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Theology of Religion: Pluralism,
Inclusivism, Exclusivism
Domenic Marbaniang
ACTS Academy, Bangalore (2007)
The term ‘theology of religion’ is to be understood here as
the branch of Christian theology that attempts to
theologically and biblically evaluate the phenomena of
religion. Three important schools within this field are
pluralism, inclusivism, and exclusivism. Each of them will
be briefly examined here.
Pluralism
Pluralism is basically the belief that the world religions are
true and equally valid in their communication of the truth
about God, the world, and salvation. The chief expounder
of this view is John Hick of Claremont Graduate School in
California, who first propounded it in his book God and
the Universe of Faiths (1973)
. His view is not different
from the popular Hindu view capsulated in Krishna’s
saying in the Bhagavadgita:
By whatsoever way men worship Me, even so do
I accept them; for, in all ways, O Partha, men
walk in My path.
1
This is the popular view that all religions lead to the same
God and all ways lead to heaven. According to Hick,
Christianity is not the one and only way of salvation, but
one among several. To a pluralist such as Hick,
Christianity is not the absolute, unique, and final way to
God. While pluralists assert the validity of all religions,
they also deny the finality of all religions. According to
Hick, in the evolutionary scheme of things in which at
isolated ages and places the early religions are succeeded
by higher religions, it is the same message of God that
comes distinctly to a particular group but as different from
the others. Hick challenges the older view that Christ or
Christianity must be seen at the center of religions.
Rather, he says, God must be seen at the center of
religions. The pluralistic contention is that all religions are
fundamentally the same though superficially different.
‘The attraction of pluralism,’ says McGrath, ‘lies not in its
claim to truth, which are remarkably elusive and shallow,
but in its claim to foster tolerance among the religions.’
2
To an evangelical Christian, however, such pluralism only
means the abolition of kerygmatic mission, i.e., the
mission of evangelizing the world with the salvific gospel
of Jesus Christ. However, the reasons for rejecting
1 Srimad Bhagavad-Gita
IV.11 (trans. Swami Vireswarananda; Madras: Sri Ramakrishna
Math, 1974), p.93
2 Dennis L. Okholm & Timothy Philips, Four Views on Salvation in a Pluralistic World
(Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publication, 1996), p. 208
pluralism go beyond the cause of evangelization. Any
sincere study of world religions expressly reveals that
contrary to the pluralistic contention all religions look
superficially the same but are fundamentally different.
Each of them differs from the rest in its view of God, sin,
salvation, death, and eternity. Obviously, the pantheistic
notion of the world as God and the monotheistic notion of
the world as creation of God are not the same. The only
way to call them same is by jettisoning the notion of
absolute truth itself; however, that would mean that no
absolute statements about anything can be made,
including the statement that all religions are the same.
Another point against pluralism is the counterfeit posture
it assumes. Pluralism contends that it is different from
exclusivism in that it accepts the validity of all religions.
Thus, truth is both relativized and pluralized. However,
one basic feature of truth is exclusivity. Truth by nature
excludes everything else contrary to it. Thus, every
statement in order to be meaningful must exclude all its
opposite. Thus, pluralism by contending the validity of all
religions against the segregated contention of each to
validity excludes all other views contrary to it. For
example, it excludes the view that ‘all religions are not
true.’ Therefore, though assuming the form of pluralism, it
is none other than a variant of exclusivism itself.
Inclusivism
Inclusivism is the belief that God is present in
non-Christian religions to save the adherents through
Christ. The inclusivist view has given rise to the concept of
the anonymous Christian by which is understood an
adherent of a particular religion whom God saves through
Christ, but who personally neither knows the Christ of the
Bible nor has converted to Biblical Christianity. This
position was popularized by the Roman Catholic
theologian, Karl Rahner (b. 1904).
One important issue that Rahner raises is about the
salvation of those who have never had the opportunity to
listen to the gospel Jesus Christ. To Rahner, then, people
can be saved apart from allegiance to the Christian church.
It is God in Christ who reaches out to the individual in his
own personal religious history to same him. Rahner used
the term ‘anonymous’ to denote people who experience the
grace of God in Christ regardless to what religion they
belong to. Inclusivism is based on two axioms: the first is
that salvation is through Christ alone, the second is that
God wills the whole world to be saved. Consequently, God
3
saves people through Christ alone; however, he makes this
possible through ways that extend to all humanity.
To Rahner, a non-Christian religion is a lawful religion for
3 Based on Acts 4:12 and 1 Timothy 2: 4
until its followers have a Christian witness it is a means by
which non-Christians gain a right relationship with God.
Also, the religion is included in God’s plan of salvation
which God has ordained for the communication of His
grace.
Inclusivism has a great appeal to people because of its
sympathetic approach to religion. However, it ignores the
fact of ungodly elements within religions. It would only be
a contradiction in terms to conceive of a God who reveals
that he is against idolatry and at the same time assert that
he saves a person in his worship of idols. Jesus said it is by
knowing the truth that one is liberated. When the apostles
spoke of salvation by the name of Jesus, they never meant
that people could be saved within allegiance to the
lordship of Jesus; on the contrary, they expressly meant
that only by a voluntary submission to the Lord could one
be saved. The will of God for salvation of all men in 1
Timothy 2: 4 is qualified by His desire that all of them will
come to the knowledge of the truth for which Paul testifies
as being appointed a preacher. Thus, the Bible is clear on
the point that knowledge of Christ precedes the reception
of saving grace in faith.
Inclusivism is seen as arrogantly exclusivist, if seen from
the perspective of other religions. It tells that Hindus are
not saved by their dharma, and Muslims are not saved by
their works, but all are saved unaware by Christ. This not
only proves that the salvation doctrine of all other
religions are false but also that people are not saved
because of following the religious way of their religion.
This is something like saying that the neighbor is living by
my money though it is he who earns his livelihood and
lives by it. The claim is unwarranted. Finally, Christ
assumes a nebulous and abstract character and personal
commitment to the historical Christ almost loses
soteriological value as can be seen in the case of M. M.
Thomas’ Christ-centered syncretism. Therefore,
4
inclusivism cannot be accepted as Biblically warranted.
Exclusivism
Exclusivism is the theological position that holds to the
finality of the Christian faith in Christ. The finality of
Christ means that there is no salvation in non-Christian
religions. Notable among the exclusivists of this century
are Samuel Zwemer, Hendrik Kraemer, and Lesslie
Newbigin.
Based on the Aristotelian concept of truth as one and not
many, exclusivists regard all other religious claims as false
and invalid since the Christian revelation is accepted as
true. Exclusivists hold that salvation is through Christ
5
alone. It is through a personal experience of commitment
to Christ that one receives assurance of salvation. The
non-believers cannot receive such assurance since they are
4 Ken Gnanakan, The Pluralistic Predicament
(Bangalore: TBT, 1992), p. 88
5 Ken Gnanakan, The Pluralistic Predicament
(Bangalore: TBT, 1992), p. 23
neither aware of the uniqueness of Christ neither do they
acknowledge His lordship. The exclusivist begins with the
Bible as the source of all knowledge about spirituality and
salvation. The Bible is the criterion of all religious truth.
The Bible relates the history of redemption, gives a
foundation to personal faith, is a guidebook of the
Christian community, and tells us of the future of the
world that links up all history, life, and service with
meaning and purpose. Exclusivism, thus, establishes the
uniqueness and identity of Christianity among world
religions. Such exclusivism can take either an extremist or
a moderate viewpoint. The extremist view regards all
non-Christian religions as demonic and enemies of
Christian truth. On the other hand, the moderate view
6
sees some non-Christian religions as containing elements
whereby a dialogue with them can be initiated. However,
all exclusivists in general agree that salvation is exclusively
only through Christ and received by a personal
commitment to the Lord.
An exclusivist view is inevitable in any dialogue of truth.
As has been seen, neither the pluralist nor the inclusivist
could avoid being exclusivist at some point. Truth by
nature is exclusive and any claim to truth is exclusive. The
only way to deny exclusiveness of Christ is to deny the
veracity of the Bible. The exclusivist view rightly sees the
exclusiveness of the Bible in its proclamation of Christ as
6 Cp. Emil Brunner & Karl Barth, Natural Theology
(London: Geoffrey Bles: The
Centenary Press, 1946), pp. 74, 128
the only way of salvation. However, at the same time, it
must be affirmed that the Bible also speaks of God
involved in the history of the nations. Therefore, it must
not be thought non-Christian religions are totally devoid
of virtue. Thus, though being very vociferous in his attacks
on Hinduism, Nehemiah Goreh could say that ‘Most
erroneous as is the teaching of such books as the
Bhagvadgita,
the Bhagvata
, etc., yet they have taught us
something of ananyabhakti (undivided devotedness to
God), of vairagya (giving up the world), of namrata
(humility), of ksama (forbearance), etc., which enables us
to appreciate the precepts of Christianity.’
7
Thus, of the various schools of approach to the study of
religion, theologically speaking, moderate exclusivism
proves to be the best, since it neither distorts the meaning
of truth, as pluralism does, nor forces itself over the other
religions, as inclusivism does, but remains true to its
source of doctrine, viz.
the Bible.
7 Quote from Proofs of the Divinity of Our Lord
, as cited by R.H.S. Boyd in Indian Christian
Theology (Delhi: ISPCK, 1969), p. 55
