No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Towards the void hole alleviation for energy efficiency in WSN
Abstract
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are facing different challenges in the routing procedure. Cost efficiency, low energy consumption and reliable data communication between nodes are the major challenges in the field of WSNs. During the transmission process of nodes, energy is also lost due to void holes. In the WSNs, location error and battery consumption are inevitable, while the loss of data packets and the maximum usage of energy degrade the performance of the network, significantly. Different energy conservation methods are used in different routing protocols. In this paper, two routing protocols are proposed for maximum stability of the network by avoiding void holes. Furthermore, the proposed protocols are compared with the state-of-art protocols to show their productiveness. A major part of the energy is consumed due to the creation of void holes and imbalance network deployment. In this work, the concept of location error is also introduced for improving the efficiency of our work. Simulations are performed in order to check the effectiveness of our proposed schemes and results show that our proposed routing schemes outperform the comparing ones.
... In this approach, called the Wireless sensor Hole Detection algorithm (WHD), the sensors are categorized into cells or Regions Of Interest (ROI) that contribute to increased network lifetime and discipline the communication of the regular nodes with the sink. In [26], a routing solution for Wireless Sensor Networks, composed of two algorithms, was proposed and discussed. The Hole Alleviation-Energy Conditioned Mean Absolute Error (HA-ECMAE) and Hole Alleviation-Energy Conditioned Mean Absolute Error Two Hop (HA-ECMAE2H) can handle the energy imbalance caused by the occurrence of routing holes during the packet-forwarding process in multi-route and multi-hop scenarios. ...
The occurrence of hole regions in Wireless Sensor Networks is a significant challenge when applying a greedy technique in a geographic routing approach. The local minimum phenomenon is commonly attributed to physical obstacles, energy depletion of the nodes, failures in communication between neighbors, or even the incorrect deployment of the nodes in the sensing field. To address the problem of hole regions, most approaches choose to abandon the traditional greedy forwarding mechanism to temporarily adopt the well-known perimeter routing scheme applied to nearby nodes or along the edge of a region of a hole. However, this mechanism does not satisfy the network load balance requirement, because it imposes too much traffic to the nodes in the hole’s edge, making them overloaded when compared to other network nodes more distant from holes. In this work, we propose a novel location-free geographic routing technique called PAtCH (Proactive Approach to Circumvent Holes in Wireless Sensor Network) to avoid routing holes in WSNs. Our solution can circumvent hole regions and create routing paths toward the destination. We consider that our sink has a higher communication range, and the Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) is used to assist the construction of the routing paths. Our results show the efficiency achieved by our proposed solution in scenarios with hole regions, also maintaining all the benefits of a classic greedy forwarding technique.
Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) are promising and emerging frameworks having a wide range of applications. The underwater sensor deployment is beneficial; however, some factors limit the performance of the network, i.e., less reliability, high end to end delay and maximum energy dissipation. The provisioning of the aforementioned factors has become a challenging task for the research community. In UWSNs, battery consumption is inevitable and has a direct impact on the performance of the network. Most of the time energy dissipates due to the creation of void holes and imbalanced network deployment. In this work, two routing protocols are proposed to avoid the void hole and extra energy dissipation problems due to which lifespan of the network will increase. To show the efficacy of the proposed routing schemes, they are compared with the state of the art protocols. Simulation results show that the proposed schemes outperform their counterpart schemes.
By keeping in mind the emerging security issues in sensor networks, we have proposed a blockchain based trust model for sensor networks to enrich the security of the network. Additionally, this model provides security along with data immutability.
We have used a private blockchain because it has all the security features that are necessary for a private sensor network. Moreover, private blockchain cannot be accessed by using the Internet. In the proposed trust model, the Proof of Authority (PoA) consensus algorithm is used due to its low computational power requirement. In PoA consensus mechanism, a group of the validator is selected for adding and maintaining blocks. Moreover, smart contracts are used to validate and transfer cryptocurrency to service providers. In the end, transaction and execution costs are also calculated for each function to testify the network suitability.
The vision of Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks (WMSNs) is to provide real-time multimedia applications using wireless sensors deployed for long-term usage. Quality of Service (QoS) assurances for both best effort data and real-time multimedia applications introduced new challenges in prioritizing multipath routing protocols in WMSNs. Multipath routing approaches with multiple constraints have received considerable research interest. In this paper, a comprehensive survey of both best effort data and real-time multipath routing protocols for WMSNs is presented. Results of a preliminary investigation into design issues affecting the development of strategic multipath routing protocols that support multimedia data in WMSNs are also presented and discussed from the network application perspective.
Due to limited energy resources, energy balancing becomes an appealing requirement/ challenge in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs). In this paper, we present a Balanced Load Distribution (BLOAD) scheme to avoid energy holes created due to unbalanced energy consumption in UWSNs. Our proposed scheme prolongs the stability period and lifetime of the UWSNs. In BLOAD scheme, data (generated plus received) of underwater sensor nodes is divided into fractions. The transmission range of each sensor node is logically adjusted for evenly distributing the data fractions among the next hop neighbor nodes. Another distinct feature of BLOAD scheme is that each sensor node in the network sends a fraction of data directly to the sink by adjusting its transmission range and continuously reports data to the sink till its death even if an energy hole is created in its next hop region. We implement the BLOAD scheme, by varying the fractions of data using adjustable transmission ranges in homogeneous and heterogeneous simulation environments. Simulation results show that the BLOAD scheme outperforms the selected existing schemes in terms of stability period and network lifetime.
From the view of routing protocols in Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs), the presence of communication void, where the packet cannot be forwarded further using the greedy mode, is perhaps the most challenging issue. In this paper, we review the state of the art of void-handling techniques proposed by underwater geographic greedy routing protocols. To this, we first review the void problem and its negative impact on the category of the geographic greedy routing protocols, which does not entail any void recovery technique. It is followed by a discussion about the constraints, challenges, and features associated with the design of void-handling techniques in UWSNs. Afterwards, currently available void-handling techniques in UWSNs are classified and investigated. They can be classified into two main categories: location-based and depth-based techniques. The advantages and disadvantages of each technique along with the recent advances are then presented. Finally, we present a qualitative comparison of these techniques and also discuss some possible future directions.
Introducing mobility to Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) puts new challenges particularly in designing of routing protocols. Mobility can be applied to the sensor nodes and/or the sink node in the network. Many routing protocols have been developed to support the mobility of WSNs. These protocols are divided depending on the routing structure into hierarchical-based, flat-based, and location-based routing protocols. However, the hierarchical-based routing protocols outperform the other routing types in saving energy, scalability, and extending lifetime of Mobile WSNs (MWSNs). Selecting an appropriate hierarchical routing protocol for specific applications is an important and difficult task. Therefore, this paper focuses on reviewing some of the recently hierarchical-based routing protocols that are developed in the last five years for MWSNs. This survey divides the hierarchical-based routing protocols into two broad groups, namely, classical-based and optimized-based routing protocols. Also, we present a detailed classification of the reviewed protocols according to the routing approach, control manner, mobile element, mobility pattern, network architecture, clustering attributes, protocol operation, path establishment, communication paradigm, energy model, protocol objectives, and applications. Moreover, a comparison between the reviewed protocols is investigated in this survey depending on delay, network size, energy-efficiency, and scalability while mentioning the advantages and drawbacks of each protocol. Finally, we summarize and conclude the paper with future directions.
Energy efficiency is one of the main issues that will drive the design of fog-supported wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Indeed, the behavior of such networks becomes very unstable in node’s heterogeneity and/or node’s failure. In WSNs, clusters are dynamically built up by neighbor nodes, to save energy and prolong the network lifetime. One of the nodes plays the role of Cluster Head (CH) that is responsible for transferring data among the neighboring sensors. Due to pervasive use of WSNs, finding an energy-efficient policy to opt CHs in the WSNs has become increasingly important. Due to this motivations, in this paper, a modified Stable Election Protocol (SEP), named Prolong-SEP (P-SEP) is presented to prolong the stable period of Fog-supported sensor networks by maintaining balanced energy consumption. P-SEP enables uniform nodes distribution, new CH selecting policy, and prolong the time interval of the system, especially before the failure of the first node. P-SEP considers two-level nodes’ heterogeneities: advanced and normal nodes. In P-SEP, the advanced and normal nodes have the opportunity to become CHs. The performance of the proposed approach is evaluated by varying the various parameters of the network in comparison with other state-of-the-art cluster-based routing protocols. The simulation results point out that, by varying the initial energy and node heterogeneity parameters, the network lifetime of P-SEP improved by 31, 29, 20 and 40 % in comparison with SEP, Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy with Deterministic Cluster-Head Selection (LEACH-DCHS), Modified SEP (M-SEP) and an efficient modified SEP (EM-SEP), respectively.
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are a collection of several small and inexpensive battery-powered nodes, commonly used to monitor regions of interests and to collect data from the environment. Several issues exist in routing data packets through WSN, but the most crucial problem is energy. There are a number of routing approaches in WSNs that address the issue of energy by the use of different energy-efficient methods. This paper, presents a brief summary of routing and related issues in WSNs. The most recent energy-efficient data routing approaches are reviewed and categorized based on their aims and methodologies. The traditional battery based energy sources for sensor nodes and the conventional energy harvesting mechanisms that are widely used to in energy replenishment in WSN are reviewed. Then a new emerging energy harvesting technology that uses piezoelectric nanogenerators to supply power to nanosensor; the type of sensors that cannot be charged by conventional energy harvesters are explained. The energy consumption reduction routing strategies in WSN are also discussed. Furthermore, comparisons of the variety of energy harvesting mechanisms and battery power routing protocols that have been discussed are presented, eliciting their advantages, disadvantages and their specific feature. Finally, a highlight of the challenges and future works in this research domain is presented.
Localization of sensor nodes in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) promotes many new applications. A longer life time is imperative for WSNs, this requirement constrains the energy consumption and computation power of the nodes. To locate sensors at a low cost, the received signal strength (RSS)-based localization is favored by many researchers. RSS positioning does not require any additional hardware on the sensors and does not consume extra power. A low complexity solution to RSS localization is the linear least squares (LLS) method. In this paper, we analyze and improve the performance of this technique. First, a weighted least squares (WLS) algorithm is proposed, which considerably improves the location estimation accuracy. Second, reference anchor optimization using a technique based on the minimization of the theoretical mean square error is also proposed to further improve performance of LLS and WLS algorithms. Finally, to realistically bound the performance of any unbiased RSS location estimator based on the linear model, the linear Cramer-Rao bound (CRB) is derived. It is shown via simulations that employment of the optimal reference anchor selection technique considerably improves system performance, while the WLS algorithm pushes the estimation performance closer to the linear CRB. Finally, it is also shown that the linear CRB has larger error than the exact CRB, which is the expected outcome.
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) play a very important role in realizing Internet of Things (IoT). In many WSN applications, flooding is a fundamental network service for remote network configuration, diagnosis or disseminating code updates. Despite a plethora of research on flooding problem in the literature, there has been very limited research on flooding tree construction in asynchronous low-duty-cycle WSNs. In this paper, we focus our investigation on minimum-delay and energy-efficient flooding tree construction considering the duty-cycle operation and unreliable wireless links. We show the existence of the latency-energy trade-off in flooding. We formulate the problem as a undetermined-delay-constrained minimum spanning tree (UDC-MST) problem, where the delay constraint is known a posteriori. Due to the NP-completeness of the UDC-MST problem, we design a distributed Minimum-Delay Energy-efficient flooding Tree (MDET) algorithm to construct an energy optimal tree with flooding delay bounding. Through extensive simulations, we demonstrate that MDET achieves a comparable delivery latency with the minimum-delay flooding, and incurs only 10% more transmission cost than the lower bound, which yields a good balance between flooding delay and energy efficiency.
One of the major challenges during initiation of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) is the energy conservation. Knowing that the transceiver is the main source of energy dissipation, we have to design a suitable protocol at the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer to maximize the network lifetime. We are interested in reducing the energy consumption in such networks with very little degradation in the delay profile. In this paper, a Node-power-based MAC protocol with adaptive listening period for WSNs is presented. The proposed protocol alleviates the problems of unfair distribution of power among nodes in the original Sensor-MAC (S-MAC) and Multi-Layer MAC (ML-MAC) protocols. Simulation results show that the proposed MAC protocol provides an enhanced performance compared to both the S-MAC and ML-MAC protocols. The simulation results show also that the proposed MAC protocol consumes less energy than those consumed by both the S-MAC and ML-MAC protocols. The proposed protocol saves about 61.1% of the energy consumed by the S-MAC protocol. It also achieves 17% energy saving as compared to the ML-MAC protocol in the non-coherent mode. Moreover, in the coherent mode, the proposed protocol saves 73% and 23.1% of the energy consumed by the S-MAC and ML-MAC protocols, respectively.
Geographic routing is becoming an attractive routing solution for WSNs since it offers a radical departure from traditional topology-dependent routing paradigms through use of geographic location in data delivery. However, it often suffers from the routing hole, referring to an area free of nodes in the direction closer to destination, in various real-world environments such as buildings and obstacles, leading to route failure. Currently, most geographic routing protocols tend to exploit face routing to recover the route. The basic idea behind it is to planarize the whole network by eliminating the crossing links before applying routing algorithms, thus achieving suboptimal network performance. In this article, we first survey representative face-based geographic routing approaches, including their design prerequisites and philosophy. Furthermore, we outline the emerging issues to be addressed in the future and illustrate the forming factors behind them in detail. Based on these observations, we then propose a CAGR to address the routing hole problem by employing relative coordinate systems, avoiding planarizing networks and preserving route optimality properties. Simulation results show that the proposed approach is superior to existing protocols in terms of packet delivery ratio, control overhead, and delivery delay in WSNs over a variety of communication sessions passing through the routing holes.
Network lifetime is a crucial performance metric to evaluate data-gathering wireless sensor networks (WSNs) where battery-powered sensor nodes periodically sense the environment and forward collected samples to a sink node. In this paper, we propose an analytic model to estimate the entire network lifetime from network initialization until it is completely disabled, and determine the boundary of energy hole in a data-gathering WSN. Specifically, we theoretically estimate the traffic load, energy consumption, and lifetime of sensor nodes during the entire network lifetime. Furthermore, we investigate the temporal and spatial evolution of energy hole and apply our analytical results to WSN routing in order to balance the energy consumption and improve the network lifetime. Extensive simulation results are provided to demonstrate the validity of the proposed analytic model in estimating the network lifetime and energy hole evolution process.
Many consumer products in the home environment are managed by the Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). However, the energy hole problem in the WSNs which with logical ring topology and uniformly distributed sensors is usually caused by the energy exhaustion of the sensors which distributed in the first radius range of the sink. This paper firstly analyzed the energy consumption model of the sensor, the data transmission model of the sensor, and the energy consumption distribution model of the WSNs. Then, a WSN Energy Hole Alleviating (WSNEHA) algorithm, which is based on the data forwarding and router selection strategy, is proposed. The WSNEHPA adopts the data forwarding and routing selection strategy to balance the energy consumption of the sensors in the first radius range of the sink. Experimental results demonstrate that WSNEHPA can efficiently balance the energy consumption of the sensors in the first radius range of the sink, and that the lifetime of the WSNs can be extended efficiently.
In Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), Sensor nodes (nodes) are equipped with limited energy source. Therefore, efficient energy utilization of nodes has become a hot research area in WSNs. In this paper, we introduce a new routing technique for WSNs in which, we solve the problem of unbalanced energy utilization, which causes energy and coverage holes in WSNs. Deployment area is divided into subareas; each subarea logically represents a static cluster. Dividing network field into subfields helps to control coverage hole problem whereas, static clustering helps to avoid energy hole problem. Mathematical formulation of the proposed work is provided to analyse and verify our technique. Simulation results show that our technique balances energy utilization of the network.
Realistic geographic routing algorithms need to ensure quality of services in wireless sensor network applications while being resilient to the inherent localization errors of positioning algorithms. A number of solutions robust against location errors have been proposed in the literature and their design focuses either on a high throughput or on a balanced energy consumption. Ideally, both aspects need to be addressed by the same algorithm, but in most cases, the proposed routing techniques compromise between the two. The present work aims to minimize such a tradeoff and to facilitate a higher packet delivery ratio than similar geographic routing techniques, while still being energy efficient. This is achieved through a novel proposal entitled energy conditioned mean square error algorithm (ECMSE), which makes use of statistical assumptions of Gaussianly distributed location error and Ricianly distributed distances between sensor nodes. In addition, it makes use of an energy efficient feature, which includes information about the energy cost of the forwarding decision. By using a location-error-resilient and distance-based power metric, the ECMSE provides an improved performance in realistic simulations in comparison with other error-coping geographic routing algorithms.
Recent advances in wireless sensor networks have led to many new protocols specifically designed for sensor networks where energy awareness is an essential consideration. Most of the attention, however, has been given to the routing protocols since they might differ depending on the application and network architecture. This paper surveys recent routing protocols for sensor networks and presents a classification for the various approaches pursued. The three main categories explored in this paper are data-centric, hierarchical and location-based. Each routing protocol is described and discussed under the appropriate category. Moreover, protocols using contemporary methodologies such as network flow and quality of service modeling are also discussed. The paper concludes with open research issues.
Energy harvesting and battery power based routing in wireless sensor networks.
- Mohammad Anisi
- Gaddafi Hossein
- Abdul-Salaam
Anisi, Mohammad Hossein, Gaddafi Abdul-Salaam, Mohd Yamani Idna
Idris, Ainuddin Wahid Abdul Wahab, and Ismail Ahmedy. "Energy harvesting and battery power based routing in wireless sensor networks." Wireless
Networks 23, no. 1 (2017): 249-266.
Analysis of Energy Efficient Routing Protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks.
- Seldev Beni
- Christopher
Beni, and Seldev Christopher. 'Analysis of Energy Efficient Routing
Protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks." (2018).