence in gambling:

1) Xuanzong loved gambling, especially the game of Chupu. Once he heard that

Yang Guozhong, a distant relative of Yang Yuhuan, was an expert in gambling, he

immediately summoned Yang and appointed him as an official responsible for

managing the emperor’s gambling account. Subsequently, Yang was promoted to

a higher official rank and finally became the prime minister of Tang. This

interesting story implies that Xuanzong offered high official posts solely based on

his preference on gambling. Since Yang knew nearly every type of gambling, he

obtained the trust of Xuanzong easily.

2) According to “Dongcheng Old Father Biography” (東城老父傳) written by Chen

Hongzu (陳鴻祖), Emperor Xuanzong was also addicted to cockfighting. He

owned a cock farm, which housed one thousand cocks (which might be a rounded

–up figure). At that time, a teenager called Gu Chang (賈昌) was very skillful in

training cocks for cockfighting. Xuanzong appointed Gu to manage his cock farm.

Even though Gu lacked academic credentials, he was appointed to this important

management position simply because of his excellent gambling skills in

cockfighting. Consequently, at that time, there emerged a famous hymn satirizing

the emperor’s gambling addiction to cockfighting. It reads:

―It’s no problem that a child was born illiterate as being skillful in horse racing

and cockfighting are far better than studies.‖

3) There was a legend that Xuanzong once gambled *cussec with his concubine

Yang Yuhuan in the imperial palace. In one game set, Xuanzong would lose the

game unless he could throw ―four‖ on the dice. Extremely nervous, Xunazong

shouted ―Four! Four!‖ and he really threw a ―four‖. He felt extremely happy and

ordered Eunuch Gao Lishi to declare that the ―four‖ of cussec should be dyed red

color. In the past, red color could not be used except when it was approved by the

emperor. This interesting legend can explain why in our present time the color of

―four‖ is painted red on every Chinese dice.

Based on the contemporary criteria on gambling disorders of the Diagnostic and

Statistical Manual, 5th edition (DSM 5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

Xuanzong was a probable disordered gambler. He spent much of his time studying

and practicing gambling skills. He loved making friends with people who had an

expertise on gambling. He loved gambling so much that he did not tend to the daily

management meetings with state chancellors in the last 15 years of his rule. And his

indulgence in gambling and lack of concern on politics in many ways contributed to

the social instability at his times.

1.1.5.3 Poets and litterateurs

The Tang Dynasty was an economically prosperous empire, especially before the

An Shih Rebellion. There were many poets and litterateurs in the early and first half

of the Tang Dynasty. Examples were Luo Biwang (駱賓王, A.D. 640 – A.D. 684),

Chen Ziang (陳子昂, A.D. 661 – A.D. 702), Wang Changling (王昌齡, A.D. 698 –

A.D. 765), Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu. Among these scholars, gambling, drinking

and scholarly discussion of state affairs were among their favorite pastimes. And,

since they wrote classical literature and poems, many of the writings were

subsequently collected as part of the Chinese national treasures and heritage. A

detailed reading of their poems may indicate that quite a number of them drank and

gambled heavily. For instance, Du Fu wrote the poem “Jinxi Xing” when staying

inside an inn in Xianyang (咸陽). In the poem, he described himself in a depressed

mood. And the only way to entertain himself was to gamble and drink with friends.

Another poem written by Li Bai described how he appreciated his luck in gambling.

In order to test out his luck, he kept chasing after losses. For many of these poets,

gambling was a part of the fun and pastimes that they could share with others. In their

writing, they often used the word ―play‖ (玩) and not ―gamble‖ (賭) in describing

their gambling behavior. To them and the academic class, gambling was an acceptable

pastime, especially when one is in a depressed mood.

1.1.5.4 Gambling in late Tang and during Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

In late Tang Dynasty, after the An Shih Revolution, gambling was widespread. It

was common to see people gamble late into the night hours. Gambling was often

*Cussec was an ancient game in Tang Dynasty. It evolved from

Backgammon. Cussec was a popular gambling type among the imperial

concubines living in the royal palace. Usually, the gamblers gamble with

wine and silk (Chang, 1984).

associated with drinking and visiting prostitutes at that time.

The Tang Dynasty ended in A. D. 907. Warlords and military leaders divided the

land into zones, each with their own governments and systems. This period is known

as Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. Most of the monarchs during these periods

were from the lower social class. They were less educated and cared less about

governing with a legalistic system. Qian Liu (錢鏐, A.D. 852 – A.D. 932), the first

monarch of Wu Yue Guo (吳越國) was one good example. Before he seized power,

he was a gang member who drank and gambled every day. He made his fortune by the

salt trade (at that time, those privately trading salt could be arrested and sentenced to

death) (Anonymous, 2013).

1.1.5.5 Gambling development in Tang

Gambling was very diversified in the Tang Dynasty. Traditional types of

gambling including Chupu, Backgammon, chess, and kickball were popular games in

Tang Dynasty. Gambling with animals such as cockfighting and horse racing were

also the games of choice among commoners. New types of gambling such as cussec

and leaves play (葉子戲) (Leaves play was a kind of card game, which might be the

prototype for mahjong) were new favorites.

There were many books and songs describing gambling in the Tang Dynasty. For

instance, “Wu Mu Jing” (五木經) is the first book which gives a description of Chu

Pu. Similarly, “Wo Shuo Fu” (握槊賦) is a paper composed by Xing Yu (邢宇),

which described Wu Shuo, another popular type of gambling.

1.1.6 Gambling during Song and Yuan (宋、元時期)

On February 4, 960, Zhao Kuangyin (趙匡胤, A.D. 927 – A.D. 976) lodged a

mutiny in Chen Qiao (陳橋), and forced the emperor of Hou Zhou (後周) to step

down. Zhao established the Song Dynasty (Northern Song) and reunited China. Zhao

ruled China for 16 years before his sudden death on November 14, 976. Compared to

the size of Tang’s territory, Song’s was significantly smaller and its political power

was relatively weaker. Neighboring countries such as Liao (遼) and Western Xia (西

夏) often invaded the boundary cities of Song. On 20th March, 1127, a neighboring

power known as Jin (金) invaded Song and overthrew the government. This historical

event was known as ―Jingkang incident (靖康之變),‖ in which the two emperors of

Northern Song, Zhao Ji (趙佶,A.D. 1082 – A.D. 1135, ruled over China during A.D.

1100 – A.D. 1126) and Zhao Huan (趙桓,A.D. 1100 – A.D. 1161, ruled over China

during A.D. 1126 – A.D. 1127) were taken as hostages and sent to Jin. After this

incident, Zhao Gou (趙構, A.D. 1107 – A.D. 1187, ruled China during A.D. 1127 –

A.D. 1162), the ninth son of Zhao Ji (also the younger brother of Zhao Huan),

proclaimed himself emperor on 12 June, A. D.1127. The new emperor moved to the

southern part of China to re-establish a smaller independent country, which was later

known as Southern Song. Southern Song only occupied about half the territory of

Northern Song and could only passively defend its independence and sovereignty by

signing unequal treaties for peace with Jin and later the Great Mongolia (蒙古). On

March 19, 1279, Yuan (元, former name was Great Mongolia) invaded and

successfully conquered Southern Song. The Yuan Dynasty was the first to have a

foreign country rule China. To suppress opposition voices from local Chinese, Yuan

employed very cruel policies. For instance, Chinese families were not allowed to have

weapons. In some cases only one cooking knife could be shared among several

families. The Yuan Dynasty ruled for only 98 years. In August 1368, Zhu Yuanchang

(朱元璋, A.D. 1328 – A.D. 1398), the founding emperor of Ming dynasty (明朝),

captured Da Dou (大都, same name as Beijing), the capital of Yuan, and ended its

rule in China.

During the Yuan Dynasty, there were tremendous increases in business trading

between China and other foreign countries. The rapid development of business

encouraged residents living in rural areas to move to new cities. In many big cities,

most of the newcomers were no longer farmers; they became cooks and restaurant

workers, laborers and small business entrepreneurs. The dominant job nature of the

agrarian culture slowly gave way to a customer service economy. Urbanization and

the subsequent increase in urban population promoted the development of new

exciting games. Backgammon, kickball, cricket fighting (鬥蟋蟀), and Chu Hong (除

紅), popular in Song, were originally from Liao. For the vast majority of players, the

nature of gambling shifted from entertainment and recreation to mostly winning for

money (Huang, 2006). Legally, according to Pu (2006), the Song government strictly

prohibited gambling by applying ―Song Code (宋刑統)‖, laws drawn up by Zhao

Kuangyin. However, the effective enforcement of the laws was the major problem as

many people, including government officials, enjoyed gambling.

1.1.6.1 Merging of the words ―Du (賭)‖ and ―Bo (博)‖

The Chinese name for gambling is ―Du Bo‖. ―Bo‖ appeared much earlier than

―Du.‖ ―Bo‖ can be defined as leisure activities. During participation in gambling,

people may use money as a wager to heighten the level of involvement in games

(Huang, 2006). Simply put, in ―Bo,‖ the players use money to gamble, not gamble

for money (Chan, 2014). The word ―Bo‖ appeared in ancient times of China. It was

not until the period of Three Kingdoms did the word ―Du‖ get first recorded in the

book “Game Theory” (博奕論), written by Wei Zhao (韋昭, A.D. 204 – A.D. 273),

a scholar in Eastern Wu (東吳). In this article, Wei explained in detail the negative

effects of ―Du.‖ Thus, we can see that in the ancient history of China, leisure

activities in which wagering was done with a small amount of money was generally

acceptable. However, wagering with a large amount of money as depicted by the

word ―Du‖ was a social vice and should be strictly prohibited by law.

The earliest record of combining ―Du‖ and ―Bo‖ was found in the history of

Song dynasty. In A.D. 1012, Northern Song’s emperor Zhao Heng (趙恆, A.D. 968 –

A.D. 1022, ruled China during A.D. 997 – A.D. 1022) issued a decree to punish

those who crossed Song’s frontier and gambled in Liao’s territory. In his imperial

edict, Zhao mentioned ―Du Bo‖ together (Tuo, 1343). Gambling was seen as a life

skill. On this aspect, Yan Shu (晏殊, A.D. 991 – A.D. 1055), a famous composer of

Chinese poetry, talked about his daily life with ―Du Bo.‖ He wrote:

―I am always equipped with every gambling skill when I was living in Xi Qin (家

住西秦, 賭博藝隨身).‖ This poem implies that gambling was well received by the

scholars and could be considered as a life skill. These skills could help one to

socialize with friends or make a living in the community (Yan, 1967).

1.1.6.2 Secularization of gambling in Song dynasty

Urban development and the rapid development of international commerce in Song

benefited the secularization of new games. In the latter half of Northern Song, the

first gang-operated gambling houses, operated under the name ―Ju Fang (柜坊),‖

were widespread in major cities. The management of these establishments was

analogous to present-day casinos, though much smaller in scale. Many of these ―Ju

Fangs‖ employed systematic scams to cheat the customers. Firstly, they would

arrange attractive young girls to invite people to participate in gambling. In the first

few game sets, the participants would win a relatively small amount of money. Then,

the operators of the gambling stalls would, by employing specific gambling tricks,

cheat the gamblers of all their money. Then, the gang would persuade participants to

borrow money to chase after their losses. At the end, participants would be heavily

in debt and some of them may even commit suicide. Worst of all, bankers of ―Ju

Fang‖ always openly solicited people including soldiers to gamble (By law, Song’s

soldiers were forbidden to gamble). During the last one hundred years of the Song

Dynasty, people not only gambled in ―Ju Fangs,‖ but also gambled heavily inside

restaurants. At this time, table games that stressed speed and luck were preferred

inside the gambling stalls. Good examples of these games were Guan Pu (關撲)*

and Chu Hong** .

Beginning in the Song Dynasty, for the majority of players, table games that

required less cognitive skill were more preferable. Further, spectators of the games

could share in the joy and excitement by simply watching others play. Contemporary

researchers in casino gambling discovered that the most popular game in Macao

casinos is baccarat (Chan, Li & Leung, 2016). And Chinese players love to crowd

around one baccarat table to play the game. Spectators also share the fun and joy by

cheering and yelling at each other (Bai, 1985; Lam, 2005).

1.1.6.3 Consequences of the secularization of gambling

Contemporary researchers in gambling (Blaszczynski & Nower, 2002) argue that

the importance of the 3 As (acceptability, accessibility and availability) are the key

factors for the development of gambling behavior. Starting in the latter half of Song

Dynasty, increased availability of gambling opportunities in restaurants and Ju Fangs

attracted more people to play the games. Kato, a Japanese expert in Chinese

gambling history, investigated the functions of Ju Fang. He argues that Ju Fang

provided a number of important social functions: a place for gambling,

accommodations (like hotels), food and beverage, prostitution services, and the

manufacturing and exchange of copper coins (coin money in Song Dynasty). In

other words, in Confucian ethics, Ju Fang represents a paradise for social vice for

men (Kato, 1976). Thus, Ju Fang was a favorite hangout for criminals and loan

sharks. Consequently, in view of public law and order, Song’s government

prohibited the opening, operation and management of Ju Fang in restaurants and inns.

In the literature of that period, a number of writings can give us a hint of the nature of

*Guan Pu was a common game in both Northern and Southern Song. The rules of

the game are simple: it involves tossing coins on the floor or a plane surface.

Winning depends on the combination of the coins. Another playing method of

Guan Pu was called ―Tan Qian (攤錢),‖ in which the banker shook the coins

inside a container. Participants who correctly guessed the remainder would win

the game.

** Chu Hong was also called Zhu Wo (豬窩), a dice game. Previously, dice was a

component of Chu Pu and Backgammon. It became an independent game in

Northern Song. Chu Hong consisted of four dice. By throwing four dice

simultaneously, participant who tossed four ―four‖ (dyed red color) would be the

winner (Yang, 1988).

gambling at the time. The following is a list of authors who wrote on gambling in the

Tang Dynasty.

1. Lu You (陸游, A.D. 1125 – A.D. 1210), a famous litterateur of Southern Song,

also one of the Eight Experts of Tang and Song Poetry (唐宋八大家), wrote,

―there are some people who intend to cheat others’ money through gambling.

Every time they bet, they will absolutely win.‖

2. Tuo (1343), a historian on gambling, documented the following terrible event,

―Once a teenager had a cock (for cockfighting gambling). His classmate asked the

teenager to give the cock to him but was rejected. On revenge, that classmate

stalked and intended to kill him.‖

1.1.6.4 Types of gambling commonly practiced in Song and Yuan

Guan Pu and Chu Hong were the most favorite games in Northern and Southern

Song. Other types of popular gambling in Song, Liao, Jin, and Yuan were

as follows:

1. Backgammon (Figure 1.6)

Backgammon was a popular game since Tang Dynasty. During Northern Song,

several versions of the game were played in different areas. Hong Zun (洪遵, A.D.

1120 – A.D. 1174), an expert in Chinese currency in Southern Song, wrote that

people in the northern part of the country loved Qi Dan Backgammon (契丹雙陸)

(popular in Liao, same playing method as that in Tang dynasty), Da Jian

Backgammon (打間雙陸), Qi Liang Backgammon (七梁雙陸), San Liang

Backgammon (三梁雙陸), and Hui Hui Backgammon (回回雙陸). Guangzhou

Backgammon (廣州雙陸) was very popular in the Southern part of China.

Figure 1.6 Backgammon

The figure was drawn by Olga, a professional artist. The copyright of this figure belongs to the authors.

2. Da Ma (打馬)

Li Qing Zhao (李清照, A.D. 1084 – A.D. 1155), a talented, well-known poet in

Song, loved Da Ma. Da Ma, a game evolved from Chu Pu, was the precursor of

present-day mahjong. It was played by two persons. The chess pieces in Da Ma

were carved into shapes of horses. Players tossed the dice to move chess pieces.

The one who reached the destination point would win the game. Li wrote a manual

on how to play the game. The book is called “Da Ma Tu Jing” (打馬圖經). Da Ma

was very popular until the later years of Southern Song.

3. Cai Xuan (彩選)

Cai Xuan was perhaps one of the most elegant gambling types in Song, compared

with other games. It was invented by Liu Ban (劉攽, A.D. 1022 – A.D. 1088), the

co-editor of the classical Chinese history literature, “Encyclopedia of Enterprises

and Politics” (資治通鑑) (the chief editor was Sima Guang (司馬光, A.D. 1019 –

A.D. 1086)). In designing this game, Liu created a diagram describing the

promotion and demotion of chancellors in Western Han dynasty. He also explained

their personnel changes in the diagram so that players could literally revise Chinese

history as they gambled. Song emperors emphasized imperial examination – a

system of selecting suitable candidates for government service. Therefore, Cai

Xuan was a popular game as the players could share the fun and fantasy of getting

to the top rank of the government officialdom.

4. Kickball (Figure 1.7 - 1.9)

As mentioned in the above sections, kickball started as a game during the period of

rivalry between West Chu and Han. During Song Dynasty, kickback was popular as

it combined sports with gambling. The “Outlaws of the Marsh” (水滸傳) written

by Shi and Luo (1589), one of the four Chinese classical literatures, also contained

a short story on kickball. Gao Qiu (高俅), a treacherous court official active in late

Northern Song during the ruling of Zhao Ji, was very skillful in playing kickball.

He utilized his excellent kickball skills to entertain Emperor Zhao Ji, and

successfully gained his trust. Later the emperor appointed Gao Qiu as a grand army

commander (太尉). Kickball continued to be a popular game in Yuan Dynasty

though Mongolian imperial power strictly prohibited any type of gambling.

Figure 1.7 Kickball in Han dynasty

Figure 1.8 Kickball in Tang dynasty

Figure 1.9 Kickball in Song and Yuan dynasties

The figures were drawn by Olga, a professional artist. The copyright of these figures

belongs to the authors.

5. Xuan Hu Pai (宣和牌)

Xuan Hu Pai, a table game of dominoes, was very popular among commoners

during the ruling period of Zhao Ji. The rules of this game are similar to the present

Chinese games of Tien Gow (天九) and Pai Gow (牌九). Xuan Hu Pai was popular

towards the end of Northern Song. There are historical records of a number of

gamblers who gambled this game overnight and were absent from work or

unwilling to return home (Huang, 2006).

1.1.6.5 Famous active / pathological gamblers in the Song Dynasty

1. Li Qing Zhao

Li Qing Zhao, a famous writer in Song Dynasty, was addicted to gambling,

especially Da Ma. When she was young, she enjoyed playing Da Ma with her

husband, Zhao Ming Cheng. Li was proud of her excellent gambling skills as she

preferred skilled-based games. Her development of gambling mirrors the Pathway

One problem gambler according to the Blaszczynski and Nower (2002) model. She

started gambling in her adolescent years. She was preoccupied with gambling as

she could spend all day at the gambling table. She enjoyed gambling with her

husband. However, her life made a sharp turn when Jin occupied Qing Zhou (青州,

located in Shan Dong province), in A. D. 1127, where the young couple were living.

The couple fled to Zhen Jiang (鎮江, located in Jiang Su province). Soon after that,

Jin attacked Zhen Jiang. The couple then fled to Jiang Ning Fu (江寧府, namely

Nanjing today) in spring, A.D.1128. Unfortunately, her husband died of malaria

one and a half years after they had settled in Jiang Ning Fu. Li lost most of her

money in the war. Nevertheless, she maintained her gambling habit at this difficult

time (Wang, 1979), though her motivation for gambling was mostly for emotional

escape. Li later moved to Jiang Nan (江南). She married again in A.D. 1132, but

the marriage only lasted for three months when she divorced her second husband

Zhang Ru Zhou (張汝舟). She continued to gamble in her last years of life.

Incorporating the Blaszcznski and Nower (2002), we can interpret that Li Qing

Zhao shifted from Pathway 1 to Pathway 2 pathological gamblers – emotionally

vulnerable gamblers. In her last years, Li gambled mostly for obtaining emotional

relief. By gambling, she was able to seek psychological comfort and solace through

dissociation and mood modification (Brown, 2002).

2. Emperor Zhao Ji

In Song Dynasty, there were strict laws on gambling. Zhao Kuangyin drew up the

laws, ―Song Code‖, aimed at punishing heavy gamblers (Pu, 2006). In many cases,

the offenders would be given capital punishment (Ming Gong Shu Pan Qing Ming

Ji, 1987). Notwithstanding these severe anti-gambling laws, almost all emperors in

Song history were problem gamblers. For example, Zhao Ji, the second last

emperor of Northern Song, was a famous case of problem gambler. He appointed

court officials such as Cai Jing (蔡京, A.D. 1047 – A.D. 1126) and Tong Guan (童

貫, A.D. 1054 – A.D. 1126) to take up major administrative and military tasks of

the imperial court. He spent his days on calligraphy, playing chess, and gambling

with his concubine, Li Shishi (李師師). Zhou (1987) recorded an interesting story

on Emperor Zhao Ji. Zhao Ji once gambled Backgammon and chess with Li Shishi.

Losing the games, Zhao gave two thousand teals of platinum, the equivalent value

of at least five houses to Li. This legend indicates that gambling was a favored

pastime among the elite class.

3. Emperor Liao Daozong (遼道宗)

Gambling was also common among the ruling class of China’s neighbors. Tuo

(1344) recorded an event of civil promotion of Emperor Liao Daozong (original name:

Ye Lu Hongji (耶律洪基), A.D. 1032 – A.D. 1101, ruled Liao during A.D. 1055 –

A.D. 1101). This emperor was at an advanced age. He used the games of dice to

decide senior civil service promotion. The suitable candidates would throw dice and

those who obtained the highest points would be promoted. This was an unprecedented

event in Chinese history (Tuo, 1344);

4. Gu Si Dao (賈似道, A.D. 1213 – A.D. 1275)

In Southern Song Dynasty, gambling was a common activity among high ranking

officials. Among these officials, Gu Si Dao was a good example (Tuo, 1344) The

nickname of Gu Si Dao was called ―cricket prime minister‖ as he loved cricket

fighting. Gu came from an influential and wealthy family. His elder sister was a

concubine of Emperor Zhao Yun (趙昀, A.D. 1205 – A.D. 1264, ruled one-half of

China during A.D. 1224 – A.D. 1264). Gu idled away his time during adolescence

in gambling. During A.D. 1267 – A.D. 1273, the Mongolian Empire invaded Xiang

Yang (襄陽, a city located in present day Hu Bei province (湖北省)). Gu was the

prime minister of Southern Song at that time. However, he ignored the foreign

invasion in Xiang Yang; he spent much of his time on cricket gambling with his

concubines at home. Worst of all, he lied to emperor Zhao Ji (趙禥, A.D. 1240 –

A.D. 1274, ruled during A.D. 1264 – A.D. 1274) that Song’s army successfully

defended Xiang Yang. Finally, Xiang Yang fell to the Mongolians in A.D. 1273.

Gu was an expert on cricket gambling. He even wrote a book called ―The Book of

Cricket (促織經)‖. This book consisted of two chapters, which described in detail

how to select, feed, and train crickets, as well as strategies of cricket fighting. This

book was also the first book written in history about crickets.

1.1.6.6 The nature of gambling in Song and Yuan

Gambling was a common social activity in Song and Yuan. Most people gambled

to win money, rather than for entertainment. The art and elegance of gambling in

Xia and Shiang Dynasties had faded out. Games that required cognitive skills and

strategies, such as Da Ma, gradually lost popularity. Instead of playing time-

consuming skilled games, the majority of the commoners enjoyed quick chance

games. And there were historical records of problem gamblers who committed

crimes to obtain money to gamble. Gambling stalls, mostly operated as ―Ju Fangs‖

and controlled by gangs and loan sharks were widespread in big cities. Though

there were strict laws prohibited gambling in both Song and Yuan, gambling

among the commoners became out of control in the two dynasties. The major

reason was that the rules were not appropriately managed and enforced by local

officials. On top of this, the members of the aristocrat class including the emperors

were often heavy gamblers. In addition, it was difficult to carry out anti-gambling

laws as a lot of governmental officials were also shareholders of gambling stalls. In

our analysis, we do believe that the culture of gambling among Chinese people

nowadays presumably started from the period of Song and Yuan.

1.2 Concluding Remarks: The history of Chinese Gambling: First 3000 years

(From Xia to Song Dynasty)

We have traced the development of gambling in ancient China from Xia to the Song

Dynasty. In reading the historical documents and literature, we endeavored to

integrate our contemporary gambling theories in our analysis. The following is a

summary of our observations:

a. Gambling activities were initially noble cognitive pastimes for the aristocratic

class in ancient China. The gaming instruments were seen as parts of national

treasures and artifacts, as the recent archaeological findings have suggested.

However, as the games became more popular among the working classes,

these games, as in the cases of Liubo and Chupu, evolved into less complex

ones which focused more on the chance factor than skills and strategies. The

motivation of play has also changed from competition of cognitive skills and

maneuvers to the winning of money. Thus, the nobility and elegance of the

games slowly disappeared with the inclusion of wagering in the game.

b. The earliest gaming activities were often a game of two players. However, as

more people were interested in the game, spectators started to gather behind

the players and put wagers on games in which they did not actually participate,

as in the Chupu and Kickball. During the game, the spectators shared the fun

and the excitement of the game as if they were the actual players. The

inclusion of spectators added to the popularity of the games as more players,

who did not actually play the game. So why didn’t these gamblers actively

take part in the gaming process? Some might not have had the physical ability

to play, as in the case of Kickball. Another reason lies with the personality of

Chinese. Chan (2014) argued that the typical Chinese individual, when

compared to Americans and Europeans, are more reserved, humble and less

assertive in areas of social interactions, especially in games of competition.

Thus, for many Chinese, they might be more comfortable staying on the

sidelines and enjoy the game from there. Also, as spectators, while they can

wager their bets, they would not be blamed for any mistakes in the gaming

process. Hence, we can see the spirit of Chupu in the present-day baccarat in

the casinos of Macao, where a lot of spectators cheer, yell, and wager large

amounts of money from behind the actual players (Lam, 2005).

c. Beginning at the Era of Spring and Autumn (春秋時代) and Warring States

Period (戰國時代) gambling became more widespread among the lower

working class and the poor in ancient China, especially in times of political

instability and financial depression. It was apparent that more people were

attracted to gambling activities in times of social instability and social unrest.

Contemporary gambling researchers (Wu, Lai, & Tong, 2014), in their

prevalence study of residents in Macao, have noted that individuals who are

not satisfied with their lives are more likely to participate gambling activities.

This is particular apparent among males with low education and high

materialistic concerns. Materialism is operationally defined as ―a set of

centrally held beliefs about the importance of possession in one’s life‖

(Richins & Dawson, 1992, p. 308). Further, a consistent finding in modern

gambling research is that the poorest segment in a community often gamble

more in their percentage of disposable income than the affluent counterparts

(Chan, 2012; Chan, Li, & Leung, 2016; Fong & Ozorio, 2005; Wardle et al.,

2007). On this issue, sociologist Edward Devereux (1968) asserted that

gambling serves as a ―safety valve‖ for the poor, especially for those with less

education and low skill level. Through gambling, one might be able to get rich.

Thus, gambling provides a hope for the poor (Friedman & Savage, 1948;

Ginakis & Ohtsuka, 2005). Even though the majority of gamblers might not

find instant riches through gambling, it is the expected utility of gambling

(Hartley & Farrell, 2002), i.e. getting rich in a short time with little efforts,

that constitute their main motivation for gambling.

d. Since the early years of the Tang Dynasty, gaming activities were the favorite

pastimes across all social classes. The motivation of playing the games range

from winning the bets and receiving validation from peers to gambling for

emotional escape. Incorporating the contemporary gaming theories of

Blaszcznyski and Nower (2002), the pathways development of ancient

Chinese problem gamblers mirrors all three pathways of development: namely

the behaviorally-conditioned gamblers, emotionally vulnerable gamblers and

anti-social/impulsivist gamblers. In the academic community, we find more

cases of the emotionally vulnerable gamblers. In ancient China, drinking and

gambling were often means of emotional escape for the intellectuals.

e. Since ancient times in China, the majority of Chinese have regarded gambling

as a social vice. It has been considered as one of the four immoral sins of men:

the other being--visiting prostitutes, drinking and smoking opium. As a sin and

social disgrace, the best solution, in the eyes of many, was punishment. Thus,

we see that the state laws in many of the surveyed dynasties approved severe

punishment to disordered gamblers. There were few provisions for the

assessment, treatment and rehabilitation for people with gambling disorders.

1.2.1 Conclusion

In our survey of Chinese gambling history during this period, we discover that

gambling activities first appeared in the historical records as noble cognitive games

enjoyed by the nobility and the wealthy class. Gradually, as they became more

popular among the commoners, the games’ nobility and elegance disappeared. Instead,

the winning of money became the most important element. Further, new games were

developed to fit the diverse interests of the players. By the time of the Yuan Dynasty,

gambling activities had become favorite pastimes of individuals from all walks of life.

In addition, there were frequent reports of problem gamblers and violent crimes

committed by them. Further, there was considerable discrepancy between public

policy and the personal conduct of public officials and the aristocratic class. Chinese

monarchs were often less honest, if not hypocritical, about their views on gambling.

While the majority of the emperors passed harsh laws against gambling, many of

them nonetheless indulged in gambling with their friends and loved ones. Maybe what

Kiang Fan (2010) has suggested, some 4000 years after the Xia Dynasty, is

appropriate. By the Yuan Dynasty, gambling had become the root of the Chinese

civilization.

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Cricket-based betting and University students: A new income source or a curse for university students in Bangladesh?

Preprint

Jul 2023

Md. Masudul Islam Khan

Due to the widespread interest in cricket in Bangladesh, many individuals are participating in cricket-specific online betting, university students are also participating, and their lives are being impacted in various ways by betting on cricket. Existing literature and newspaper articles have been assessed to identify variables, and a semi-structured questionnaire was developed using the variables. Based on variables, 20 university students from Sylhet were interviewed through in-depth interviews (IDIs). Universities were selected through the purposive sampling technique, and respondents were determined by using snowball sampling. The study demonstrated that university students, who are typically well educated, started betting in student life to earn additional money, but the outcomes seemed largely unpleasant. Betting negatively affects students' academic performance and personal and family relationships. Additionally, they must deal with a variety of mental challenges after starting betting. Even though most university students stop betting after substantial losses, it still influences their lives.

Recreational Gambling Recreational Gambling among Individuals in Late Adulthood

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Oct 2011

Macau 〔Abstract〔: The purposes of this investigation were to understand the prevalence of recreational gambling and the meanings of it among the elderly in Hong Kong. The present study is a qualitative study on recreational gamblers. Twenty five participants, all over 55, were recruited into the study. They were interviewed on a semi-structured questionnaire, which covered their developmental history and their gambling career. The results indicated that the majority of the participants began gambling at an early age. Very often their family introduced them to gambling. Some reported having an early win in their gambling history. Almost all of the participants took gambling as a type of fun games development their adult years. There were significant gender differences in gambling. Women gamblers enjoyed mahjong while

Gambling Disorder: Estimated Prevalence Rates and Risk Factors in Macao

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2014

An excessive, problematic gambling pattern has been regarded as a mental disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM) for more than 3 decades (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 1980). In this study, its latest prevalence in Macao (one of very few cities with legalized gambling in China and the Far East) was estimated with 2 major changes in the diagnostic criteria, suggested by the 5th edition of DSM (APA, 2013): (a) removing the "Illegal Act" criterion, and (b) lowering the threshold for diagnosis. A random, representative sample of 1,018 Macao residents was surveyed with a phone poll design in January 2013. After the 2 changes were adopted, the present study showed that the estimated prevalence rate of gambling disorder was 2.1% of the Macao adult population. Moreover, the present findings also provided empirical support to the application of these 2 recommended changes when assessing symptoms of gambling disorder among Chinese community adults. Personal risk factors of gambling disorder, namely being male, having low education, a preference for casino gambling, as well as high materialism, were identified. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).

Problem Gambling: An Exploration of the Role of Global Personal Hopefulness, Short-Term Gambling Hope, and Illusion of Control Beliefs.

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2005

The present study investigated if global personal hopefulness, short-term gambling hope (fantasy hope), and illusion of control beliefs predict problem gambling. 113 university students and members of the general public answered the questionnaire on global personal hopefulness, short-term gambling hope, illusion of control beliefs and the harm to self with regard to gambling. It was hypothesised that global personal hopefulness, illusion of control, and short-term gambling hope would predict harm to self scores (problem gambling). A hierarchical regression analysis showed support for the hypothesis. Global personal hopefulness, illusion of control, and short-term gambling hope accounted for 62 % of the variance in harm to self scores. The implication to addiction research and the utility of hope in gambling were discussed.

Problem Gambling in Hong Kong and Macao

Book

Jan 2016

This book critically examines the psychology of gambling in Hong Kong and Macao. Covering the history of gambling and its development in the two jurisdictions, it highlights the prevalence and status quo of problem gambling, the theoretical perspectives on the etiology of gambling disorder, and the treatment of problem gambling. The book also introduces a personality and pathways development model of Chinese problem gamblers and concludes with outlooks on the future of gambling in Hong Kong and Macao.

Behavioral Risk Factors in Disordered Gambling and Treatment Implications

Chapter

Oct 2013

Paul Delfabbro

This chapter discusses the range of behavioral and situational factors that can contribute to both gambling as well as disordered gambling and how these factors are taken into account in intervention strategies. It focuses principally on the psychological and conditioning processes that maintain and trigger gambling episodes. Then, it proceeds to some discussion of social and environmental factors (e.g., the role of families, peers and culture) that can influence gambling. The chapter provides a review of existing knowledge concerning the nature and effectiveness of behavioral interventions for disordered gambling. It also considers the importance of broader social work, counseling, pre-commitment and self-help strategies. Such strategies can also assist gamblers and their families to restructure their lives and behavior so as to reduce opportunities for gambling, control expenditure, and reduce potential harm. Behavioral interventions are now recognized as an important element of best-practice therapies for problem gambling.

Slot or Table? A Chinese Perspective...

Article

Jan 2005

Desmond Lam

The utility analysis of choices involving risk journal of political economy

Article

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-V

Book

Jan 1994

APA American Psychiatric Association

Gambling Participation and Prevalence Estimates of Pathological Gambling in a Far-East Gambling City: Macao.

Article

Jan 2005

This research is the first scientific study of gambling participation and pathological gambling in Macao. In 2003, a computer-assisted random digit dialing method was used to conduct 1,121 telephone interviews. Two-thirds of respondents expressed that they have participated in at least one of the fourteen forms of gambling in the past year. The three most popular forms of gambling include social gambling, Mark Six lottery, and soccer/basketball betting. As for the prevalence of pathological gambling, the Chinese DSM-IV Gambling Behavior Index was used as the screening tool and results indicate that 1.78% of respondents are classified as probable pathological gamblers and 2.5% are classified as probable problem gamblers. Logistic Regression test indicates that male respondents with a monthly personal income of less than MOP 8,000 (Macau currency is the Pataca) tend to be more vulnerable to problem and pathological gambling when they participate in casino gambling, soccer matches betting and mahjong house gambling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

The Utility of Choice Involving Risk

Article

Feb 1948

A Cultural History of Chinese Gambling I (From Ancient Period to Yuan Dynasty): A Cultural and Historical Perspective

Abstract

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