Synthesis of wall paintings in Israel

Abstract

A synthesis of the Roman and Early Byzantine wall paintings in Israel as presented in the Colloquium held in Lausanne, state of the art.

Full text

ISBN 978-3-908006-47-3
Pictores per provincias II – Status quaestionis
Actes du 13eColloque International de l’AIPMA – Lausanne 2016 Antiqua 55
Antiqua 55
Actes du 13eColloque de l’Association Internationale
pour la Peinture Murale Antique (AIPMA)
Université de Lausanne, 12–16 septembre 2016
Yves Dubois, Urs Niffeler (dir.)
PICTORES PER PROVINCIAS II –
STATUS QUAESTIONIS
00_AIPMA_Umschlag_00_AIPMA_Umschlag 22.01.18 16:41 Seite 1

Yves Dubois, Urs Niffeler (dir.)
PICTORES PER PROVINCIAS II –
STATUS QUAESTIONIS
Actes du 13eColloque de l’Association
Internationale pour la Peinture Murale Antique
(AIPMA)
Colloque international organisé par Yves Dubois, Michel E.Fuchs
et Alexandra Spühler
à l’Université de Lausanne, Anthropole, du 12 au 16 septembre 2016

ANTIQUA 55 Veröffentlichung der
Archäologie Schweiz
Publication
d’Archéologie Suisse
Pubblicazione
d’Archeologia Svizzera
Publication of
Swiss Archaeology

PICTORES PER PROVINCIAS II –
STATUS QUAESTIONIS
Actes du 13eColloque de l’AIPMA
Lausanne, 12–16 septembre 2016
Yves Dubois, Urs Niffeler (dir.)
Basel 2018

4Impressum
Direction de la rédaction: Yves Dubois, Urs Niffeler.
Equipe de rédaction, homogénéisation des contributions, transcription et rédaction des
discussions, index locorum: Cindy Vaucher, Claudia Lozano, Daniela Greger, Sarah Paudex,
Natasha Hathaway, Romeo Dell’Era, Nicolas Becker, Alexandra Spühler, Yves Dubois et
Urs Niffeler.
Mise en pages: Isabelle D.Zeder.
Impression: Beltz Grafische Betriebe, Bad Langensalza.
Copyright © by Archéologie Suisse, Basel 2018
Printed in Germany
ISBN: 978-3-908006-47-3
Couverture: Pully VD, villa romaine, paysage idyllico-sacré, in situ. Photo de fouille,
Archéologie cantonale vaudoise.
Quatrième de couverture: les participantes et participants au 13ecolloque de l’AIPMA,
Anthropole, Université de Lausanne. Photo T. Grec.
Comité scientifique: voir p.10.
Cet ouvrage a fait l’objet d’un processus de peer-review.
Le présent ouvrage a été publié avec le soutien des institutions suivantes:
Académie suisse des sciences humaines et sociales
Faculté des Lettres de l’Université de Lausanne
Société Académique Vaudoise
Fondation UBS pour la Culture
Goethe-Stiftung für Kunst und Wissenschaft
Fondation J.-J.van Walsem pro Universitate
Fondation de Famille Sandoz
AIPMA – Association internationale pour la peinture murale antique
Fondation pour l’Université de Lausanne
ARS – Association pour l’archéologie romaine en Suisse
Institut d’archéologie et des sciences de l’Antiquité, UNIL

SOMMAIRE
Un demi-siècle de recherches
sur la peinture murale antique
Alix Barbet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Grèce
An Overview of Roman Wall Painting
in Greece
Sarah Lepinski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Thrace, Mer Noire, Asie mineure
La peinture murale en Thrace pré-romaine
Julia Valeva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Témoignages picturaux du Royaume
du Bosphore Cimmérien, de Chersonèse
Taurique et d’Olbia
Pascal Burgunder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Die Entwicklung der Wandmalerei in
Kleinasien von der griechischen bis zur
römischen Zeit am Beispiel von Ephesos
Norbert Zimmermann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Eine hellenistische Dekoration im Mauer -
werkstil aus Pergamon: Rekonstruktion und
kontextuelle Verortung
Anja J.Schwarz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Proche-Orient
Décors muraux au Proche-Orient
Hélène Eristov, Claude Vibert-Guigue . . . . . .101
Les peintres de l’Antiquité en Jordanie,
des royaumes d’époque hellénistique
à l’empire romain
Claude Vibert-Guigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
Nouvelles peintures dans une demeure
romaine de Shahba-Philippopolis (Syrie)
Oussama Nofal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
Hellenistic Decoration in the Land of Israel
Silvia Rozenberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
Roman and Early Byzantine Wall Paintings
in Israel – A Survey
Talila Michaeli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
Afrique du Nord
Nouvelles découvertes, recherches récentes
sur la peinture à Alexandrie et dans le nord
de l’Égypte
Anne-Marie Guimier-Sorbets . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Wall Painting in Egypt outside of
Alexandria. State of the Field
Susanna McFadden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
La pittura funeraria in Cirenaica (Libia)
Anna Santucci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
La pittura parietale in Cirenaica (Libia)
Jerzy Z
˙elazowski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
La pittura parietale in Tripolitania:
tematiche e sviluppi dei sistemi decorativi
attraverso testimonianze edite e inedite
Barbara Bianchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239
Spätpunische Wanddekorationen Karthagos
und ihre überregionalen Vergleiche
Thomas Lappi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
Peintures murales de Dougga retrouvées
dans le Fonds Poinssot
Alix Barbet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
La peinture murale en Maurétanie césarienne
et en Numidie (Algérie). Quelques fragments
vers une synthèse
Kenza Zinaï . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277
La peinture murale en Maurétanie tingitane.
Etude de synthèse
Layla Es-Sadra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291
5

6Sommaire
Italie du Sud et Sicile
Picta fragmenta. La pittura parietale romana
nell’Italia meridionale e in Sicilia
Antonella Coralini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .311
Una variante regionale dello stile
strutturale in Daunia. Materie, tecniche e
stile decorativo di una domus di Arpi
Salvatore Patete, Claude Pouzadoux,
Italo M.Muntoni, Anna Garavelli,
Daniela Pinto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
The decorative program
of the North Baths at Morgantina
Sandra K.Lucore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339
Una pittura «ellenistico-romana»?
Il secondo stile nella provincia Sicilia
Elisa Chiara Portale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
Tipologia dei sistemi decorativi in Sicilia
Romana: il caso di Agrigento, Casa della
Gazzella (quartiere ellenistico romano)
Paolo Barresi, Maria Lucia Guarneri . . . . . . .367
Nuove testimonianze di pitture parietali
da Akrai (Sicilia)
Roksana Chowaniec, Rosa Lanteri,
Jerzy Z
˙elazowski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375
La pittura pompeiana: primato e limiti
Agnes Allroggen-Bedel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
Beyond the Four Styles.
Reflections on Periodizations and Other
Matters in Roman Wall Painting
Eric M.Moormann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389
Imitation alabaster: Varieties
and symbolism in Roman paintings
Simon J.Barker, Simona Perna . . . . . . . . . . .405
Pitture di paesaggi con ville marittime
su pareti di terzo e quarto stile pompeiano.
La villa di San Marco a Stabiae
Raffaella Federico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413
Architettura e architetture nella pittura
romana: i pinakes di terzo e quarto stile
dall’Urbe alla Campania
Giuseppa Tabacchini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
Le specificità espressive nella decorazione
della villa romana di Positano
Luciana Jacobelli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .433
Rome et Latium
La pittura «urbana» tra la tarda età
reppublicana e la prima età imperiale.
Spunti di riflessione
Stella Falzone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
Qualità e peculiarità della pittura romana
di prima età imperiale a Roma da vecchi e
nuovi contesti
Silvia Fortunati, Federica Pollari . . . . . . . . . .453
Casa di Livia sul Palatino: le pitture
nel cubicolo del piano superiore
Valentina Torrisi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
Muses, Seasons, and Aion Ploutonios:
The Dionysiac Frieze from the nymphaeum
of the Domus Transitoria
Aurora Raimondi Cominesi . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
Arredi pittorici dalle ville suburbane:
esempi da vecchie e nuove indagini
Stella Falzone, Claudia Gioia,
Martina Marano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
La decorazione pittorica in età medio -
imperiale: il caso della villa di Livia ad
Gallinas Albas
Eleonora Malizia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
De ratione pingendi parietes.
Considérations sur les dynamiques de
production des ateliers dans la peinture
ostienne de quatrième style
Martina Marano, Paolo Tomassini . . . . . . . .503
Italie centrale
Pittura funeraria etrusca
Stephan Steingräber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .513
Gli strumenti musicali in uso nel mondo
etrusco attraverso l’analisi della pittura
funeraria
Giulia Armone, Lucrezia Campagna,
Silvia Carrubba, Ludovica Lops, Silvia Lucia,
Stephan Steingräber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
Lineamenti per una sintesi sulla pittura
murale romana nell’Italia centrale e insulare
(Sardegna)
Fulvia Donati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537

7
Sommaire
Indagine sulla diffusione del terzo stile in
Etruria: il caso di Vada Volaterrana
Ilaria Benetti, Fulvia Donati, Simonetta Menchelli,
Marinella Pasquinucci, Paolo Sangriso . . . . .555
Gli intonaci dipinti delle villae maritimae
dell’arcipelago toscano (Gorgona, Capraia,
Elba, Pianosa)
Lorella Alderighi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567
Il Tempio romano di Nora (Cagliari,
Sardegna): la decorazione parietale della
cella in età altoimperiale
Federica Stella Mosimann . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
Italie du Nord
La pittura parietale in Cisalpina: quadro di
sintesi su una produzione di «confine»
Monica Salvadori, Alessandra Didonè . . . . . .583
Gli intonaci dipinti dell’VIII Regio augustea:
un primo bilancio sulla produzione pittorica
in Emilia-Romagna
Francesca Fagioli, Riccardo Helg,
Angelalea Malgieri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
Architetture fantastiche in sistemi
ornamentali di terzo stile dalla villa delle
«grotte di Catullo» a Sirmione
Barbara Bianchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
Péninsule ibérique
Cubicula y triclinia pintados en Hispania:
articulación del espacio, sistemas decorativos
e iconografía
Carmen Guiral Pelegrín . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .621
Los programas decorativos de los ambientes
privados del Conventus Caesaraugustanus
durante el sigloI d.C.
Lara Iñiguez Berrozpe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
Apolo y las Musas de Carthago Nova
Alicia Fernández Díaz, Irene Bragantini,
José Miguel Noguera Celdrán, Mª.José Madrid
Balanza, Izakum Martínez . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
La imitación de opus musivum en pintura
mural en la provincia romana de la Bética
Alicia Fernández Díaz,
Lorenzo Suárez Escribano . . . . . . . . . . . . . .673
El segundo estilo en la Casa del Larario
de Bilbilis (Zaragoza, España)
Carmen Guiral Pelegrín, Lara Íñiguez
Berrozpe, Carlos Sáenz Preciado,
Manuel Martín-Bueno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .685
La decoración pictórica de la estancia C22-R
en la Domus del Castro Chao Samartín
Olga Gago Muñiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .693
Restudying Roman wall painting in
Portugal today: testimonies, particularities
and idiosyncrasies
Jorge Tomás García . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
Bretagne
Wall Paintings in Roman Britain:
State of the Art
Roger Ling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .711
Gaules
La peinture romaine dans les trois Gaules
(Narbonnaise, Lyonnaise, Aquitaine)
Alexandra Dardenay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .723
Entre innovations et conservatisme:
les décors de la cité antique de Bordeaux
Myriam Tessariol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .739
La peinture murale en Narbonnaise
au 1er siècle apr.J.-C.
Ophélie Vauxion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .753
Gaule Belgique et Germanies
Die römische Wand- und Deckenmalerei
in den beiden Germanien und der Gallia
Belgica
Renate Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .761
Bemalte Wände und Decken in der
niedergermanischen Colonia Ulpia Traiana
(CUT) bei Xanten im Kontext von Gebäude
und Raum
Brita Jansen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781
Roman wall-paintings
from the lower Rhine and Meuse
Lara Laken, Stephan Mols,
Louis Swinkels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .793

8Sommaire
Répertoires ornementaux et icono graphiques
en Lorraine du 1er au 3esiècle apr.J.-C.
Adaptation aux espaces et évolution
Dominique Heckenbenner,
Magali Mondy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .807
La Suisse romaine: état des recherches
et iconographie
Michel E.Fuchs, Yves Dubois . . . . . . . . . . . .825
Les motifs dans les inter-panneaux des
peintures murales romaines découvertes
sur le territoire suisse
Natasha Hathaway, Alexandra Spühler . . . .847
Rhétie et Norique
Die Wandmalerei in Noricum und Raetien
im Spiegel der Forschungen nach 1989
Barbara Tober . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .857
Die römische Wandmalerei aus dem
südlichen Noricum: Magdalensberg –
Virunum – Teurnia
Ines Dörfler Ristow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .871
Provinces balkaniques
et danubiennes
Peinture murale dans la province romaine
de Dalmatie
Ivana Popovic´ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .883
Viminacium’s painting officina
Dragana Rogic´ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .897
Some examples of wall paintings
from Sirmium
Dragana Rogic´ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .905
Research on Roman Wall painting in
Hungary between 2004 and today.
Interpreting and reinterpreting the evidence
Krisztina Hudák, Levente Nagy . . . . . . . . . .913
La peinture romaine des provinces
de Mésie, de Thrace et de Dacie
Julia Valeva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .927
Un thème: le stuc
Le stuc dans l’Empire.
Les provinces au regard de Rome
Nicole Blanc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .945
Conclusions
In chiusura
Irene Bragantini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .965
Abréviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .973
Index locorum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .975

Tombs
The largest group is that of the painted
tombs1, comprising over 30 painted tombs
known to date in Israel, of which twelve are
pagan, eight2are Jewish and nine are Chris-
tian. The existence of the majority of these
tombs was ignored prior to the last thirty
years, a period in which only a few tombs
were published in some form. The others were
either published after the mid-1980s onward,
or not at all and, except for a few very partic-
ular cases, were dealt with primarily from an
archaeological point of view. From the 1990s
to the present day I have been mainly working
on re-evaluating those tombs already noted
and have published their pictorial programs
as well as those of the newly discovered ones
entrusted to me by the archaeologists, cour-
tesy of the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA).
Unlike other monuments subjected to the
ravages of time painted tombs have survived
in a relatively good state of preservation, thus
enabling an understanding and deciphering
of their overall pictorial programs from both
the iconographic and stylistic aspects, which
are often the only means by which to date
them and/or to determine the religious iden-
tity of their commissioners.
Pagan tombs
The twelve pagan tombs discovered known
to us to date comprise the majority of this
group. Two of them are from the Hellenistic
era at Maresha3in the Judean foothills
* I would like to convey my deep gratitude to the
Hardt Foundation for the Study of Classical Antiquity in
Vandœuvres, near Geneva, in Switzerland, for granting
me a unique opportunity to work in their library and
benefit from their terrestrial paradise during the summer
of 2016 in order to prepare the communication and
the subsequent article in 2017.
1 The references given here relate to the first
publication and to those including the majority of
photographic documentation.
2 The «seventh» in this case does not relate
necessarily to a single tomb but to a cemetery carved
with a complex of catacombs of which only four out
of thirty appear to have been excavated and published:
notes 91–103. The excavations in the place are on-
going, and new caves and catacombs are still being
discovered.
3 Peters/Thiersch 1905.
4 Michaeli 1999, 211–223; 2010a, 73–82.
5 Ory 1939, 38–44; Michaeli 2009, 36–66,
fig.22–76, ill.258–260.
6 Michaeli 2001b, 191–193; 2009, fig. 235.
7 Reich 1982, 16–21, Pl.III–IV.
8 Siegelmann/Ne’eman 1992, 57–62.
9 Michaeli 2009, 4–35, fig. 1–21, ill. 257; 2010b,
521–530.
10 Preliminary mention: Frankel/Getzov 1997,
149f.; photos: Michaeli 2009, fig. 222, 251; 2014,
Taf.CXXXI, Abb. 4.
Wall paintings from the 2nd-to-7th centuries CE have been discovered throughout Israel.
They comprise four major groups: tombs, public buildings, private residences and
religious buildings. Most of them were only occasionally studied and published prior to the
1960s, possibly overshadowed by more spectacular finds, like mosaic pavements. Even in
recent publications, wall paintings in Israel are often ignored by the excavators, preferring
to relate to findings from excavations in the neighbouring countries. Such paintings were
commissioned for or by patrons belonging to all three religions that coexisted in the region
during this period: Pagans, Jews and Christians.
This article seeks to present these paintings, some of which have not previously been
published, to provide a short description of their pictorial schemes and to locate them in both
their context and place in the cultural atmosphere of the late antique period in the region.
Talila Michaeli*
155
Roman and Early Byzantine
Wall Paintings in Israel – A Survey
(«Apolo phanes Tomb» and the «Tomb of the
Musicians»), and ten are Roman, as follows
(listed in alphabetical order of their location):
three at Ashqelon, on the coastal plain (the
«Tomb with Naked Male Youths»4, the «Tomb
of the Nymphs»5, and the «Tomb of the Pea-
cock»6); one at Ben She’men in the Judean
foothills (the «Tomb with Two Faces»7); two
in Caesarea Maritima (the «Tomb with the
Rooster»8, and the «Tomb with Spear-Heads
atop rods»9); one at Kibbutz H
.anita10 and

one at
Khir
bet
H
.umzin11 (both in the Upper
Galilee); one at Jerusalem (the Birds’ Cave on
the Mount of Olives12); and one near Kibbutz
Or ha-Ner13 (in the northern Negev).
I believe that all these tombs share the
same overall meaning, regardless of their di-
verse modes of representation and choice of
motifs: namely, to express the desire of the
deceased to reside in the afterlife in the blessed
fields of Elysium.
The two 3rd–2nd century BCE tombs at
Maresha seem to have followed the same
above-noted thematic idea. The tomb of Apo -
lophanes features a procession of real and
imaginary animals preceded by a chase scene,
and I have cautiously identified the rider as
the commissioner of the tomb, the deceased
Apolophanes, in a paradisiac landscape14, thus
following the widely known tradition of the
rider formula15. The same general idea is man-
ifested by the wreaths, garlands and burning
fire, in addition to other, rarer, motifs that
leave, nonetheless, no doubts regarding their
funerary role and meaning, such as Cerberus,
crowing cocks and panathenaic amphorae16.
The less elaborate Tomb of the Musicians fea-
tures two known funerary motifs: (pan athe -
naic?) amphorae on either side of the main
entrance17, and two figures playing musical
instruments (fig. 1).
All the Roman tombs in this group date
to the 2nd–4th centuries CE, and the pictorial
program of each of them, like their Hellenistic
predecessors, conveys the same general idea
156 T. Michaeli
Fig. 1 Maresha,
tomb of the musicians:
two panathenaic
amphorae on the
entrance wall.
After Kloner 2010, fig.2.
Fig. 2 Caesarea
Maritima, tomb with
lance-head rods: Detail
of a lance tied up with
a ribbon.
Courtesy IAA.
Fig. 3 Caesarea
Maritima, tomb with a
rooster: drawing of the
rooster and of the rear
wall.
After Siegelmann/Ne’eman
1992, 61, Plate.

of the blessed Elysium, thus employing con-
comitantly both a unique and a similar ico no -
graphy. The earlier ones date to the 2ndcen -
tury CE. The «Tomb with Spear-Heads atop
Rods» was discovered in Caesarea Maritima. It
features a very rare motif consisting of a series
of vegetal rods each topped by a spear head
and bound with a ribbon, surrounding the
entire tomb18, and framed above and below by
garlands. The two motifs are interchangeable
and enable us to define the enclosure as a
sacred tomb (fig. 2). The other motifs are
common in funerary art and comprise red
flowers and a large wreath within vine trellises
on the ceiling. The sole figural motif, perhaps
a mask or a gorgoneum, was probably originally
painted on both sides of the ceiling, but only
the one on the western side has survived19.
The Tomb with a Rooster, also discovered in
Caesarea Maritima, depicts a rather traditional
iconography, featuring two birds framing the
door, of which one can be identified as a
rooster20 while the other is no longer identi-
fiable. Other motifs include palm trees, fronds,
red flowers, garlands and a large wreath tied
with a ribbon21, which according to the exca-
vators were all repeated on the different walls
and the ceiling22 (fig. 3). The tomb discovered
at Ben Shemen might have been modified at
the end of the 2nd century One phase features
a series of geometrical panels imitating mar-
ble, encompassing the four walls, with two
stucco wreaths occupying two of the panels23.
The other phase presents two painted stucco
bearded faces, which were found on the floor
and whose original location remains un-
known24. The identification of the faces is
uncertain, and thus they could represent
masks, or even the deceased25 (fig. 4).
Of the five mid-3rd century tombs, three
vaulted ones were discovered in Ashqelon.
The «Tomb with the Naked Youths» is the
largest. Though plastered, no paintings have
survived on its broken vault or on the lunette
of the rear wall. The pictorial program com-
prises five niches carved between the burial
loculi, featuring a series of five athletic naked
male figures, each surrounded by scattered
red flowers, and holding a different object or
bird, as follows: a peacock, a bowl of figs in
one hand and two hunted ducks in the other,
a tray, and a wine jug in one hand and a
wreath in the other26. I tend to identify the
five figures as the deceased buried in this
tomb27. Each loculus is surrounded by gar-
lands, and above each is a shallow painted
lunette, one of which features a bird’s legs on
a ground stripe. Monumental naked figures
holding objects are unique although the dif-
ferent motifs held by or surrounding them
are typical in funerary art, such as the gar-
lands and ribbons defining the enclosure as
sacred, the red flowers identifying the figures
as already residing in Elysium28. The «Tomb of
the Nymphs» is perhaps the most known one
in Israel, due to both its overall pictorial
qualities and the fact that it was published
already in the 1930s29. Its walls and vault are
exhaustively decorated to reveal two beautiful
11 Michaeli 2017, 243–248, fig.1–4; 2009, fig. 227,
249, 250; Frankel/Getzov 1997, 67.
12 Kloner 1975, 27–30; Bagatti 1974, 170–184;
Michaeli 2009, 67–82, fig. 77–99, ill. 261–262.
13 Tsafrir 1968, 170–180; Michaeli 2009, 83–109,
fig. 100–154, ill. 263–266.
14 Michaeli 2011, 89; 2006, 362–363.
15 Michaeli 2011, 89; 94–95, fig. 8–9.
16 Peters/Thiersch 1902, Pl.6.
17 Kloner 2010, 58, fig. 2.
18 Michaeli 2009, fig. 5–16.
19 Ibidem, fig. 21.
157
Roman and Early Byzantine Wall Paintings in Israel – A Survey
Fig. 4
Ben Shemen,
tomb with faces. A
stucco face. Rockefeller
Museum.
Photo T.Michaeli.
20 Siegelman/Ne’eman 1992, 58, ill.3–4; 61,
drawings.
21 Ibidem, 58, ill.4.
22 Ibidem, 58.
23 Reich 1982, Pl.III,1–3, fig. 2.
24 Ibidem, Pl.IV,1–2
25 Michaeli 2011, 89–90.
26 Michaeli 2010a, 74–76, fig. 2–8.
27 Ibidem, 80; Michaeli 2011, 90.
28 Michaeli 2006, 162–164.
29 Ory 1939; Michaeli 2009, 36–66, fig. 22–76,
ill.258–260.

naked nymphs against a Nilotic background
on the rear wall30, facing two male figures
framing the entrance31, and five panels imi-
tating marble along each long wall32. The
entire surface of the vault is covered with two
vines with bunches of grapes growing from
its corners33. The vine trellises are inhabited
by naked youths harvesting grapes, one play-
ing music, and various mammals and birds,
mostly doves34. Its summit is oriented north
to south and features a beautiful female bust,
whom I have identified as the patroness of
the tomb35, above an acanthus calix36, a hound
chasing a gazelle and a gorgoneum of the beau-
tiful type37. Although such a rich ico nography
is exceptional, most of the motifs, despite
rarely appearing in painted tombs in Israel,
have funerary meanings and can be seen in
tombs worldwide. The vault fresco of the
«Tomb of the Peacock» was detached and its
whereabouts is no longer known. On its only
partially survived summit is a peacock striding
among scattered fruits, among which pome-
granates, curly ribbons and garlands can be
identified38. It seems that its walls were origi-
nally plastered but left unpainted39 (fig. 5).
Of the two tombs in the Upper Galilee,
one is at Kibbutz H
.anita. Its pictorial program
features on the walls, ceiling and burial loculi.
The walls are divided into panels with inhab-
ited vine scrolls, with birds pecking at the
grapes, and include other objects such as an
amphora and a rhyton40. The ceiling displays
a rosette within a large wreath and a heavy
bird next to it. One of its burial loculi has
preserved its paintings of vegetal scrolls and
intersecting branches on its walls, in addition
to a rectangular shape divided into (nine?)
uneven squares with a circle inside, perhaps
indicating coffers. The second tomb is in Khir
-
bet H
.umzin and reveals a very simple pro gram
consisting of scattered monochromatic motifs
comprising vines with numerous bunches
of grapes, some of which are completely de-
tached, palm tree and fronds, garlands, olive
wreaths and an object identified either as a
basket or a chalice41. A triangular form is
carved in relief on one side of the entrance
wall, probably representing a Nefesh42.
The last two pagan tombs are dated to the
end of the 3rd–beginning of the 4th century CE.
The «Birds’ Cave» in Jerusalem, is carved with
three arcosolia and a flat ceiling. Four vines
are rendered growing from its corners, with a
dove and a partridge depicted back to back
and pecking at grapes in each corner43. The
vines continue to the ceiling where they are
inhabited by a variety of birds including a
peacock, a partridge, an aquatic bird, a pheas-
ant and doves44 (fig. 6). Isolated pink flowers
are painted across the surface of the arcosolia,
on one of which intersecting red lines are
drawn on the flowers45. These lines were inter-
preted by Bagatti as various crosses46. I believe,
however, that they may have been added
later by the intruders who looted the tomb.
The remains of an inscription does not con-
tribute any further information47. The last
pagan tomb was discovered near Kibbutz Or
ha-Ner. Its rear wall features panels imitating
opus sectile multi-coloured marble panels48,
and the entrance wall displays two long flam-
ing torches that frame the door49, and above
it, a consolation inscription50. The decoration
of the longer walls is arranged in parallel
horizontal bands, which should thus be read
sequentially51. The lower band of each wall is
divided into four panels featuring different
vegetal motifs, one of which depicts plucked
red flowers within a vase52, two others depict
stalks tied up with long ribbons53, and another
features a green vine leaf and splashes of
green, thus enabling the identification of the
panels as a free vegetal pattern54. The second
band reveals a unique geometrical pattern
consisting of truncated triangular forms with
uneven dots between them55. The third band
depicts a row of fourteen imagines clipeatae56
of three women57 and eleven men (ten of
them wearing a toga58), preceded by flaming
torches, considerably smaller than those on
the entrance, adjacent wall. The first two busts
are painted and attired differently59, and I
have identified them as the commissioners of
158 T. Michaeli
Fig. 5 Ashqelon,
tomb of the peacock.
Vault: in situ.
Archives IAA, courtesy IAA.

the tomb, a husband and wife, expressing
their desire to dwell in the afterworld together
with their family members60. The summit of
the vault presents a band connecting be-
tween and integrating the two walls, display-
ing vine trellises with birds perching on both
its borders61.
Each of the above-noted pagan tombs
reveals individual characteristics, together
with sharing certain similar motifs. The most
frequent motifs are vines in different config-
urations (in eight tombs), as well as birds,
mostly doves, (in six), wreaths (in six), red (or
pink) flowers (in six), garlands (in five), and
ribbons (in five). In most of them (six), human
figures, sometimes only faces, are rendered.
While other motifs such as quadrupeds or
trees are less frequent, we have to take into
consideration the partial state of preservation
of some of them. All the tombs – Hellenistic
as well as Roman, nonetheless share the same
meaning and express the desire of the de-
ceased to reach the blessed Elysium, represent-
ed as such in all their pictorial programs.
30 Michaeli 2009, fig. 22, 27.
31 Ibidem, fig. 25–26.
32 Ibidem, fig. 38–39.
33 Ibidem, fig. 50–51.
34 Ibidem, fig. 52–64.
35 Michaeli 2001a, 166, Pl.XXXI,5–6; 2009,
fig.66–68b.
36 Michaeli 2009, fig.69–71.
37 Ibidem, fig. 72–73.
38 Ibidem, fig. 235; Michaeli 2001b, 191–193.
39 The photos of the tomb after the cleaning are
found in the IAA archives.
40 Michaeli 2009, fig. 251; 2014, Band II, Taf. CXXXI,
Abb.3.
41 Michaeli 2017, 243, fig.3.
42 Ibidem, fig. 2.
43 Michaeli 2009, fig. 77–82.
44 Ibidem, fig. 83–84, 89–95.
45 Ibidem, fig. 96–98.
46 Bagatti 1974, 186–187.
47 Ibidem, 12, fig. 10; Michaeli 2009, fig. 99.
48 Michaeli 2009, fig. 107–109.
49 Ibidem, fig. 102–103, 105–106.
50 Ameling et al., 377–378; 377, fig. 2437; Michaeli
2009, fig. 104.
51 Michaeli, ibidem, fig. 265.
52 Ibidem, fig. 118.
53 Ibidem, fig. 113–117.
54 Ibidem, fig. 119,a–b.
55 Ibidem, fig. 123–127, 266.
56 Ibidem, fig. 111–112.
57 Ibidem, fig. 141, 147.
58
Ibidem, fig. 128–130, 133–134, 136–140, 142–146.
59 Ibidem, fig. 148–149; also fig. 128, 132.
60 Ibidem, 95–96, 98; Michaeli 2011, 92–93.
61 Michaeli 2009, fig. 151–154.
159
Roman and Early Byzantine Wall Paintings in Israel – A Survey
Fig. 6 Jerusalem,
the birds’ cave. Ceiling
and walls (corner). Vine
inhabited by birds.
Courtesy A.Kloner.

Jewish tombs
Of the eight painted Jewish tombs found to
date in Israel one is Hellenistic and was dis-
covered in Jerusalem (Jason tomb62 dated to
the 1st century BCE), six are Early Roman, and
are dated to the 1st century CE (presented in
alphabetical order of location: Giv’at Seled63
in the Judean foothills, Goliath tomb64 in
Jericho, two tombs in Jerusalem, one in the
Kings’ Valley65 and the other at Akeldama
[Kidron Valley]66, and one at Mokata Abud67).
Of the later Roman period one is generally
dated to the 4th century CE (Beit Guvrin68 in
the Judean foothills), and the other is a necro -
polis comprising a series of catacombs,
in
which paintings feature in numerous burial
chambers, as well as on other architectonic
parts such as corridors, halls and burial loculi
(Beit She’arim69 in the lower Galilee).
The earliest tomb is that of Jason in Jeru -
sa lem, identified through inscriptions. The
walls of its porch feature charcoal drawings,
among which can be discerned three boats70:
a battleship with a figure shooting an arrow
from the forecastle, who has been popularly
identified as Jason, the patron of the tomb71;
and, within it, members of the crew concealed
behind their oval shields. The ship follows
another similar though smaller one, whose
crew hold rounded shields, and they are both
probably chasing a merchant ship. Other mo-
tifs scattered over the porch walls display a
crouching stag72, a palm branch73, graffiti of
seven-branched menorahs74 and a chalice75.
The partly preserved paintings of the
tomb at Giv’at Seled (fig. 7) display a fence76
and behind it remnants of vegetal motifs. The
upper part of the wall features a green stalk
with leaves, remnants of a brown vertical
object, perhaps a basket or tray with a round-
ed object behind and above them, and the
upper right side of a square container77. The
excavator reported two dark brown rounded
shapes above the doorpost and green frag-
ments in one corner, perhaps leaves, and other
coloured fragments suggesting floral patterns,
the remains of a painted Ionic capital78,and
fragments of a Greek dedicatory inscription
probably located above the opening leading
to the inner chamber79. The tomb discovered
in Jericho was commissioned by Goliath’s
family according to inscriptions. Its pictorial
program reveals a limited colour pallet, com-
prising mainly red and black, featuring on
the walls above the loculi. Vines inhabited by
doves pecking at grapes occupy large parts of
the wall surfaces80 as well as remnants of
squares, perhaps representing a pergola
according to the excavator81, and a badly
preserved large wreath tied with ribbons,
three layers of ashlar or bricks, probably rep-
resenting a wall or a building, and remnants
of a vegetal motif82. The identification and
date of the tomb discovered in Jerusalem,
west of the Valley of the Kings, are debated,
as possibly pagan or Jewish or Christian
patrons, and from the 2nd century BCE to the
Byzantine Era83. The paintings, which had
only partly survived at the time of the dis -
covery, were documented and sketched. They
feature a main large panel with three well-
attired figures crowned with wreaths – a
woman and two male figures, one of them
holding up a wreath/crown84. The upper part
of the walls features a garland, at least part of
it consisting of olive leaves, with pomegran-
ates and other unidentified fruits framing
female heads-within-medallions surrounding
the upper part85. One of the burial chambers in
the Akeldama complex, Jerusalem, features a
geometric red monochrome pattern, compris-
ing a very accurate pattern of rhombs-within-
squares in two alternating rows above the
door, and thus creating perspectival cubes86.
The same approach to a structural pattern can
be discerned on the lower part of the adjacent
wall, showing stucco panels in relief87. One
of the chambers of the tomb discovered at
Mo kata ‘Abud dated to the 1st century CE
features a simpler though coloured geometric
pattern surrounding its walls, above and be-
tween the loculi (fig. 8). A frieze with alternat-
ing elongated black lozenge-within-a-rectangle
and a black roundel-within-a-red-smaller-
rectangle imitating an opus sectile revetment88
features on the upper part, and rectangular
panels imitating differently coloured marble
slabs are rendered between the loculi89.
Although it is indeed less sophisticated than
the Akeldama tomb, both tombs represent the
same general «non-figural» geometric idea.
The Beit She’arim cemetery is a complex
with a large series of catacombs, many of them
not yet excavated. Each catacomb comprises
a number of burial chambers, many of which
feature wall paintings, mostly in monochro-
matic red, some of which are painted reliefs
or engraved on the walls. The majority of the
paintings display scattered motifs, mainly
rosettes of various forms (fig. 9), menorahs,
and ornamental quasi-geometric patterns.
160 T. Michaeli

62 Rahmani 1967, 61–100, Pl. 13–28.
63 Kloner 1981, 159–163, and Pl.
64 Hachlili 1985, 112–127; Hachlili/Killebrew 1999,
159–161, fig. II,72–77, Pl. V,1, front cover, back cover.
65 Bliss/Dickie 1898, 243–249; pl.; Goodenough I,
76–78.
66 Avni/Greenhut 1996, 3, Pl.; 5, fig. I,46–50.
67 Conder/Kitchener II, 362–363; Hachlili 2005,
fig.IV,9, 148, drawings. For up-to-date photos see
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Makati-Abud-
C-508.jpg; https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Makati-Abud-C-511.jpg.
68 Bliss et al., 1902, 201–202. For a discussion of its
religious affiliation: Goodenough I, 74–75.
69 Mazar 1973.
70 Rahmani 1967, 70, fig. 5; 71, 5,b; Pl. 20 A,B, 21,A.
71 Following a comment by Rahmani 1967, 73, that
it might be a pirate ship, Jason has since been popularly
regarded as «the first Jewish pirate.»
72 Ibidem, 72, fig. 6; Pl. 21,B.
73 Ibidem, Pl. 22,C.
74 Ibidem, 74, fig. 7; Pl. 22,A.
75 Ibidem, 75, fig. 8.
76 Kloner 1991, 161, fig. 5; Col. Pl.
77 Ibidem, Col.Pl. up left.
78 Ibidem, 162.
79 According to Di Segni 1991, 164–165, fig. 1,
despite the location of the tomb in the middle of a
Jewish cemetery next to a Jewish settlement, it seems
to have belonged to a pagan family.
80 Hachlili 1985, 116, fig. 6, 117, fig. 7, 119, fig. 10.
81 Ibidem, 113; 118, fig. 8.
82 Ibidem, 113; 114, fig. 3; 115, fig. 5.
83
To quote the excavators, it was done in the «period
where classical art still flourished in the country,» see Bliss/
Dickie 1898, 149; Goodenough I, 77 suggests the Hellen -
istic period, preferring an early date such as the 2nd c.BCE.
84 Bliss/Dickie 1898, fig. facing p. 246, lower part.
85 Ibidem, fig. facing p. 248; fig. facing p. 246 upper
part.
86 Avni/Greenhut 1996, 26, fig. 1,46; 27, fig. 47; 30,
Col.Pl.
87 Ibidem, 28, fig. 1,50; 31, Col. Pl.; for both adjacent
walls: 29, fig. 1,53.
88 Goodenough III, fig. 22; Hachlili 2005, fig. IV,9.
89 For up–to–date coloured photos: see references
note 67; compare to the lower part of Casa dei Vetti,
Pompeii: Ling 1991, fig. 81.
161
Roman and Early Byzantine Wall Paintings in Israel – A Survey
Fig. 7 Giv’at Seled.
Right: General view of
the western wall; left:
detail of the upper part
with vegetation and
objects.
After Kloner 1991, Plate.
Fig. 8 Mokata
Abud. Geometric
repetitive pattern.
Right: Frieze above the
loculi; left: wall and
frieze.
Commons.wikimedia, see
note 67.

The catacombs decorations have suffered from
deterioration and vandalism, and were largely
restored in 200690. A few examples will suffice
in order to demonstrate the variety of motifs.
Catacomb IV is perhaps the most elaborate
known to date. A burial loculus in room 7
portrays a freely painted repetitive geometric
pattern, revealing a coherence with that in
the main hall91. The ceiling of the main room
displays two differently rendered rosettes
connected to one another by stripes in a
dentiform-pattern92. Two other differently
shaped rosettes framing a painted relief of a
seven-branched menorah feature on the left
doorpost93. Other types of rosettes can be seen
in catacomb III as well as in other catacombs94.
Though not directly concerning the motifs of
the present discussion, two lions approaching
a well are carved in relief on the rear walls95,
and another painted lion was identified with-
in a medallion in catacomb I96. A single, partly
preserved scene, representing Daniel in the
Lions’ Den, was found in catacomb I, room197.
Daniel’s arms are raised, and next to him is
an arch identified as the gate to the den98, a
palm tree, and a roaring lion (the other one
no longer survives), which looks more like a
barking dog. Though it is the only narrative
known in the Beit She’arim catacombs, human
figures also feature in other rooms, such as
the two figures in catacomb D, one of which
is schematically painted in red while the
other is engraved, and together they might
represent the deceased couple buried in this
room99, along with a rider100 and a male figure
leading a horse101 both in relief, as well as
heads in relief102 without any clear identifi -
cation, also in catacomb D. In the passage be-
tween two rooms of catacomb I two engraved
winged figures are portrayed but their identi-
fication is under debate103.
The last tomb in this group has been
generally dated to the 4th century It was dis-
covered in the 19th century at Beit Guvrin,
when its paintings were obliterated by local
inhabitants under the impression that it was
Christian. Its plan, section and the pictorial
scheme were drawn and briefly described in
1902104. They occupy its four walls and the
arcosolium of the rear wall. The spandrels of
each wall feature the following pair of birds:
a peacock and a peahen, possibly two doves
pecking at grapes, perhaps two partridges,
and two small unidentified birds. The lunette
of the arcosolium features two flying winged
figures holding a wreath tied with curling
ribbons, the left one is naked, and in its cen-
tre is a Greek inscription reading «The house
of eternity»105. The arches were painted with
a green «scroll-work of inferior merit»106, to
quote the excavators, and can be identified as
garlands.
The Jewish tombs seem to have followed
the same tendency as observed in the pagan
tombs, demonstrating concomitantly indi-
viduality and shared motifs; however the
variety of motifs is clearly more restricted. The
same motifs appear in both groups and even
seem to share the same meanings, although
it is hard to distinguish a dominant motif:
garlands and wreaths (three times), a vine
inhabited by doves (once), boats (once), a
«paradisiac» garden with different objects
(once) and constructed elements (once). Geo-
metrical motifs and/or imitation of marble
incrustations appear occasionally (twice), and
seem to have a decorative role. Surprisingly,
human figures appear several times, either
painted (twice), engraved or in relief (several
times), although their exact identification or
meaning is uncertain, and seem to vary in
each case. The two winged figures (twice)
could also be added to the human depictions.
Indeed, the variety and quantity of rosettes
in Jewish funerary art in general and in wall
paintings in particular (in Beit Sh’earim), is
exceptionally large and it has often been con-
sidered as «the» Jewish motif107. However,
rosettes also appear in pagan tombs108.
Christian tombs
The last group consists of ten tombs as follows
(listed in alphabetical order of location, and
then discussed in chronological order): two at
Beit Guvrin in the Judean foothill (the Tomb
with Birds109 and the Tomb with Busts110) one
at Ben She’men111, five at Jerusalem (two in
Gethsemane – one with wreaths, crosses and
two doves112, and the other with multitude of
crosses113, one near Nablus Gate114,
two on the
Mount of Olives115), one at Kibbutz
Lohamey
ha-Getaoth116 (northern seashore), and one at
Zmoroth117 (Negev).
Only fragments of a tomb discovered at
Ben She’men and dated to the end of 3rd, be-
ginning of 4th century118 have been preserved.
The paintings are all in monochromatic red.
Based on one of the loculi and on the ceiling
the tomb seems to have been encircled by a
continuous line119. Two wreaths drawn by
162 T. Michaeli

compass have survived; one displays dense
small leaves, perhaps olive, and next to it are
remnants of a vertical line120. The other forms
a «clipeus» whose two concentric circles are
also traced by a compass, with long leaves re-
sembling fern, and tied up with a ribbon
whose loops frame a central object. The object
resembles a basket or a situla on a base, and a
straight stripe seems to be emerging vertically
from its centre121 (fig. 10).
One of the tombs discovered in Gethse-
mane, Jerusalem, is known only through a
design drawn in free hand122. Based on these
sketches and a single comparative photo its
90 The conservation and reconstruction project of
the unpublished catacombs was carried out under the
guidance of Jacques Neguer from the Israel Antiquities
Authority. See http://www.iaa-conservation.org.il/
Projects_Item_eng.asp?site_id=32&subject_id=9.
91 Mazar 1973, Pl.XXXIII,1.
92 Ibidem, Pl. XXXIII,2; Neguer (here note 90),
catacomb 4, two last photos.
93 Ibidem, Pl. XXXIII,5; http://www.iaa-conservation.
org.il/Projects_Item_eng.asp?site_id=32&subject_id=9,
third and fourth photos.
94 http://www.iaa-conservation.org.il/Projects_Item_
eng.asp?site_id=32&subject_id=9, the second photo;
Mazar 1973, Pl. XII,2 left side; in unpublished catacomb X;
I am indebted to Zvika Tsuk, chief archaeologist, Israel
Nature and Parks Authority, for the information and for
the photos. For other variations: Feig 1987, 104, fig. up-
per right. Together with garlands around the arcosolia,
seven-branched menorahs and tabulae ansatae without
any inscription inside: 104–105, fig.
95 Mazar 1973, Pl. XXXII,2–3.
96 Ibidem, Pl. XII,2.
97 Ibidem, Pl. IX,3–4.
98 Ibidem, 120.
99 Ibidem, 3, fig. 14; Michaeli 2011, 94, fig. 7.
100 Mazar 1973, Pl. XIV,2; Michaeli 2011, 94, fig. 9.
101 Mazar 1973, Pl. XIV,2; Michaeli 2011, 94, fig. 8.
102 Mazar 1973, Pl. XXXIII,3.
103 Ibidem, 80, fig. 9. On the large panel of the
«Nike sarcophagus» at Beit She’arim two Nikae holding
a wreath are engraved: http://cja.huji.ac.il/browser.php?
mode=set&id=1964 (accessed July 16th, 2017).
104 Bliss et al. 1902, Pl. XCI.
105 Ibidem, 201, fig.
106 Ibidem.
107 Goodenough VII, 179–201, esp. 197–198, con -
siders the rosette as the most frequent Jewish symbol;
however, even he discusses its much earlier «ancestors»,
dating back to the second millennium and even earlier.
108
As on the ceiling of the tomb at H
.anita: Preliminary
mention: Frankel/Getzov 1997, 149f.; photos: Michaeli
2009, fig. 222, 251; 2015, Band II, Taf. CXXXI, Abb.4.
109 Moulton 1914–1915, 62–71; 1921–1922,
95–102, Pl. 1–5.
110 Michaeli 2008, 187–199; 2009, fig. 155–161,
ill.267–270.
111 Michaeli 2013b, 45–50, 137.
112 Not published; the data are taken from the IAA
archives in the Rockefeller museum; Bagatti 1974, 186,
fig. 17.
113 Lagrange 1892, 448–452.
114 Tzaferis et al. 1996, 71–75.
115 Klein/Sapir 2014.
116 Foerster 1986, 416–431; Michaeli 2009, fig.162–
208, ill.271–273.
117 Discovered only in the summer of 2015, and
not yet published; it is currently under research by the
excavator (Elena Kogan-Zehavi) and myself.
118 Dated according to an inscription found in the
tomb: Di Segni 2013, 67, 69, fig.
119 Michaeli 2013b, 45, fig. 1; 46, fig. 2.
120 Ibidem, 46, fig. 3.
121 Ibidem, 47, fig. 4.
122 His handwriting was illegible to me; the drawing
is kept in the IAA archives at the Museum Rockefeller,
Jerusalem.
163
Roman and Early Byzantine Wall Paintings in Israel – A Survey
Fig. 9 Beit
She’arim. Rrosettes
of different types.
a catacomb IV, Hall A;
b cat.IV, pass from
room 1 to 7; c cat.X;
d cat.I, Hall G;
e rosette within a
wreath.
After Neguer‘s restorations
(a); after Mazar 1973,
Pl.XXXIII,4 (b); photo
T.Tzuk (c); after Mazar
1973, Pl.XII,2 (d); after
071_slide-3ac85b127c83
eff968baf3e8769c41a2be5
1b412-s800-c15 (e).
f
d
ab
c

pictorial program seems to comprise four
crosses with accentuated edges, one of which
seems to have a wreath around its central
part, or perhaps it is the Golgotha cross (?),
two garlands or branches, a simple wreath
with dense leaves, and a more elaborate and
larger one. It is framed by two birds, possibly
doves, of which only the left one has sur-
vived123. The second tomb at Gethsemane
was discovered in the 19th century and is
known only through a series of meticulous
drawings124. The entire program is painted in
monochromatic red125, and features crosses as
follows: the central part of the walls of each
arcosolium displays a Latin cross with empha-
sized and elaborated endings, and a large
cross on each soffit126. The rear wall is more
elaborate127 with two «perspective» triangles
above the lateral arm from one of which
emerges a ribbon. The central cross is the only
one framed by two simple and very small
crosses, and beneath appear one long or two
short palm branches held by a bird128. The
central crosses in the other arcosolia are framed
each by «perspective» geometric shapes. On
the spandrels of each wall appears a pair of
schematic branches, and on top of the arch,
between them, is a small cross.
Two rock-hewn burial caves (Caves A and
B) excavated at the end of 2012 on the slopes
of the Mount of Olives, Jerusalem, were deco-
rated and are generally dated to the Byzantine
period129. The first one (A) features three small
brownish-red crosses above the entrance130.
The second one (B) comprises four adjacent
burial caves, one of which (III) is decorated
with small crosses with wide edges ending as
triangles, as follows: one cross above each
arcosolium (average height 12 cm) and a larger
cross within a wreath (dia. 23 cm) above its
opening, with curly ribbons of which the
endings can still be discerned131.
Of the two Christian tombs discovered at
Beit Guvrin, both generally dated to the
Byzantine period, one was discovered and
published at the beginning of the twentieth
century (the Tomb with Birds)132. Its where-
abouts is no longer known. The four walls
and arcosolia were painted mostly in red. Both
spandrels of each wall, excluding the entrance
wall, feature two identical birds facing one
another: crowing cocks133 (right wall), quails134
(left wall), and peacocks135 (rear wall). The
apex of each arch featured a Greek cross136.
The birds are surrounded by schematic
flowers, mostly with four petals, and some
are intersected by an «X». Each arcosolium is
differently rendered, showing a vine with
bunches of grapes on the left137, scattered and
schematic red flowers on the right138, and
three crosses on the rear wall139; the central
cross is slightly larger and rendered within a
gemmed wreath tied with long ribbons.
According to the excavator, the wreath was
composed of segments of leaves and flowers,
with remnants of yellow and blue. Scattered
on the surface of the entrance wall are groups
of four dots often crossed by an «X», and
small Greek crosses140.
The second tomb discovered at Beit
Guvrin in the 1990s was published by me in
2008. Red monochromatic paintings feature
on its three walls and spandrels preceding the
arcosolia. Its eastern wall displays a palm tree
on each spandrel and crosses: a Latin one
within the branches of the left tree, a Greek
one to the right and additional Latin crosses
next to them: one to the left and two to the
right. They all have emphasized endings.
Above the lateral arm of the Greek cross two
circles are painted, which might represent
the sun and moon, with the letter «W» on its
right side141. A large scale-like pattern, which
could represent a garland142, surrounds the
upper part of the arch. The western wall fea-
tures a central more or less equal-armed cross
above the arch framed by palm branches, an
«X»-within-a-rectangle, a large fish facing the
«X», and to the left a Latin cross within two
palm branches, and a simple one (without
emphasized endings) to the left. The right side
was left empty (unfinished?). The southern
164 T. Michaeli
Fig. 10 Ben
She’men, Christian
tomb. Remnants of
a basket or a situla
within a wreath.
Courtesy IAA.

(rear) wall seems to show the main decoration,
including a bust in each spandrel, which I
have identified as a husband (to the right)
and his wife (to the left) – the commissioners
of the tomb143. They are accompanied by
several objects like a chalice, an amphora (?)
with ribbons and a wreath held up by the
woman. On the summit is a small Latin cross.
All four walls and arcosolia of the end of
4th, beginning of 5th century tomb at Kibbutz
Lohamey ha-Getaoth were painted. Two tall
palm trees laden with dates are rendered on
either side of the door144. The northern wall
features a large cross with «α» and «ω» be-
neath its lateral arm, surrounded by a rich
vegetal wreath drawn by compass, and tied
with long ribbons145. It is framed by bushes
with red flowers146. The lower bench displays
seven monochromatic inhabited acanthus
scrolls147. The southern wall features a pome-
granate tree laden with fruit on the arcosolium
surface148. The sarcophagus wall features two
dwarf trees and one bush with red flowers149
and a continuous vegetal motif on its upper
part150. The arcosolium surface of the western
wall presents a vine tree within an amphora
and a cross with «α» and «ω» between its two
branches. Its trellises are inhabited by various
birds: a peacock, two aquatic birds, doves and
a partridge151. On the wall above the arch two
groups of three fishes are rendered152, and
between them an amphora with a simple
smaller cross beneath it153, and two other
crosses: a silver cultic one and the Golgotha
cross154. On the sarcophagus wall, the biblical
scene of Daniel in the Lions’ Den (fig. 11) is
rendered, framed by two burning candles atop
candelabra155.
123 For the single photo of the left dove: Bagatti
1974, 186, fig. 17.
124 The text is however, regretfully, only partial and
written in a touristic rather than scientific style; the
directions are not mentioned, but according to the
photos they are related here as «rear», «left» and «right»
wall: Lagrange 1892, 448, 449–450, ills.
125 Ibidem, 448.
126 Ibidem, 450.
127 Ibidem, 450, fig.; Michaeli 2009, fig. 248.
128 According to Lagrange 1892, 448, under one
of the crosses the letters «alpha» and «omega» are ren-
dered; however the drawings show only two triangles
above the lateral bar of the central cross of the rear wall,
and the one on the left soffit. He also mentions two
birds, probably doves, whereas in the drawing of that
same wall only one is rendered.
129 Klein/Sapir 2014, n.p.
130 Ibidem, fig. 1, drawing on the lower part.
131 Ibidem, fig. 2, sections 2–2, 1–1; fig. 1–3. The
small crosses resemble the cross above the western
arcosolium at Lohamey ha-Getaoth: Michaeli 2009,
fig.199,a–b.
132 Moulton 1914–1915, 62–71. Moulton did not
provide a plan and/or section, neither did he relate to
the orientation of the tomb, while relating to the walls
as «entrance», «rear», «left» and «right». Therefore, we
can only follow his description. The same article, albeit
using the imperial measurement (inches) was re-pub-
lished in AASOR 1921–1922 with the addition of several
figures in colour.
133 Moulton 1914–1915, 63, fig. 2; 64, fig. 3–4;
1921–1922, 103, Pl. 3.
134 Idem 1914–1915, 63, fig. 2; 64, fig. 4; 68, fig. 8;
1921–1922, 102, fig. 5; 100, Pl. 1; 101, Pl. 2.
135 Idem 1914–1915, fig. 3,5; 1921–1922, Pl. 2–3.
136 Of which only one has remained: Moulton 1914–
1915, 64, fig. 4.
137 Ibidem.
138 Ibidem, 63, fig. 2; 1921–22, 100, Pl. 1.
139 Ibidem, 1914–15, 63, fig. 2; 1921–22, 104, Pl. 4.
140 Ibidem, 1914–15, 68, fig. 7–8.
141 Michaeli 2008, 188, fig. 7.3, et 191, Pl.2.1–2;
2009, ill.13, fig.158–159.
142 Based on a possible identification of a ribbon to
the right, and see ibidem.
143 Michaeli 2008, 187, fig. 7, 190, Pl. 1.1–3; 2009,
ill.12; 2011, 93.
144 Michaeli 2009, fig. 164–168.
145 Ibidem, fig. 169–174.
146 Ibidem, fig. 173,a–b.
147 Ibidem, fig. 174–181.
148 Ibidem, fig. 182, 190–193.
149 Ibidem, fig. 183–186.
150 Ibidem, fig. 187–189.
151 Ibidem, fig. 202–208.
152 Ibidem, fig. 201,a–b; 202.
153 Ibidem, fig. 199,a–b.
154 Ibidem, fig. 199,a–b; 200.
155 Ibidem, fig. 195–198.
165
Roman and Early Byzantine Wall Paintings in Israel – A Survey
Fig. 11 Lohamey
ha-Getaoth. Western
wall. Daniel in the
Lion’s Den.
Photo A.Barbet, CNRS.

Remnants of paintings in secco were dis-
covered in a 5th–6th century tomb156 near the
Nablus Gate, Jerusalem. The upper-eastern
frieze painted on the central part of the vault,
at eye level, shows horizontally-rendered
framed rhombs and a «wave» pattern on
either side. At the centre of each rhomb, with-
in a medallion, a white and precise «Maltese»
cross is rendered, whose arms alternate with
brownish-red petals157. On the northern wall
remnants have survived of a panel with a veg-
etal decorative pattern in the corner, probably
once framed by a spiral pattern, within which
the excavators identified a cypress158.
Research of the tomb discovered intact at
Khirbet Uda-Zmorot, in summer 2015, is still
underway. An inscription dates it to the third
quarter of the 6th century. Its iconographical
program comprises seven crosses: four on the
rear wall (three painted and one incised)
(fig. 12), two others incised into the damp
mortar on either side of the entrance, and
one meticulously carved on the inside of the
door. The crosses on the rear wall are painted
in brownish-red colour. They are of the same
size and the edges of their arms are accentu-
ated, but otherwise they differ from each
other. The central one is rendered within a
wreath with two dots above and remnants of
colour on the lower left side; the right one is
a «crux gemmate» with «α» and «ω», uncom-
monly above its horizontal arms159. The four
arms of the left one are divided into rectan-
gular segments, for which I have found no
parallel to date.
The Christian tombs seem too to have
followed the same tendency as observed in
the pagan and Jewish tombs, demonstrating
concomitantly individuality and shared
motifs, though somewhat more restricted.
The dominant motif is the Cross, appearing
in nine out of the ten tombs (the tenth is in
such a fragmentary state that it is impossible
to arrive into a conclusion). Crosses constitute
several types: with alpha and omega (four
tombs), Latin crosses (four tombs), Greek
crosses (four tombs) – however it is indecisive
whether most of them are indeed meant to
be the one or the other –, cultic cross (twice),
Golgotha cross (twice) and a Maltese cross
(once). Some of them are very elaborate and
occasionally within a wreath (four to five
times). Wreaths (either containing a cross or
empty) appear often (six tombs); palm trees
or branches are also frequent (four tombs).
Several birds appear in the Christian tombs of
which only the dove is the most frequent
(three tombs) and the others (quails, peacocks,
cocks and aquatic birds) appear each only
once. Trees, red flowers, fishes and other mo-
tifs appear much less frequently like vessels
(twice), garlands (once or twice).
From a survey of all the above-noted
tombs they indeed appear to comprise an
impressive and fairly coherent group. My
conclusion is that there exists no real differ-
ence between tombs belonging to the different
religions. It appears that only when specific
symbols are rendered on their walls, such as
menorahs in the Jewish tombs and crosses in
the Christian ones, that can one definitively
associate a tomb with a specific religion. In
funerary art in Israel the portrayal of human
figures too, though infrequent can be found in
the tombs of all three religions, be it a similar
biblical narrative in Jewish and Christian
tombs, or as a representation of their commis-
sioners, and even winged figures representing
victories, souls or angels appear in all three of
them. Although no real difference exists
regarding the iconography of all the tombs,
their stylistic differentiation and influence
from other centres and regions are evident.
The choice of the same motifs appear in all
three religions, and the similar meanings at-
tributed to them, indicate that all human be-
ings desire to live in a better after world, be it
Elysium, Paradisus or the Garden of Eden.
The existence of the majority of these
tombs, as noted above, had been on the whole
ignored prior to the last 30 years. Despite the
166 T. Michaeli
Fig. 12 Zmorot.
The crosses on the rear
wall.
Photo A.Peretz; courtesy
E.Kogan-Zehavi, IAA.

apparent «renaissance» of interest in these
funerary paintings in the 1990s, in recent
years we have unfortunately been encounter-
ing difficulties regarding the excavation of
«new» tombs, mainly due to religious pressure
and/or political considerations. None the less,
the research and publication of those tombs
already excavated continues, and occasionally
an archaeologist still «falls» into or onto a
tomb, such as the most recent one discovered
at Zmorot.
Public Buildings
The second group decorated with wall
paintings comprises public buildings:
three amphitheatres and a nymphaeum.
Amphitheatres
Of the amphitheatres, one was discovered at
Caesarea Maritima160, one at Beit Guvrin161
and one at Beit She’an162. The one at Caesarea
was originally built as an Herodian circus and
was later architectonically transformed in
several phases into an amphitheatre163. Its
podium wall was successively plastered and
painted and was published by me in 2013. Of
the superimposed layers observed, the first
three are dated to the 2nd century. The first
layer features a frieze about 150 m long de-
picting a variety of animals164 (fig. 13), most
of which were painted to fit the full height
of
the podium, and thus lack any common
scale.
They include an elephant, foxes, stag,
rhinoceros and an equine. They are all de-
picted in movement, either facing one an -
other or running. Between and behind the
animals appear green vegetal motifs165. Rem-
nants of a human leg with a boot and a
red mantle suggest the rendering of arena
games166. The second and third layers of the
paintings indicate panels representing green
veined marble (verde antico?) above a grey-
veined (cipolino?) plinth, and framed by ver-
tical stripes167. Further to the southern part a
group of green plants topped with what seem
to be red flowers has remained168.
On the podium from the end of the 3rd,
beginning 4th century CE amphitheatre at Beit
Guvrin three fragments of fresco have sur-
vived, the largest of which, measuring about
20–25 cm, reveals a series of large vertical par-
allel ochre and dark brown-red lines (fig. 14).
156 Tzaferis et al. 1976, 74.
157
Ibidem, 72, ill.2; 73, ill.3–4; 71, plan 1, section1–1.
158 Ibidem, 72; 73, ill.5.
159 Compare to the «Tomb with Portraits» at Beit
Guvrin: Michaeli 2008, 188, fig. 7.2, 191, Pl.2.1–2;
2009, ill.13, fig. 158–159.
160 Michaeli 2013a, 183–189.
161 The paintings not been published. I am indebted
to Amos Kloner for letting me examine the photos of
these paintings.
162 Not yet published; Foerster/Tzafrir 1990, 37.
163 Porat et al. 2013, Strata VIC and VIB, Alterations
and Modifications to the Initial Circus; chap.4, 73–122;
Stratum VIA, Transformation into an Amphitheater and
the Circus Revived; chap.5, 123–160.
164 Of which 40m were left unexposed because no
solution was found to prevent their deterioration and
preserve them.
165 For the animals: Michaeli 2013a, 1–3, 8–17,
19,a, 20; for the vegetation: ibidem, Pl. 17–18 and
reconstruction, 19b.
166 Ibidem, Pl. 4, bottom left side.
167 Ibidem, Pl. 4,a–c; 6, and reconstruction of the
marble slabs 5.
168 Ibidem, Pl. 20,a–b.
167
Roman and Early Byzantine Wall Paintings in Israel – A Survey
Fig. 13 Caesarea
Maritima, Herod’s
amphitheatre. Podium.
Dog, equine, and
boar (?).
Photo N. Davidov, courtesy
J. Neguer, IAA.
Fig. 14 Beit Guvrin,
amphitheatre.
Fragment of a cage.
Photo https://israeltours.files.
wordpress.com/2013/12/
fresco-at-amphitheater.jpg.

The paintings have not been published. Based
on other portrayals of arena scenes I believe
that it had once represented a cage, although
whether it contained animals within or next to
it169, or men, or was a door to a cage, is unclear.
The 4th-century amphitheatre at Beit
She’an was transformed from a 2nd–3rd cen -
tury hippodrome. Its podium was plastered
and painted, now severely damaged. Its paint-
ings have never been published170 but seem to
have depicted marble imitation, and perhaps
red flowers, all framed as panels, and vegeta-
tion consisting of green elongated trees, which
could also have represented arena scenery.
The three painted amphitheatres seem to
have represented a similar subject. It is possible
that the actual events that took place in these
arenas were those displayed on the podium
walls. They include animals, vegetation, ani-
mals and/or men in cages and multi-coloured
marble panels.
The other public building is the nym ph -
ae um discovered in the 1960s in Caesarea
Maritima, but its paintings underwent conser-
vation only in 2014 and have not yet been
published171. Remains of wall paintings there
were mainly found on the northern niche,
displaying dense green and black foliage with
elongated leaves and small red fruit behind
an ochre fence of cane or wood (fig. 15). The
composition seems to spread continuously
across the niches, and its iconography recalls
that of other Roman depictions of nymphaea
as well as representations of gardens in Roman
art172.
Private Residence
The third group of wall paintings is that
discovered in private residences and is in
a very fragmentary state of preservation. It
has not been studied in depth to date.
Over a hundred plastered and painted
stones from the Herodian, Roman and By -
zantine era, all in secondary use, as well as
numerous loose fragments, were discovered in
structures from later periods at Caesarea Mari -
tima. They often display different coloured
panels, in either monochromatic black or yel-
low, each framed by green stripes; fragments
of motifs on a white background; and vari-
ously shaped panels imitating multi-coloured
marble incrustation. Among them were also
discovered numerous fragments with crosses
from Christian edifices173.
Fragments of paintings of two phases were
found in the «House of Dionysos» at Seppho-
ris174. The earliest was dated to the mid 1st cen-
tury CE and is of high quality, with the wall
divided into three horizontal zones display-
ing marble imitation in ochre, a delicately
rendered vegetal motif on a black background
and rectangular panels in alternating deep
red and yellow175. The second phase dates to
the late 2nd–3rd century and displays various
schemes set in square panels, including spirals,
chessboard and other quasi-geometrical motifs,
some of which are not known elsewhere in
wall paintings176. New excavations have re-
vealed a monumental building originally dec-
orated in the 2nd century with wall paintings
displaying figurative motifs of animals177.
The end of 2nd–3rd century Nabatean
house at Mamshit has one painted room
used as a passage to a stairwell178. Its walls
feature scenes with naked men and a dressed
woman179, the supporting arches are painted
with two naked youths, one holding a garland
and the other a palm branch on one side of
the arch, and each is paralleled with a winged
woman
180
. On the summit of each arch an
imago
clipeata was painted181. An eye level
frieze features along the walls, consisting of
geometric panels alternating with garlands182,
with a panel displaying two faces within one
garland183. One panel displays a seated Eros
and Psyche embracing. The remnants of an
inscription on the western wall, no longer in
situ, is debatable, although the word ¢gaqÒj
can be clearly discerned184.
The paintings in private residences ap-
pear to follow the common style of the area
and the period, and include both a non-iconic
or non-figurative style and a figurative one
with animals and human depictions. How -
ever, the lack of research and the fragmentary
state of the finds to date prevent further deter-
mination.
Religious Buildings
The last group comprises religious build-
ings – two synagogues: one from Migdal
and the other from Rehov.
From the 1st century CE synagogue dis-
covered at Migdal (Magdala)185, only a few
remains in situ have survived, revealing a
scheme comprising large square and recti -
linear panels with a simple geometric pattern,
one wall with a rhomboid form, and a con-
168 T. Michaeli

tinuous white socle with red sprinkles. Its
columns were plastered and painted as well.
The walls and columns of the 7th century
synagogue discovered at Rehov were plas-
tered and painted but only fragments were
found on the floor186. The fragments present
red quatrefoils, each framed within a green
square and thus forming a grid on a white
background. They might have represented
coffers if they once formed part of a ceiling or
a soffit of a lintel; however, they could also
have represented a tapestry if they had origi-
nally decorated the walls187. Many inscrip-
tions, frequently within wreaths or tabulae
ansatae, and occasionally the spaces between
tabula ansata and wreath188, were filled with
vine trellises. The remains of a menorah189 were
found in the bema area, which might have
been part of a Torah Shrine.
From these meagre finds, it seems that the
paintings on the synagogue walls were of a
decorative nature, and often resemble the
decorations of certain tombs as well as of
private houses of the «First» and partly «Sec-
ond» Pompeian style190.
Concluding remarks
This far from exhaustive survey indicates
that the research of wall paintings has in-
deed progressed during the last thirty years,
especially that of the painted tombs and to a
certain degree also those outside, open to the
elements on or in public buildings. It is due
to the continuous painstaking and ardent
work of two enthusiasts – Silvia Rosenberg
and my humble self – that we have succeeded
169 Stillwell 1952, passim and esp. 86–94; fig. 76–83.
170 Foerster/Tsafrir 1990, 37.
171 I am deeply grateful to Jacques Neguer, for pro-
viding me with the photos and information, and for the
continuous support and belief in my scientific work.
172 Blanc 2014, 106, fig. 1; 109, fig. 7; 114, fig. 13;
117, fig. 18, and esp. 115, fig. 14: mosaic in a nymph aeum
Massa Lubrense; Morvillez 2014, 289, fig. 36.
173 I am grateful to Jacques Neguer for providing
me with the photographic evidence and discussing the
subject with me.
174 Vilozney 2015, 115–124.
175 Ibidem, 116, fig. 2; 117, fig. 3.
176 Ibidem, 119, fig. 5-6; 120, fig. 7-8; 121, fig. 10a,b;
122, fig. 11–12.
177 Not yet published.
178 Goodmann 1988, 147.
179 Ibidem, 150, fig. 149.
180 Ibidem, 151, fig. 150–151; 153, fig. 153–154.
181 Ibidem, 152, fig. 152.
182 Ibidem, 157, fig. 158,;158, fig. 160; 159, fig. 162.
183 Ibidem, 157, fig. 159; 158, fig. 161; 160, fig. 163.
184 Ibidem, 158, fig. 160; 161, fig. 164.
185 Rosenberg/Neguer forthcoming.
186 Vitto 2015.
187 Ibidem, 7; 8, fig. 9.
188 Ibidem, 6, fig. 5.
189 Ibidem, 8, fig. 10.
190 for example Ling 1991, First and Second style,
Col.Pl. I,B; II,A.
169
Roman and Early Byzantine Wall Paintings in Israel – A Survey
Fig. 15 Caesarea
Maritima, Nymph -
aeum. Right: before
cleaning; left: after
cleaning.
Courtesy J.Neguer, IAA.

in increasing the awareness of this rather dif-
ficult and often frustrating field. What can be
concluded with some certainty is that the
existence of wall paintings was much more
prevalent than previously believed, and that
they reflect the same artistic development
and characteristics as those already observed
in the more durable media, such as mosaics
and sculpture or reliefs. Moreover, adherence
to the Second Commandment, prohibiting
the rendering of figurative images, and which
was believed to be the reason for the dearth
of figural paintings in Jewish art, is refuted
here, or perhaps it was considered non-rele-
vant or at least misinterpreted as far as wall
and floor decorations were concerned.
Talila Michaeli
Université de Tel Aviv
michaeli@post.tau.ac.il
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Discussion
S.Heagan: First, I want to thank you for the survey of material that might otherwise be inaccessible
to us who are not readers of Hebrew and that in some cases is not published – or not yet. I wanted
to ask about that record of publication and its relationship to aesthetic tastes and intellectual trends.
I was struck by your quote of the excavator at Beit Guvrim, who referred to a garland of «inferior
merit». In what ways have aesthetic taste or trends in scholarly study impacted the study of publication
of sites in Israel? Are they the same trends in intellectual inquiry as elsewhere, or are they exigencies
that are particular to Israel sites?
T. Michaeli: Well I can’t answer directly, because I really don’t know. Don’t forget that the one which
I quoted was published in 1914 and art history was not really valid at that time regarding Roman
art. I think starting from the 70’s and 80’s, we are much more interested in art history. Only Silvia,
who works on the earlier period, is an art historian and an archaeologist, so the trends are different
now. Wall painting has suffered all over the world because of its fragmentation and the amount of
time necessary for its study. I think that now, as quite a few of us are here, it is becoming more and
more interesting. That is the way I can answer your question. Sorry I don’t have any other answers.
S. Pearson: Regarding the reception of Egypt in the ancient world, I wanted to ask you about the
Nilotic landscapes. Particularly because here in Israel, unlike Nilotic landscapes in Italy for instance,
they can support some of the same animals and plants that Egypt can and so can we define this
Nilotic landscape as definitively Nilotic or can we call it a River Jordan landscape in this case?
T. Michaeli: There is the question of what a Nilotic landscape is. Let me put it this way: we have
Nilotic examples with all the symbols of the Nile, like the Nymphs that I presented and Hélène
showed some also. We have another fantastic Nilotic representation with the word Alexandria and,
in the 6th century, there were also some mosaics. With crocodiles, there is no way that Jordan is the
place, it is really Nilotic and it has correlations with other depictions.
A. Barbet: A propos des fragments de la synagogue de Rehov, on pourrait imaginer les restes d’un
plafond plat imitant des caissons à fleurons. Mais y a-t-il des traces au revers qui pourraient donner
un argument en faveur d’une telle disposition?
T. Michaeli: On ne sait pas. Certains fragments étaient perdus.
171
Roman and Early Byzantine Wall Paintings in Israel – A Survey

H.Eristov: Je voudrais revenir sur la question de la figuration. Dans le matériel des 1er et 2esiècles, il
n’y a pas du tout de figuration humaine. Il y en a un peu au 3esiècle. La question s’était posée pour
la synagogue de Dura Europos qui est pleine de figures. On en avait discuté ensemble, cet interdit de
la figure était lié très précisément au refus de l’idolâtrie; ce danger de l’idolâtrie s’atténue un peu au
3esiècle, du moins dans certains endroits, dans certains contextes. On a alors le fameux Rabbi Yohanan
de Tibériade qui en effet autorise la représentation des figures sur les murs. Cet interdit existe, est
extrêmement fort, mais dans certains contextes, à certaines périodes, il s’allège un petit peu.
T. Michaeli: Aujourd’hui, on n’est pas du tout certain de l’interprétation du Second livre des Maccha-
bées. Apparemment, ce n’était pas vraiment interdit, selon un article récent de Bezalel Bar-Kochva,
spécialiste de la littérature et de l’histoire juives d’époque hellénistique. Il est encore moins certain
que l’interdit ait été la conséquence de l’obligation faite aux Juifs par Antiochos Epiphane de se
prosterner devant les statues des divinités. Rien n’est certain, même au 2esiècle av.J.-C., ni évident.
172 T. Michaeli

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AFPMA Association Française pour la Peinture
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AIEMA Association Internationale pour l’Étude de la
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AIPMA Association Internationale pour la Peinture
Murale Antique
AIRPA Associazione Italiana Ricerche Pittura Antica
ANIMHA Anthropologie et Histoire des Mondes
Antiques
BAAC Bouwhistorie, Archeologie,
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CEPMR Centre d’Étude des Peintures Murales
Romaines de Soissons
Ce.S.P.R.O. Centro Studi Pittura Romana Ostiense
CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
EFR École Française de Rome
IAA Israel Antiquities Authority
ICVBC Istituto per la Conservazione e la
Valorizzazione dei Beni Culturali
IFPO Institut français pour le Proche-Orient
INHA Institut National d’Histoire de l’Art
MANN Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli
MNR Museo Nazionale Romano
ÖAI Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut
RGM Römisch-Germanisches Museum
RGZM Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum
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SBF Studium Biblicum Franciscanum
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BAM Bulletin d’archéologie marocaine
BCTH Bulletin archéologique du comité des
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BMB Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth
CAG Carte archéologique de la Gaule
CAR Cahiers d’archéologie romande
CMGR Colloque de la mosaïque greco-romaine
ESI Excavations and Surveys in Israel.
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LANX Rivista della Scuola di Specializzazione in
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Pictores per provincias II – Status quaestionis
Actes du 13eColloque International de l’AIPMA – Lausanne 2016 Antiqua 55
Antiqua 55
Actes du 13eColloque de l’Association Internationale
pour la Peinture Murale Antique (AIPMA)
Université de Lausanne, 12–16 septembre 2016
Yves Dubois, Urs Niffeler (dir.)
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