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The ornamental fish industry in Singapore

  • February 2019
DOI:10.11964/jfc.20180911442
Authors:
Gen Hua Yue at Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory
Gen Hua Yue
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Singapore is a small island country with limited land for agricultural purposes and restricted sea waters available for fish farming. However, the ornamental fish industry of Singapore is quite unique and successful, being the world No. 1 exporter of ornamental fish, selling over 1 000 fish species to over 80 countries and generating an annual revenue of USD 43 million in 2016. Its success is mainly thanks to its specific capabilities in licensing, biosecurity controls, culturing, packing, transporting and disease control. Efforts are being made to breed and domesticate many of the high-value marine species and new freshwater species and to develop novel reciculating culture systems. Upstream research has focused on developing and using genomic tools to breed new varieties and to maintain genetic diversity in the wild. However, due to limited space for culturing fish and strong competitions from neighbouring countries, Singapore’s ornamental fish industry is facing many challenges, and its market share is reducing. In this review, we will summarize the status and development of Singapore’s ornamental fish industry, discuss its challenges and make some suggestions for maintaining the leading position of the industry.
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... Globally ornamental sh trade involves more than 125 countries (Yue 2019). About 2500 ornamental sh species are traded worldwide, such that over 90% of these species are purely from fresh water and the rest from salt or brackish water bodies (Dominguez and Botella 2014). ...
... International ornamental sh trade is done in either getting special orders from major traders or online ornamental sh trade (Mazza et al. 2015). For example, in Singapore ornamental sh trade covers 40% of the overall exports (Yue 2019). Kiwale (2003) reported that ornamental sheries in Tanzania had increased income from US$ Different species of ornamental sh including Cyphotilapia frontosa from Lake Tanganyika Tanzania have been traded for many years for income generation. ...
... In Tanzania, there is high dependence in wild stock of ornamental sh species that will ultimately lead to the decline of these species due to over shing. Countries like Philippine, China, Thailand and Singapore are trading ornamental sh species from aquaculture activities and little from wild stock to decrease the problem of stock declining (Yue 2019). Some studies on abundance and diversity of different ornamental shes are available in Tanzania (Kinyage and Lamtane 2018). ...
Status of Ornamental Fish Cyphotilapia Frontosa Trade From Lake Tanganyika, Tanzania
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Dec 2022
This study focused on assessing the status of ornamental fish Cyphotilapia frontosa trade from Lake Tanganyika, Tanzania to provide a good ground for interested parties to undertake well-designed interventions to protect wild stock from depletion. Purposive sampling was used to select fishers and traders of ornamental fish from Katonga, Mwamugongo and Ilagala villages in Kigoma for interview. Key informant interviews, focus group discussions and questionnaires were used for primary data collection. The results showed that much attention is paid during handling and packaging of ornamental fish from collection point to destination to maximize their survival rate. However, there were declining trends of ornamental fish exportation from 15,398 to 12,722 between 2013 and 2019. Ornamental fish C. frontosa are sold in pairs and the most common sex ratio traded was 1 male:3 females. The most price used in trading C. frontosa ranged from USD16 to USD20. Ornamental fish C. frontosa was a good source of income for local communities and the nation at large. It could generate about TZS 159,516,000/= per year per company from exporting C. frontosa . China was the leading foreign market for ornamental fish C. frontosa from Tanzania. Legal frameworks are important components in the fishery and trade of ornamental fish. There should be ornamental fish breeding of C. frontosa in the country to avoid much dependence on fishing from the Lake hence it will ensure the sustainability of the fishery of ornamental fishes and their trade from one generation to another.
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... The major local foodfish production comes from marine aquaculture in floating net cages along the northern coast of Singapore. The ornamental fish farming industry produced ornamental fishes with an approximate value of $76.7 million that is exported to over 80 countries very successful (Yue, 2019). Since 1980s, Singapore is the world No. 1 exporter of ornamental fish (Yue, 2019;Yue et al., 2020). ...
... The ornamental fish farming industry produced ornamental fishes with an approximate value of $76.7 million that is exported to over 80 countries very successful (Yue, 2019). Since 1980s, Singapore is the world No. 1 exporter of ornamental fish (Yue, 2019;Yue et al., 2020). In this review, we only summarized the status of foodfish aquaculture, research on aquaculture, education and training, the challenges and outlook of aquaculture in Singapore. ...
... Qianhu Fish Farm (http://www.qianhufish.com/) is the biggest ornamental fish production and export company in the world (Yue, 2019). It developed its business into foodfish aquaculture value chain, including fish breeding, larval culture, nursery culture and grow-out culture and also marketing. ...
Status, challenges and trends of aquaculture in Singapore
Article
Singapore is a small island country with limited land and sea space for aquaculture. Foodfish production in Singapore is mainly from cage aquaculture in sea and supplied about 10% of total fish consumed. The major cultured species are Asian seabass, milk fish, grey mullet, snappers, golden pompanos, hybrid groupers and shrimps. Although small scale of its aquaculture, constrained by limited available land and coastal areas and high cost for aquaculture, the industry is thriving and transferring from low-tech to high-tech. With the strong support of the government for food security, aquaculture R&D are geared towards developing novel hatchery technologies, marker-assisted and genomic selection to accelerate genetic improvement, the establishment of high-tech aquaculture farms and ensuring biosecurity. Singapore is fast becoming global aquaculture hotspot. In this review, we summarized the status of Singapore's aquaculture production, R&D, training and education and its challenges, and suggested some ideas on the future development of Singapore's aquaculture. Singapore is well-positioned to serve as a R&D and education hub for tropical aquaculture. Its R & D on aquaculture should focus on fish reproduction, genetic improvement and high-tech aquaculture systems to improve local fish production and to supply superior fry for culture in other countries.
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... The major local foodfish production comes from marine aquaculture in floating net cages along the northern coast of Singapore. The ornamental fish farming industry produced ornamental fishes with an approximate value of $76.7 million that is exported to over 80 countries very successful (Yue, 2019). Since 1980s, Singapore is the world No. 1 exporter of ornamental fish (Yue, 2019;Yue et al., 2020). ...
... The ornamental fish farming industry produced ornamental fishes with an approximate value of $76.7 million that is exported to over 80 countries very successful (Yue, 2019). Since 1980s, Singapore is the world No. 1 exporter of ornamental fish (Yue, 2019;Yue et al., 2020). In this review, we only summarized the status of foodfish aquaculture, research on aquaculture, education and training, the challenges and outlook of aquaculture in Singapore. ...
... Qianhu Fish Farm (http://www.qianhufish.com/) is the biggest ornamental fish production and export company in the world (Yue, 2019). It developed its business into foodfish aquaculture value chain, including fish breeding, larval culture, nursery culture and grow-out culture and also marketing. ...
Status, challenges and trends of aquaculture in Singapore
Article
Singapore is a small island country with limited land and sea space for aquaculture. Foodfish production in Singapore is mainly from cage aquaculture in sea and supplied about 10% of total fish consumed. The major cultured species are Asian seabass, milk fish, grey mullet, snappers, golden pompanos, hybrid groupers and shrimps. Although small scale of its aquaculture, constrained by limited available land and coastal areas and high cost for aquaculture, the industry is thriving and transferring from low-tech to high-tech. With the strong support of the government for food security, aquaculture R&D are geared towards developing novel hatchery technologies, marker-assisted and genomic selection to accelerate genetic improvement, the establishment of high-tech aquaculture farms and ensuring biosecurity. Singapore is fast becoming global aquaculture hotspot. In this review, we summarized the status of Singapore’s aquaculture production, R&D, training and education and its challenges, and suggested some ideas on the future development of Singapore’s aquaculture. Singapore is well-positioned to serve as a R&D and education hub for tropical aquaculture. Its R & D on aquaculture should focus on fish reproduction, genetic improvement and high-tech aquaculture systems to improve local fish production and to supply superior fry for culture in other countries.
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... Asian countries account for 51% of the global ornamental fish export market (Loh et al. 2020) and Singapore, with an area of only 721 m2, has an excellent aquacultured ornamental fish industry and trade sector due to its management system, related distribution system among all sectors. Including cultivators, wholesalers and exporters so that this country becomes the largest ornamental fish exporter in the world (Yue 2019). Likewise, Malaysia can optimize the potential of ornamental fish so that it becomes the world's main ornamental producer and exporter by contributing 9% of global trade (Anjur et al. 2021). ...
... In fact, if the ornamental fish is appropriately managed, it offers great potential to improve Indonesians' welfare. The potential for the development of Indonesian ornamental fish is very prospective when compared to Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand because of lower operating costs, available labor and land for cultivation, and international trade connections (Yue 2019). ...
The prospects of business development in ornamental fish in Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2023
Mulyati S, Herdianto T, Suhermanto A, Sofian A. 2022. The prospects of business development in ornamental fish in Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 23: 6413-6419. Ornamental fish is a potential commodity necessarily optimized to improve the welfare of society. One of the Indonesian provinces producing diverse species of ornamental fish to export is Southeast Sulawesi. This study aimed to evaluate the ornamental fish potentials and create an evaluation possibly implemented as a consideration to determine business development strategies. The method was a case study, collected data through observation, interviews, literature study, and internal and external conditions were analyzed using SWOT analysis. The study analyzed the potential, trade, and strategy for business development in ornamental fish in Southeast Sulawesi. The study discovers that 38 species are traded, and nine of them are dominantly traded. Moreover, there are six main species potentially cultivated due to the demand and stable production; they are Betok Kupang (Chrysietera cyanea), Capungan (Apogon sp.), Angel KKO (Cirrhilabrus sp.), Clown fish (Amphiprion ocellaris), Keling Rub (Cirrhilabrus sp.), and Letter six (Paracanthurus hepatus). The development of ornamental fish cultivation can be implemented with the S-O (strengths–opportunities) strategy that manages and protects the environment of ornamental fish, strengthens the capacity of fishers and stakeholders for environmentally friendly activities and export market orientation, and builds cooperation of fisherman, exporters, and stakeholders to develop business in ornamental fish by emphasizing local species with high economic values and market demands. These results can be a consideration in making decisions related to the development of ornamental fish.
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... These fishes also are the result of crossbreeding and selective breeding between different species belonging to distinct areas and habitats. They are also contributors to employment in developing countries when exported to developed countries (Yue, 2019;Raja et al., 2019). With the increase of hobbyists, the hobby of petting ornamental fishes also increases, in an estimated 5000 fresh water and 1450 marine water fish species are accepted as a pet. ...
... Beautiful fish businesses turn out to be expected in recent years, and ornamental fish aquaria may now be seen in homes, restaurants, businesses, hospitals, and more public places. Transport, high stocking density, poor water quality, sloppy handling, and contaminated feed are causes of the stresses that ornamental fish face, resulting in a high prevalence of illnesses (Yue, 2019;Raja et al., 2019). Bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites are coursing the disease in fish. ...
Common Aeromonas Infections in Ornamental Fishes: A review
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2021
In fishes majority of the pathogenic agent of disease are bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites. Generally, the primary causes of contagion are gram-negative bacteria, which have been identified often from diseased fish, resulting in increased mobility and death rates. Bacterial illness can become evident as acute, chronic, or peracute symptoms, but the challenge is that when signs emerged and the disease was recognized, it's too late to cure. Aeromonas are most devastating among all the bacteria and cause significant losses in all cultures, including the ornamental fish culture. It is eminently found in water and is constantly present. An extrinsic agent such as overpopulated, sloppy handling, deteriorating water which leads to degrading quality, contaminated food, and inadequate diet, might incline fish towards Aeromonas infection. Motile species of Aeromonas are recognised as the etiological agents of motile Aeromonad septicemia infections in ornamental fish, which cause significant mortality and economic loss in the ornamental fish business. It can be detected by colonization and adherence in the epidermis, gills filaments, gastrointestinal lining, and lesions or ulcers. Also, it is essential to note that finding the disease in ornamental fish is not easy. The main challenge is that these fishes are too costly and have emotional attachments with their owners, so sampling is difficult for the researcher. After going through so many recent studies and records, we found that the Aeromonas is one of the potential bacteria with so many virulent factors which may become responsible for considerable losses in ornamental fishes. For the avoidance of these losses, it is necessary to suggest a solution. It is critical to emphasize that prevention is preferable to therapy; thus, good management practices and a stress-free environment are essential. If an ailment develops, it is vital to treat it using approved medications and procedures. Ornamental fishes propose various opportunities over food fishes used in aquaculture, including the capacity to treat chemicals and treatments that food fishes are not permitted to get.
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... Captive breeding of the Asian arowana was first successfully carried out in 1981 in both Singapore (Joseph et al. 1986) and Japan (Azuma 1992). Thereafter, large scale captive breeding started for ornamental fish market in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and other countries (Chang 2009;Yue 2019). The filial generation F 2 arowanas generated under captive breeding were allowed for export to many countries, including China, Japan and European countries, while a few countries, including the USA and Australia, still do not allow the import of this fish. ...
... The price of an Asian arowana ranges from a few hundred US dollars to $300,000 (Voigt 2016). Singapore was the first country exporting Asian arowanas (Chang 2009;Dawes 2006;Yue 2019). In the 2000s, arowana aquaculture expanded very quickly in Indonesia and Malaysia. ...
Current Knowledge on the Biology and Aquaculture of the Endangered Asian Arowana
Article
  • Dec 2019
The Asian arowana (Scleropages formosus) is an ancient freshwater fish species from the Osteoglossidae family. It is a territorial and mouth-brooding fish, which inhabits slow-moving rivers and lakes within forests in Southeast Asia. It produces a small number (20–90 eggs/spawning) but very big eggs (diameter: ∼2 cm). It is highly endangered and has been listed under appendix I of CITES since 1975. Captive breeding of the Asian arowana was first successfully carried out in 1981. Its aquaculture began in 1989. Recently, the arowana aquaculture sector generated annual revenue over UDS 200 million globally. The sustainable and profitable aquaculture of a species depends on suitable knowledge of its biology. In this review, the information on the Asian arowana’s evolution, distribution, reproduction, genetics, genomics, growth, diseases and aquaculture was consolidated. Some research areas to fill in the knowledge gaps of its biology and aquaculture to facilitate its aquaculture and conservation were highlighted.
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... 2500 species are traded in over 125 countries. 6 In China, the recreational fisheries were worth around CNY 96.3 billion in 2019, accounting for 3.65% of total fisheries value (approximately CNY 2.64 trillion). As a result, the aquarium industry is becoming increasing important in aquaculture. ...
Fish pigmentation and coloration: Molecular mechanisms and aquaculture perspectives
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2021
Fish coloration, evolved from selection and adaptation, is a prominent feature of remarkable aquaculture merits. Fish possess more pigment cell types than any other vertebrates and are an excellent model for the study of mechanisms underlying skin coloration and pigmentation at levels from molecular genetics to system biology. How to effectively improve skin colour in ornamental and aquaculture fish has long been a focus on selective breeding programmes. In this review article, we introduce different types of chromatophore and early development of pigmentation, describe cellular mechanisms related to morphological and physiological changes of body colour and demonstrate applications of single-sex control and molecular marker–assisted breeding in body colour selection. We also reviewed genes that have been found involving in neural crest migration and development, as well as those involved in melanin-based coloration and other types of pigmentation, and explored how to use transgenic technology for enhancing fish body colour. The applications of genome editing and other omics technologies in relation to fish coloration are also illustrated. Finally, we present our perspectives about future fish coloration research and practice in aquaculture. Taken together, this review is expected to provide an update on cellular and molecular mechanisms in fish coloration and pigmentation, which will likely promote body colour–based molecular breeding programmes in aquaculture.
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Impact of COVID-19 on the productivity of ornamental fish farmers: A case of ornamental fish farms in Colombo district in Sri Lanka
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2022
Ornamental fish production in Sri Lanka has become a valuable foreign exchange earner during recent past years. However, COVID-19 pandemic has been explored worldwide and it has affected the world trade and economy from different perspectives. This study was conducted to explore the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on ornamental fish production. , Moreover, study on present status of ornamental fish farmers’ major constraints and suggestions to overcome those constraints of ornamental fish farmers were also conducted. In Colombo district, four important Divisional Secretariat (DS) divisions were purposely selected for the study, as they are the main ornamental fish production areas of the district. The data was collected from a randomly selected 60 farmers using a field survey from July to October 2020. Descriptive statistics, two sample Wilcoxon signed-rank test and chi-square test were used to analyses the data. Results revealed that, there are both negative and positive impacts on ornamental fish production due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Ornamental fish farmers have to face mainly production and marketing problems. Some of them have engaged in coping strategies and resilience methods during COVID-19 period. Coping strategies have shown a significant association with the income and the production capacity of the farms. However, the majority of ornamental fish farmers haven’t engaged in resilience methods during the COVID-19 pandemic. Other than the COVID-19 pandemic, the major constraints of ornamental fish production were lack of market information about the changes in the overseas markets and demand, the low price given for the product and lack of communication between farmers and exporters. Ideal “ORNAFISBIZ” model is suggested for overcome those constraints in order to protect the ornamental fish farmers in this area.
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Risks associated with the global demand for novel exotic pets: A new and emerging trade in snakehead fish (Channa spp.) from India
Article
Ornamental fish keeping is a popular hobby worldwide, supporting a significant global aquarium industry. Using export records of live snakeheads (Channa spp.) from India, we show a six-fold increase in the numbers of these (wild-sourced, freshwater) species exported worldwide between 2014 and 2019, driven by an increase in exports from West Bengal to China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. We highlight issues associated with exploitation of a poorly-known taxonomic group (in this case, the genus Channa), species that have restricted ranges, are rare, recently described, and difficult for non-experts to distinguish from others, and the risks associated with global transport of a potentially invasive species. We outline knowledge gaps relevant to national-level management; more broadly, we suggest a fundamental change of approach whereby traders of ‘luxury’ wildlife products (e.g. exotic pets) are required to demonstrate that trade is sustainable and safe, rather than conservationists to demonstrate that it is not.
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Identification of Pmel17 for golden skin color using linkage mapping in Mozambique tilapia
Article
Fish color is an important trait involved in many biological functions and related to commercial value of fish. However, our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying color variations in fish species is limited. In this study, we found 12 natural golden mutants in a Mozambique tilapia population. Analysis of the inheritance pattern of the golden and blackish skin colors in nine backcross families revealed that the golden phenotype is a recessive mutant determined by a single locus and follows simple Mendelian inheritance. Using linkage mapping, fine mapping and analyses of gene expressions, we uncovered that the Pmel17 gene was responsible for golden and black skin colors. Further sequence analysis of the gene discovered that an insertion in 3′ UTR of Pmel17 was fully associated with the golden skin color in 1835 tilapias. Expression analysis showed that Pmel17 with the insertion reduced the transcripts of Pmel17. These results indicate that the insertion in 3′ UTR of Pmel17 is responsible for the golden skin color in tilapia. The insertion can be used as a reliable DNA marker to accelerate the breeding for golden color.
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Applications of transgenic technology in ornamental fish
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2002
The transgenic technology has been widely used in biotechnology, from generation of genetically modified (GM) foods to production of pharmaceutical proteins. Although fast-growing transgenic fish using exogeneous growth hormone gene have been successfully produced, the marketing of such GM food fish remains to face an uphill battle. In the present study, we attempted to use the transgenic technology to develop novel varieties of ornamental fish. So far, we have succeeded in generation of several colourful transgenic zebrafish by transferring a jellyfish green fluorescent protein (gfp) gene and an anemone red fluorescent protein (rfp) gene. These transgenic zebrafish displayed green, red, yellow or orange fluorescent colors under both daylight and uv light. Thus, our work demonstrated the feasibility to generate novel varieties of ornamental fish by the transgenic techniques. Currently we are conducting mating behaviour experiments using these transgenic zebrafish. We are also aiming at development of biomonitoring transgenic fish by using some inducible gene promoters that can respond certain environmental pollutants.
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The Asian arowana (Scleropages formosus) genome provides new insights into the evolution of an early lineage of teleosts
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2016
The Asian arowana (Scleropages formosus), one of the world’s most expensive cultivated ornamental fishes, is an endangered species. It represents an ancient lineage of teleosts: the Osteoglossomorpha. Here, we provide a high-quality chromosome-level reference genome of a female golden-variety arowana using a combination of deep shotgun sequencing and high-resolution linkage mapping. In addition, we have also generated two draft genome assemblies for the red and green varieties. Phylogenomic analysis supports a sister group relationship between Osteoglossomorpha (bonytongues) and Elopomorpha (eels and relatives), with the two clades together forming a sister group of Clupeocephala which includes all the remaining teleosts. The arowana genome retains the full complement of eight Hox clusters unlike the African butterfly fish (Pantodon buchholzi), another bonytongue fish, which possess only five Hox clusters. Differential gene expression among three varieties provides insights into the genetic basis of colour variation. A potential heterogametic sex chromosome is identified in the female arowana karyotype, suggesting that the sex is determined by a ZW/ZZ sex chromosomal system. The high-quality reference genome of the golden arowana and the draft assemblies of the red and green varieties are valuable resources for understanding the biology, adaptation and behaviour of Asian arowanas.
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IOT based automation of fish farming
Article
  • Jan 2017
The proposed work is an embedded system for automatic control of fish farming. Aquaculture, also known as aqua farming, is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans and crabs by using the various sensors to reduce the risks. The proposed work supports remote monitoring of the fish farming system based on Internet of Things (IOT) for real-time monitor and control of a fish farming system. Objective of this manuscript is to provide an automatic fish farming monitoring system thereby saving time, money & power of the farmer. IOT technologies have revolutionized farm production in the country. In the fish farming process we use various sensors like pH value, temperature and level sensors. By using these sensors all the work is automated and it will also be easy to monitor the fish farming remotely from other location. © 2017, Institute of Advanced Scientific Research, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Generation of living color transgenic zebrafish
Chapter
  • Jan 2003
Use of green fluorescent protein (gfp) as a reporter gene is a powerful approach for the investigation of tissue-specific gene expression and cellular localization of proteins because the fluorescence of its protein product can be conveniently detected in living cells without supplementing a substrate. The approach is particularly useful in zebrafish because of the transparency and external development of their embryos. In the past few years, using several zebrafish tissue-specific promoters, we have developed several stable lines of gfp transgenic zebrafish that display green fluorescence in different tissues; these include five transgenic lines under an epidermis-specific keratin8 (krt8) promoter, two transgenic lines under a fast skeletal muscle-specific promoter from the myosin light polypeptide 2 (mylz2) gene, and five transgenic lines under an elastaseA (elaA) promoter that is specifically expressed in pancreatic exocrine cells. In all cases, transgenic GFP is faithfully expressed according to the specificity of the promoters used. These gfp transgenic lines are useful for recapitulation of a gene expression program, investigation of tissue and organ development, cell sorting for in vitro cell culture, and construction of cell type-specific cDNA library. Recently, by using two tissue-specific promoters linked to two different reporter genes, gfp and rfp (red fluorescent protein), we have generated two-color transgenic zebrafish that express GFP in skin epidermis and RFP in fast skeletal muscle. Currently, we are also developing gfp transgenic fish for biomonitoring using selected inducible gene promoters that can respond to heavy metals and estrogenic compounds. Thus, generation of living color transgenic zebrafish will have important applications in biotechnology as well as in developmental biology.
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Development of Autonomous Bio-Mimetic Ornamental Aquarium Fish Robotic
Article
  • May 2015
In this paper, the designed fish robots DOMI ver1.0 is researched and development for aquarium underwater robot. The presented fish robot consists of the head, 1`st stage body, 2nd stage body and tail, which is connected two point driving joints. The model of the robot fish is analysis to maximize the momentum of the robot fish and the body of the robot is designed through the analysis of the biological fish swimming. Also, Lighthill was applied to the kinematics analysis of robot fish swimming algorithms, we are applied to the approximate method of the streamer model that utilizes techniques mimic the biological fish. The swimming robot has two operating mode such as manual and autonomous operation modes. In manual mode the fish robot is operated to using the RF transceiver, and in autonomous mode the robot is controlled by microprocessor board that is consist PSD sensor for the object recognition and avoidance. In order to the submerged and emerged, the robot has the bladder device in a head portion. The robot gravity center weight is transferred to a one-axis sliding and it is possible to the submerged and emerged of DOMI robot by the breath unit. It was verified by the performance test of this design robot DOMI ver1.0. It was confirmed that excellent performance, such as driving force, durability and water resistance through the underwater field test.
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Anesthesia in Fish
Article
Fish should be anesthetized during any procedure that is stressful or likely to cause pain. The author discusses methods of anesthesia, the effects of anesthetic agents on water quality, and the physiologic effects of selected anesthetic agents on fish.
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The Ecological Transformation of Singapore, 1819-1990
Article
In 1819 the island of Singapore was almost entirely covered in rain forest, with a flora similar to the adjacent Malay Peninsula but a relatively depauperate vertebrate fauna. The cultivation of cash crops resulted in rapid deforestation which was largely completed by the end of the nineteenth century. The cultivated area reached a maximum in 1935 and declined thereafter. Today, more than half the island is urbanized and less than 100 ha of primary rain forest survives. A further 1600 ha is covered in tall secondary forest. Floristic extinctions are impossible to quantify reliably but at least 100 bird species, twenty fresh-water fish species and several species of mammal have been lost. Man-made, open habitats are dominated by exotics but few have penetrated the forest. The naturalized biota includes at least 138 vascular plain species, eighteen bird species, live mammal species, twenty fish species, several species of reptiles and amphibia, and an unknown number of invertebrates. Over much of inland Singapore there are probably none of the plant or animal species that occurred there 170 years ago. Despite this, in all the major taxonomic groups for which I have information the majority of known native species can still be found in Singapore today.
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