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Carotenoid and Chlorophyll Pigments in Sweet Basil Grown in the Field and Greenhouse
Abstract
Sweet basil ( Ocimum basilicum L.) is a popular culinary herbal crop grown for fresh or dry leaf, essential oil, and seed markets. Recently, basil was shown to rank highest among spices and herbal crops for xanthophyll carotenoids, which are associated with decreased risks of cancer and age-related eye diseases. The research goal for the current study was to characterize the concentrations of nutritionally important carotenoid pigments in popular varieties of basil. Eight cultivars of sweet basil (`Genovese', `Italian Large Leaf', `Nufar', `Red Rubin', `Osmin Purple', `Spicy Bush', `Cinnamon', and `Sweet Thai') were grown in both field and greenhouse environments and evaluated for plant pigments using HPLC methodology. Environmental and cultivar differences were observed for all of the pigments analyzed. `Sweet Thai' accumulated the highest concentrations of lutein, zeaxanthin, and β-carotene carotenoids in the field, while `Osmin Purple' accumulated the highest carotenoid concentrations in the greenhouse. Comparing the two environments, cultivar levels for carotenoid and chlorophyll pigments were higher in the field environment when expressed on both a fresh and dry weight basis. Exceptions were found only for the purple leaf basils (`Osmin Purple' and `Red Rubin'). Positive correlations existed between carotenoid and chlorophyll pigments in both environments. This study demonstrates sweet basil accumulates high levels of nutritionally important carotenoids in both field and greenhouse environments.
... Findings from this study suggest that, overall, chlorophylls and carotenoids accumulated in higher concentrations in basil leaves in the field compared to the greenhouse conditions, with few exceptions. These findings are in consensus with a previous study that compared these parameters in eight basil genotypes in field versus greenhouse conditions [26]. The cited study showed that average chlorophyll a content was higher in field conditions (1.495 mg/g FW) and lower in the greenhouse (0.938 mg/g FW); the chlorophyll b content also reached higher levels in the field (0.294 mg/g FW) than in the greenhouse (0.191 mg/g FW). ...
... The average β-carotene was 0.0601 mg/g FW in the field and 0.0442 mg/g FW in the greenhouse; the lutein content was 0.0664 mg/g FW in field conditions and 0.0499 mg/g FW in the greenhouse. However, there was one exception to this trend; 'Osmin Purple' presented higher levels in greenhouse conditions than in field conditions [26]. Compared to these average experimental values, the experimental medians reported in this study are in close range, even though they were conducted in different geographical regions. ...
... Compared to these average experimental values, the experimental medians reported in this study are in close range, even though they were conducted in different geographical regions. The median chlorophyll b in the field and β-carotene in the field and greenhouse were higher than the average values reported under similar conditions by Kopsell et al. [26]. Contrary to our findings and the study cited above, another comparative study indicated that total carotenoids had higher values in the greenhouse conditions compared to the field conditions for two cultivars: purple (Ocimum basilicum 'Red Rubin') and green basil (Ocimum basilicum var. ...
Basil is a culinary herb in high demand all year round, either fresh, dried, or frozen. Field basil crops are commercially predominant, while greenhouse crops can cover the demand for fresh basil during the off-season. The leaf aspect of basil has great importance for the food industry, and a great diversity of genotypes has been created. The aim of this research was to conduct a comparative characterization of 12 basil genotypes (green and purple leaf) that present interest for breeding programs from a national germplasm collection. The study examines the accumulation of photosynthetic pigments in basil cultivated in field versus greenhouse conditions as indicators of plant performance and herb quality from the perspective of ensuring fresh plant material all year round. The experimental median indicated that photosynthetic leaf pigments accumulated in higher concentrations in the field relative to the greenhouse conditions, in descending order: β-carotene, lutein, chlorophyll a, and chlorophyll b. The trend was not as consistent for chlorophyll b, since four out of twelve genotypes presented higher levels in the greenhouse than in the field, while the overall values were not much lower in the greenhouse than the field (16.82%). All genotypes accumulated much higher carotenoid contents in field conditions relative to greenhouse conditions (>200%) and could also provide better nutritional advantages given their demonstrated health benefits. The differences in photosynthetic leaf pigments have both nutritional (the carotenoids), shelf-life, and processing relevance (chlorophylls) and serve as quality markers.
... This herb has been used for a variety of purposes throughout human history, including direct consumption, cooking, and even in the manufacture of products such as essential oils, soaps, perfumes, medicines, etc. (Raimondi et al., 2006a;Succop et al., 2004). Essential oils are the most valuable commercial forms of basil and contribute flavors and aromas to a variety of products in the food and cosmetic industries Kopsell et al., 2005). Basil produced for dried leaf markets and fresh markets rank second and third, respectively . ...
... Harsh weather and extreme temperatures have a negative impact on basil production, specifically on the biomass yield and quality of the final product. Greenhouse hydroponic basil production provides optimal climate and fertility conditions, which has the potential to reduce variability in plant growth and development due to seasonal changes (Claudia, 2013b;Kopsell et al., 2005). ...
... Current literature suggests that greenhouse production with supplemental lighting would be most suited for optimization of carotenoid bioaccumulation in a variety of basil cultivars (Demmig-Adams et al., 1996;Kopsell et al., 2005;. Leafy specialty-crops contain high levels of nutritionally beneficial carotenoids Kopsell et al., 2017;. ...
The use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in commercial greenhouse production is rapidly increasing due to technological advancements, increased spectral control, and improved energy efficiency. Research is needed to determine the value and efficacy of LEDs when compared to traditional lighting systems. The primary objective of this project was to establish the impact of narrow bandwidth blue(B)/red(R) LED lighting ratios on flavor volatiles in hydroponic basil (Ocimum basilicum var. ‘Genovese’) in comparison to non-supplemented natural light controls and traditional high-pressure sodium (HPS) lighting. Emphasis was placed on evaluating the efficacy of LED/HPS lighting sources and their impact on biomass, nutrient uptake, and flavor volatile concentrations in basil. Specific ratios of narrow-band B/R (447 nm/627 nm) LED light were used in addition to incremental daily light integrals (DLIs) to determine the impact of spectral quality and light intensity on primary and secondary metabolism of basil. Edible biomass and nutrient uptake were significantly impacted by supplemental lighting treatments and growing season. The 20B/80R LED treatment had the greatest total fresh biomass (FM) and dry biomass (DM) accumulation. Mineral analyses showed that both macro and micronutrient accumulations were impacted with supplemental lighting and across growing seasons. Many flavor volatiles varied across light treatments and showed a non-linear relationship with increasing B/R LED ratios, with the highest concentrations observed in LED ratios ranging from 20B/80R to 50B/50R. However, the concentrations of some compounds, such as methyl eugenol, were 3-4x higher in the control treatments, and decreased significantly for basil grown under supplemental lighting treatments. Every compound evaluated showed significant differences across lighting treatments and growing seasons. The results of this study show that supplemental narrow-wavelength light treatments from LED sources may be used to manipulate plant development and secondary metabolism. In addition, spectral quality and DLI have significant impacts on biomass accumulation, nutrient uptake, and flavor volatile composition in basil. The application of LED lighting to supplement natural DLI has great potential for improving overall flavor quality for high-value specialty herbs.
... Retinol comes mainly from animal sources, whereas carotenoids come from plant foods (Kim et al., 2016). Carotenoids are accessory photosynthetic pigments present in considerable concentrations in yellow-orange plants and dark leafy greens, and they also have a complex biochemical role in the human body (Kopsell et al., 2005). It is well-known that physiological, biochemical, and genetic traits of plants such as geographic origin, species, mode and time of harvest, part of the plant analyzed, and post-harvest management can influence the accumulation and bioaccessibility of these valuable bioactive compounds (Daly et al., 2010). ...
... It is well-known that physiological, biochemical, and genetic traits of plants such as geographic origin, species, mode and time of harvest, part of the plant analyzed, and post-harvest management can influence the accumulation and bioaccessibility of these valuable bioactive compounds (Daly et al., 2010). β-carotene has the highest pro-vitaminic activity among the carotenoids that can be metabolized into vitamin A. Basil can accumulate high levels of carotenoids with concentrations mainly influenced by genetic and environmental factors (Kopsell et al., 2005). In fact, in agreement with the previous statement, Batra et al. (2016) showed the strong impact of genotype on carotenoid biosynthesis in two morphotypes of Ocimum sanctum with the highest values recorded for 'Sri Tulsi' (4.01 mg g -1 FW). ...
... According to the USDA nutrient database, carotenoid concentrations in sweet basil are 0.05 mg g -1 FW for lutein+zeaxanthin, and 0.03 mg g -1 FW for β-carotene. Kopsell et al. (2005) have extensively analysed the concentration of β-carotene and lutein in 8 cultivars of sweet basil both in the open field and protected environments. In the open field, the ranges of β-carotene and lutein content were 0.05-0.06 ...
Combining health-promoting nutrition with gastronomic novelty is a major trend currently driving the agri-food sector. Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is a genetically diverse aromatic vegetable crop that combines rich phytochemical composition and enticing sensory profile. The current review examines how genetic variation underlies the phytochemical composition, nutrient composition, and volatile aromatic compounds of basil. It further provides a critical assessment of preharvest factors that configure product quality, including nutrient modulation, controlled stress, biofortification, biostimulant and light management applications. Appropriate genotype selection may facilitate sustainable production of improved quality, whereas targeted preharvest applications combined with optimized light intensity and spectral quality may effectively increase the content of essential phytochemicals and micronutrients, while suppressing the accumulation of anti-nutritive agents. The application of biostimulants may further underpin the sustainability factor in basil production, especially under growth-limiting conditions. The current review constitutes a critical synopsis of all available scientific literature investigating key factors configuring the composition of basil in minerals, bioactive secondary metabolites, micronutrients and volatile aromatic compounds from 1996 to 2022. Topics warranting further research are highlighted, with emphasis placed in identifying optimal combinations within the genotype-environment-management interaction nexus that tap the physiological and molecular mechanisms responsible for improving plant performance and functional-sensory quality in basil.
LINK: https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1e-wU3AAyUFv1P
... Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), an annual herbal crop belonging to the Lamiaceae, is an aromatic, medicinal, and culinary plant cultivated worldwide for leaves and essential oils; Italian green-leafed varieties, used for the fresh market and processing, are a typical ingredient of Mediterranean diet [14][15][16]. Purple varieties, such as cv. Red Rubin, accumulate anthocyanins in leaves and are attractive for functional food/pharmaceutical industries [17,18]. ...
... Total Chl content was maximum in TS 1 at 7 DAT (9.54 mg g −1 DW). Chl (a, b, total) before bacterial treatments (4.98, 1.65, 6.63 mg g −1 DW, respectively) were consistent with data in literature [14,[56][57][58][59][60]. Despite the research on the increase of photosynthetic and auxiliary photoprotective pigments induced by A. baldaniorum in other plants [8,61], studies on purple basil inoculated with A. baldaniorum are lacking. ...
... [26,67], the loss of Chl during water stress was limited by A. baldaniorum Sp245 (Figure 3), since total Chl in TS 1 was higher than controls both at 3 and 6 DAS (9.11% and 18.32%, respectively). Carotenoids ( Figure 4) were lower than Chl, even if positively correlated (14). Car content before bacterial treatments (1.33 mg g −1 DW) was consistent with previous data [14,58,68]. ...
Azospirillum spp. are plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) that exert beneficial effects on plant growth and yield of agronomically important plant species. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a root treatment with Azospirillum baldaniorum Sp245 on hormones in xylem sap and physiological performance in purple basil (Ocimum basilicum L. cv. Red Rubin) plants grown under well-watered conditions and after removing water. Treatments with A. baldaniorum Sp245 included inoculation with viable cells (1·10⁷ CFU mL–1) and addition of two doses of filtered culture supernatants (non-diluted 1·10⁸ CFU mL–1, and diluted 1:1). Photosynthetic activity, endogenous level of hormones in xylem sap (salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, and abscisic acid), leaf pigments, leaf water potential, water-use efficiency (WUE), and drought tolerance were determined. Fluorescence and gas exchange parameters, as well as leaf water potential, showed that the highest dose of filtered culture supernatant improved both photosynthetic performance and leaf water status during water removal, associated with an increase in total pigments. Moreover, gas exchange analysis and carbon isotope discrimination found this bacterial treatment to be the most effective in inducing an increase of intrinsic and instantaneous WUE during water stress. We hypothesize that the benefits of bacterial treatments based on A. baldaniorum Sp245 are strongly correlated with the synthesis of phytohormones and the induction of plant-stress tolerance in purple basil.
... Intensity changes to specific B wavelengths that target phytochromes have also been shown to impact germination rates, vegetative and reproductive growth/development, leaf size/thickness, phenolic and antioxidant pathways, etc. (Li and Kubota, 2009;Olle and Viršile, 2013;Landi et al., 2020). Exposure to UV light and specific B wavelengths have been shown to result in higher concentrations of favorable flavor volatiles in many high-value crops such as mint (Mentha piperita) (Lucchesi et al., 2004;Hikosaka et al., 2010;Treadwell et al., 2011), thyme (Thymus vulgaris) (Lee et al., 2005), strawberries (Fragaria × ananassa) (Colquhoun et al., 2013), chives (Allium fistulosum) (Abney et al., 2013), lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) (Baumbauer et al., 2019;Chen et al., 2019;Kong et al., 2019;Yan et al., 2019;Zhang et al., 2019;Samuoliene et al., 2020), and basil (Ocimum basilicum) (Loughrin and Kasperbauer, 2003;Kopsell et al., 2005;Lee et al., 2005;Deschamps and Simon, 2006;Chalchat and Ozcan, 2008;Hussain et al., 2008;Klimánková et al., 2008;Bantis et al., 2016;Carvalho et al., 2016). ...
... In plant tissues, the synthesis of secondary metabolites is significantly impacted by environmental conditions in addition to many physiological, biochemical, and genetic factors (Bourgaud et al., 2001;Lefsrud et al., 2008). Light intensity and spectral quality are two of the most influential factors on secondary metabolism (Kopsell et al., 2005;Kopsell et al., 2014), and changes in light intensity and spectral quality directly impact plant physiology and biochemistry (Colquhoun et al., 2013;Bian et al., 2015;Landi et al., 2020). ...
... The terms flavor and aroma tend to denote naturally occurring compounds, whereas fragrance typically refers to synthetic compounds (Fahlbusch et al., 2003). Some studies have been performed on basil flavor volatiles, and substantial volatile profiles have been established using a variety of analytical techniques (Charles and Simon, 1990;Barbieri et al., 2004;Kopsell et al., 2005;Deschamps and Simon, 2006;Raimondi et al., 2006;Politeo et al., 2007;Chalchat and Ozcan, 2008;Hussain et al., 2008;Klimánková et al., 2008;Olfati et al., 2012;Tarchoune et al., 2013;Bantis et al., 2016). ...
The use of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in commercial greenhouse production is rapidly increasing because of technological advancements, increased spectral control, and improved energy efficiency. Research is needed to determine the value and efficacy of LEDs in comparison to traditional lighting systems. The objective of this study was to establish the impact of narrowband blue (B) and red (R) LED lighting ratios on flavor volatiles in hydroponic basil (Ocimum basilicum var. “Genovese”) in comparison to a non-supplemented natural light (NL) control and traditional high-pressure sodium (HPS) lighting. “Genovese” basil was chosen because of its high market value and demand among professional chefs. Emphasis was placed on investigating concentrations of important flavor volatiles in response to specific ratios of narrowband B/R LED supplemental lighting (SL) and growing season. A total of eight treatments were used: one non-supplemented NL control, one HPS treatment, and six LED treatments (peaked at 447 nm/627 nm, ±20 nm) with progressive B/R ratios (10B/90R, 20B/80R, 30B/70R, 40B/60R, 50B/50R, and 60B/40R). Each SL treatment provided 8.64 mol ⋅ m⁻² ⋅ d–1 (100 μmol ⋅ m–2 ⋅ s–1, 24 h ⋅ d–1). The daily light integral (DLI) of the NL control averaged 9.5 mol ⋅ m⁻² ⋅ d–1 during the growth period (ranging from 4 to 18 mol ⋅ m⁻² ⋅ d–1). Relative humidity averaged 50%, with day/night temperatures averaging 27.4°C/21.8°C, respectively. Basil plants were harvested 45 days after seeding, and volatile organic compound profiles were obtained by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Total terpenoid concentrations were dramatically increased during winter months under LED treatments, but still showed significant impacts during seasons with sufficient DLI and spectral quality. Many key flavor volatile concentrations varied significantly among lighting treatments and growing season. However, the concentrations of some compounds, such as methyl eugenol, were three to four times higher in the control and decreased significantly for basil grown under SL treatments. Maximum concentrations for each compound varied among lighting treatments, but most monoterpenes and diterpenes evaluated were highest under 20B/80R to 50B/50R. This study shows that supplemental narrowband light treatments from LED sources may be used to manipulate secondary metabolic resource allocation. The application of narrowband LED SL has great potential for improving overall flavor quality of basil and other high-value specialty herbs.
... Pour le basilic, les teneurs en caroténoïdes (β-carotène, lutéine et zéaxanthine) varient de 11,63 à 16,59 mg/100g (Kopsell et al., 2005). Lisiewska et Kmiecik (1997) rapportent une concentration de 9,4 mg de β-carotène/100g de persil. ...
... Les résultats de l'étude menée par Kopsell et al. (2005) Selon Kaur et Kapoor (2002), il existe des différences dans les teneurs en polyphénols des herbes aromatiques ; c'est le cas des extraits éthanoliques de la menthe (399,8 mg éq. catéchol/100g MF) et de la coriandre (82,5mg/100g). ...
The aromatic herbs studied are a natural source of antioxidants, including ascorbic acid (9–136 mg/100 g dw), carotenoids (179–434 mg/100 g), and chlorophylls (0.64–2.29 g/100 g). Significant amounts of phenolic compounds were identified, with mint aqueous extracts containing the highest levels (2.72–3.43 g GAE/100 g dw), while basil had the lowest (0.50 g/100 g). Flavonoids, the primary class of phenolics, were present in concentrations ranging from 0.27 to 1.66 g EQ/100 g. Additionally, flavonols (43–548 mg QE/100 g) and condensed tannins (127–657 mg CE/100 g) were analyzed. The antioxidant activity of the aqueous extracts was assessed using three methods: reducing power (1.12–4.79 g AAE/100 g dw), radical scavenging activity (104–352 mg AAE/100 g), and lipid oxidation inhibition (18–69%). Increasing the extraction temperature to 100°C enhanced the extraction of phenolic compounds (1.19–7.35 g GAE/100 g dw), leading to improved reducing power (0.85–10 g AAE/100 g dw) and radical scavenging activity (136–513 mg AAE/100 g). However, the ability to inhibit linoleic acid oxidation decreased with higher temperatures. A strong correlation (p < 0.05) was observed between phenolic content and reducing power (r = 0.9), as well as between phenolic content and radical scavenging activity (r = 0.82 and r = 0.63 at 100°C). At 100°C, an inverse relationship was noted between polyphenol content and the capacity to inhibit linoleic acid oxidation.
Keywords: oxidative stress, aromatic herbs, polyphenols, reducing power, DPPH
... Moreover, chlorophyll-containing green tomato is a chlorine pigment, which helps to cleanse the body of harmful toxins by its antioxidant properties. It was reported that the intake of chlorophyll maintains a healthy digestive system by increasing the beneficial bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract (Kopsell et al., 2005). In this context, the main objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of green tomato powder supplementation on physiological, hematological, biochemical, and serum oxidative stress parameters of growing rabbits. ...
... Data exhibited that include both levels of GTP (10 or 20 g/ kg diet) in the diet of growing rabbits significantly (p < 0.05) elevated their live body weight, carcass weight and carcass percent ( Table 1). The improvement of body and carcass weight by administration of GTP may be due to containing green tomatoes a several bioactive compounds including tomatine and chlorophyll that are known to boost the immune system against the infectious microbes (Arena et al., 2018), maintain a healthy digestive system via elevating the serviceable microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract and clean the body of deleterious compounds by antioxidant properties (Kopsell et al., 2005). ...
... Moreover, chlorophyll-containing green tomato is a chlorine pigment, which helps to cleanse the body of harmful toxins by its antioxidant properties. It was reported that the intake of chlorophyll maintains a healthy digestive system by increasing the beneficial bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract (Kopsell et al., 2005). In this context, the main objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of green tomato powder supplementation on physiological, hematological, biochemical, and serum oxidative stress parameters of growing rabbits. ...
... Data exhibited that include both levels of GTP (10 or 20 g/ kg diet) in the diet of growing rabbits significantly (p < 0.05) elevated their live body weight, carcass weight and carcass percent ( Table 1). The improvement of body and carcass weight by administration of GTP may be due to containing green tomatoes a several bioactive compounds including tomatine and chlorophyll that are known to boost the immune system against the infectious microbes (Arena et al., 2018), maintain a healthy digestive system via elevating the serviceable microorganisms in the gastrointestinal tract and clean the body of deleterious compounds by antioxidant properties (Kopsell et al., 2005). ...
... There is a strong correlation of antioxidant consumption with lower risk of many diseases such as cardiovascular cancer, diabetes and hypertension diseases as well as other medical conditions. Vegetables have phenolic compounds, pigments and natural antioxidants; these compounds protect many diseases like cancer and heart diseases (Kopsell et al., 2005) [31] . The importance of antioxidant effects on cardiovascular diseases and cancer is especially important and these antioxidants can be found in various fruits, vegetables and herbs. ...
... There is a strong correlation of antioxidant consumption with lower risk of many diseases such as cardiovascular cancer, diabetes and hypertension diseases as well as other medical conditions. Vegetables have phenolic compounds, pigments and natural antioxidants; these compounds protect many diseases like cancer and heart diseases (Kopsell et al., 2005) [31] . The importance of antioxidant effects on cardiovascular diseases and cancer is especially important and these antioxidants can be found in various fruits, vegetables and herbs. ...
Nutraceuticals have been successfully applied as sustainable alternatives for the control and prevention of
large number of diseases. In day to day life Nutraceuticals have received considerable attention because
they are harmless, efficient and have potential nutritional value as well as therapeutic effects. Among
natural dietary supplements, vegetables being low in calories are packed with vitamins, minerals,
antioxidants and phytochemicals. They play an important role in the human diet and are rich sources of
biologically active compounds which are very essential for human beings. Phyto-nutraceuticals include
lycopene from tomato, curcumin from turmeric, carotenoids from carrot etc are very popular. Number of
studies has proved that vegetables contain more health giving ingredients as sugars, amino acids and
vitamins have long been recognized for their health benefits to humans. As technology and research
techniques are improving, other substances in vegetables that were previously ignored are getting the
spotlight. Another active nutraceutical ingredients in vegetables are flavonoids. They can act as potent
antioxidants and metal chelators. They also have long been recognized to possess anti inflammatory,
antiallergic, hepatoprotective, antithrombotic, antiviral, and anti carcinogenic activities. Antibacterial
activity has been displayed by a number of flavonoids. Flavonoids, especially quercetin, has been
reported to possess antidiabetic activity. The potential great number of phytochemicals including some of
the vitamins, flavonoids, terpenoids, carotenoids, phenolics, phytoestrogens, minerals and antioxidants in
vegetables are used as alternative preservative agents for controlling postharvest physiological disorders
or microbial pathogen injuries of vegetables in the food industry. Moreover, these natural compounds
have become interesting candidates not only for plant protection but also human and animal health
protection from fungal and bacterial diseases because of their lower toxicity or absence of toxicity. The
present review will focus on Nutraceutical value of vegetables.
... There is a strong correlation of antioxidant consumption with lower risk of many diseases such as cardiovascular cancer, diabetes and hypertension diseases as well as other medical conditions. Vegetables have phenolic compounds, pigments and natural antioxidants; these compounds protect many diseases like cancer and heart diseases (Kopsell et al., 2005) [31] . The importance of antioxidant effects on cardiovascular diseases and cancer is especially important and these antioxidants can be found in various fruits, vegetables and herbs. ...
... There is a strong correlation of antioxidant consumption with lower risk of many diseases such as cardiovascular cancer, diabetes and hypertension diseases as well as other medical conditions. Vegetables have phenolic compounds, pigments and natural antioxidants; these compounds protect many diseases like cancer and heart diseases (Kopsell et al., 2005) [31] . The importance of antioxidant effects on cardiovascular diseases and cancer is especially important and these antioxidants can be found in various fruits, vegetables and herbs. ...
... The herbs of the Lamiaceae family, such as basil, are characterized by strong antioxidant capacity. Basil in particular is a rich source of phenolic compounds, including phenolic acids such as rosmarinic, caffeic, chicoric and caftaric acids [59][60][61], vitamin C, and carotenoids such as lutein and β-carotene [62]. Furthermore, certain purple/red cultivars also have important concentrations of the hydrophilic anthocyanins, especially the "Dark Opal", "Purple Ruffles", and "Rubin" cultivars" [61,63]. ...
... The main carotenoids detected in basil are mostly lutein and β-carotene; but Calucci et al. [64] ranks basil first among aromatic herbs with respect to the concentrations of xanthophyll carotenoids. In the study of Kopsell et al. [62], the main detected carotenoids in sweet basil were identified as lutein, β-carotene, and zeaxanthin, and significant differences in carotenoid profiles were observed between different growing conditions (open-field versus greenhouse) and cultivars ("Cinnamon", "Genovese", "Italian large leaf", "Nufar", "Osmin purple", "Red Rubin", "Spicy bush", and "Sweet Tai"). According to Marchand et al. [38] and Johnson et al. [40], the frequent consumption of vegetables and herbs was more strongly correlated with reduced risk of certain types of cancer and degenerative ophthalmic diseases, in comparison to the ingestion of monomolecular carotenoid supplements. ...
The current trend for substituting synthetic compounds with natural ones in the design and production of functional and healthy foods has increased the research interest about natural colorants. Although coloring agents from plant origin are already used in the food and beverage industry, the market and consumer demands for novel and diverse food products are increasing and new plant sources are explored. Fresh vegetables are considered a good source of such compounds, especially when considering the great color diversity that exists among the various species or even the cultivars within the same species. In the present review we aim to present the most common species of colored vegetables, focusing on leafy and fruit vegetables, as well as on vegetables where other plant parts are commercially used, with special attention to blue color. The compounds that are responsible for the uncommon colors will be also presented and their beneficial health effects and antioxidant properties will be unraveled.
... Chlorophyll content in green leafy vegetables can be a visible quality parameter to determine the optimal harvest time (Limantara et al. 2015). In the case of basil, it has been reported that the amount present in leaves can be used to estimate the content of carotenoids (Kopsell et al. 2005), a compound associated with reduced risk of cancer and other diseases, especially eye diseases. ...
Nitrogen is a critical nutrient for basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), significantly influencing chlorophyll synthesis, leaf area development, and plant productivity. Traditional nitrogen assessment methods are destructive, time-consuming, and costly, limiting their practicality. Low-cost red-green-blue (RGB) imaging offers a promising alternative for the rapid, nondestructive estimation of plant nutritional status; however, its applicability in aromatic herbs like basil remains underexplored. This study evaluated using RGB imaging to estimate leaf area, nitrogen, and chlorophyll status in basil ‘Nufar’ as a tool for precision nutrient management. Using the Steiner nutrient solution, the basil plants were grown in a greenhouse under five nitrogen levels (0, 4, 8, 12, and 16 [mEq∙L−1] of NO3−NO3−). Weekly RGB images were acquired and processed through photogrammetric restitution to generate scaled orthomosaics. Seventeen spectral vegetation indices were obtained and correlated with reference measurements of nitrogen, chlorophyll, and leaf area by regression analysis. Results showed that a nitrogen level of 16 mEq∙L−1 NO3− significantly enhanced plant growth, development, and green coloration. Among the indices evaluated, the Normalized Green-Red Difference Index (NGRDI), Red Index (RI), and Color Index of Vegetation Extraction (CIVE) exhibited the strongest correlations with nitrogen concentration (r = 0.92–0.93), chlorophyll concentration (r = 0.94–0.97), and leaf area (r = 0.93–0.97). These findings confirm that low-cost RGB imaging provides an accurate and efficient method for monitoring nitrogen status, chlorophyll content, and leaf area in basil ‘Nufar.’ This approach offers a valuable tool for optimizing nutrient management and yield prediction in this economically important medicinal and aromatic species.
... surfaced between the total chlorophyll content and carotenoids. Kopsell et al. (2005) also reported a positive correlation between chlorophyll and carotenoid contents in eight cultivars of sweet basil grown indoors and outdoors. Ndukwe et al. (2016) reported a significant correlation between chlorophyll a and b and total chlorophyll and carotenoid contents in 10 maize cultivars. ...
... The chlorophyll content is an important experimental parameter in agronomy and plant biology research [9]. The amount of chlorophyll of leaves differ by the influences of many environmental factors [10]. Besides, both species of the plant and position of the leaf influence the chlorophyll content of the leaf [11,12]. ...
In this study, we purposed to determine the relationship between color and chlorophyll of some plants are used to as indoor ornamental plant. The measurements made with this purpose are interpreted and the relationship between the color and shades occur on leaves and chlorophyll concentration has been tried to demonstrate. The results of study demonstrate that the amount of chlorophyll varies by the green color and the parts with darker color on the same plant have higher chlorophyll concentration. In addition, no chlorophyll has been determined on the yellow and white parts on the green leaves-of those which are generally used as ornamental plant and have multicolored leaves. Moreover, chlorophyll content has been determined as nearly minute amount on green leaves which act as a petal of different-colored petals or of some plants have no petal. In addition to these, it has been determined that the color variance on the leaves signals the chlorophyll concentration and that the chlorophyll concentration doesn't decrease on the leaves which don't lose their green colors.
... Likewise, Kazem (2013) stated that dietary supplementation of 1%-3% medicinal herbs on diets including 2% medicinal herbs increased egg yolk color. In addition, Kopsell et al. (2005) explained that, basil was shown to rank highest among spices and herbal crops for carotenoids. Similarly, supplementation of coriander seeds into the feed was able to increase the absorption of betacarotene contained in the feed (Habiyah et al., 2016). ...
The study was conducted to investigate the effect of mixtures of Ruta graveolen (Rg), coriander (C), and basil (B) seed extracts on productive performance, blood profiles, egg quality and egg chemi-cal composition of White Leghorn (WL) layers. One hundred eighty WL layers at twenty- six weeks of age were randomly distributed to four treatments, each replicated three times with fifteen layers per replications in a completely randomized design and kept on a deep litter system for eight weeks. The treatments (T) were water containing mixtures of Ruta graveolen, coriander, and basil seed extract with the proportion of 0 ml (T1), 2 ml (T2), 4ml (T3), and 6 ml (T4) per liter of water. The hen day egg pro-duction (HDEP) was significantly (P<0.05) higher for layers in T3 (50.75%). Serum cholesterol and LDL (low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol levels decreased significantly while, HDL (high-density lipoprotein) cholesterol and globulin increased significantly (P<0.01) when compared with the control. There were no significant differences (P>0.05) among treatments in egg weight, albumen weight, yolk weight, shell weight and thickness. Generally; the mixtures of Rg, C, and B seed extracts in 4ml/1lt in drinking water could increase HDEP and egg quality and reduce serum cholesterol.
... It has a high harvest index and profit margin, is relatively easy to grow, and is well adapted for commercial greenhouse hydroponics and other controlled environment agriculture (CEA) systems (Sipos et al., 2021). The use of greenhouse hydroponics to cultivate basil can provide ideal climate and nutrient conditions that could help diminish any changes in plant growth or development caused by seasonal variations in environmental conditions (Kopsell et al., 2005;Kiferle et al., 2013). Basil is rich in phenolic and terpenoid compounds, many of which are important for human sensory perception and possess human health benefits (Pattison et al., 2018). ...
The spectral quality of supplemental greenhouse lighting can directly influence aroma volatiles and secondary metabolic resource allocation (i.e., specific compounds and classes of compounds). Research is needed to determine species-specific secondary metabolic responses to supplemental lighting (SL) sources with an emphasis on variations in spectral quality. The primary objective of this experiment was to determine the impact of supplemental narrowband blue (B) and red (R) LED lighting ratios and discrete wavelengths on flavor volatiles in hydroponic basil (Ocimum basilicum var. Italian Large Leaf). A natural light (NL) control and different broadband lighting sources were also evaluated to establish the impact of adding discrete and broadband supplements to the ambient solar spectrum. Each SL treatment provided 8.64 mol . m-2. d⁻¹ (100 µmol . m-2. s⁻¹, 24 h . d⁻¹) photon flux. The daily light integral (DLI) of the NL control averaged 11.75 mol . m-2.d⁻¹ during the growth period (ranging from 4 to 20 mol . m-2.d⁻¹). Basil plants were harvested 45 d after seeding. Using GC-MS, we explored, identified, and quantified several important volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with known influence on sensory perception and/or plant physiological processes of sweet basil. We found that the spectral quality from SL sources, in addition to changes in the spectra and DLI of ambient sunlight across growing seasons, directly influence basil aroma volatile concentrations. Further, we found that specific ratios of narrowband B/R wavelengths, combinations of discrete narrowband wavelengths, and broadband wavelengths directly and differentially influence the overall aroma profile as well as specific compounds. Based on the results of this study, we recommend supplemental 450 and 660 nm (± 20 nm) wavelengths at a ratio of approximately 10B/90R at 100-200 µmol . m-2.s⁻¹, 12-24 h . d⁻¹ for sweet basil grown under standard greenhouse conditions, with direct consideration of the natural solar spectrum and DLI provided for any given location and growing season. This experiment demonstrates the ability to use discrete narrowband wavelengths to augment the natural solar spectrum to provide an optimal light environment across variable growing seasons. Future experiments should investigate SL spectral quality for the optimization of sensory compounds in other high-value specialty crops.
... The concentration of pigments was determined from the absorbance reading using the Beer-Lambert equation A = αlc relationship in coordination with Lichtenthaler and Welburn who reported accurate Beer-Lambert absorption coefficients for the major pigments of photosynthesis, allowing their concentrations to be easily determined from absorbance reading displayed by spectrophotometer [8]. A663 and A649 are absorbance of chlorophyll "a" at 663nm and chlorophyll "b" at 649nm respectively. ...
... Consistent with several authors [34,35], these results would confirm the vital role of genetics, since the differences recorded for chlorophyll concentration could result from the anatomical, morphological, and biometric differences observed. The above could also explain the differences recorded for the carotenoids (Table 3) whose accumulation and bioavailability, as reported by Kopsell et al. [36], depend primarily on genetic, biochemical, and physiological characteristics and are marginally affected by biotic and abiotic conditions. In addition to their role as accessory photosynthetic pigments, carotenoids play a crucial and complex biochemical function in the human body with potential beneficial effects [37]. ...
Basil (Ocimum sp.) is one of the world’s most famous culinary fresh herbs, characterized by rapid growth that makes it particularly suitable for hydroponic cultivation. This study aimed to evaluate the adaptability of six types of basil to a closed-loop hydroponic system (floating raft system) and their post-harvest performance. Twenty-three days after transplantation, productivity, morpho-physiological performance, and mineral profile (by ion chromatography) were evaluated. At 3, 6, and 9 days after harvest, the loss of water from the from leaves stored at 10 °C in the dark was evaluated. Although the total fresh production of Thai, Mexican, and Genovese did not differ significantly, the latter provided a higher fresh leaf weight (16.52 g of plant⁻¹) despite a lower leaf number (30.06 n. of plant⁻¹). Nine days after harvest, Thai and Mexican showed the lowest water loss. Although Mexican Purple had the lowest net CO2 assimilation, it accumulated the highest concentration of ascorbic acid (909.41 mg 100 g fw⁻¹).
... Another key element impacting bud sprouting is the quality of light. It is widely known that plants do not absorb all wavelengths at the same rate, and that abiotic stresses such as light can affect secondary metabolite production (Yeum & Russell, 2002;Kopsell et al., 2005). ...
This study was carried out in the greenhouse of the Horticulture Department Nursery, College of Agriculture Engineering Sciences, Duhok University, Kurdistan region, Iraq, for the period from 1st Aug 2020 to 1st Mar 2021, to study the effect of five supplemental light (control, natural light, Incandescent 14, Incandescent 18, mixed 14, mixed 18) hours daily and three growing medium (river soil, river soil + 30% local compost, river soil + 60% local compost) on some vegetative growth and flowering of two cultivars of carnation plant. The best results (fewest days) for the number of days from planting to bud emergence, visible flower colour, and anthesis were obtained when the plants were exposed to mixed light colours or incandescent lamps for a 14-hour treatment, Also this treatments were significantly superior in the other characteristics like plant height, flower length and flower diameter compared to the control. Medium with 60% local compost significantly increased all the studied characteristics compared with other mediums. The Ormea (Red) cultivar was significantly superior to the Moonlight cultivar in all studies of characteristics and was early in day numbers for bud emergence, visible flower colour, and anthesis. All second interactions between the investigated factors had a significant influence in all studied characteristics. In addition, the triple interaction between the three factors had a significant impact on all characteristics, including the least days or fewest days to flower anthesis of the Ormea cultivar when planted on medium containing 60% local compost under incandescent 14h, which took 101.80 days compared 176.27 days, with an early reach of 74.47 days for the control. The Moonlight (white) cultivar required the fewest days, 128.93 days, for a medium containing 60% compost under mixed 14h, which needed 123.93 days, compared to the control, which required 195.87 days with an early flowering rate of 71.94 days.
... The total carotenoids values obtained in the roselle-basil drink samples increased (7.86 -16.12 mg/100 g) with an increase in the addition of sweet basil leaves but caused a decrease in the lycopene content from 1.54 to 1.02 mg/100 g. The increase in the total carotenoids and reduction in the lycopene content of the samples may be attributed to the addition of sweet basil leaves, which has been reported to contain a higher amount of carotenoids (Hanif et al., 2011), and the presence of chlorophyll (Kopsell, Kopsell, & Curran-Celentano, 2005). Lutein, zeaxanthin, and β-carotene are dominant carotenoids in sweet basil leaves (Hanif et al., 2011). ...
Consumers expect greater functionality from food and beverage products. Celebrated for a range of health benefits, polyphenols have been linked to a preventive role for chronic diseases and viral infections and have the ability to relieve oxidative stress. A drink made with roselle calyces (Hibiscus sabdariffa) and sweet basil leaves (Ocimum basilicum L) may provide therapeutic or preventive effects against chronic and infectious diseases. Damage caused by oxidative stress may be alleviated by the polyphenols found in roselle calyces and sweet basil leaves. The roselle-basil samples at different blend ratio were analysed for pH, total soluble solids, total titratable acidity, vitamin C, lycopene, total phenolic contents, antioxidant properties, and storage stability at different temperature (4 and 29°C). The incorporation of sweet basil leaves to roselle calyces slightly decreased the vitamin C and lycopene content of the processed drink but increased the total carotenoid and antioxidant activities (ABTS and ORAC) of the drink. The radical scavenging properties of the processed drink increased with the addition of the dried sweet basil leaves and samples kept at a higher temperature of 29°C showed a rise in antioxidant activities compared to samples stored at 4°C. The increase in the free radical scavenging power of the drinks show that the roselle-basil drink may serve as health drink and addition of sweet basil leaves up to 5% may be suitable to produce roselle-basil drink.
... μg g −1 DW) and in the indoor (1109.49 μg g −1 DW) systems were higher than the data determined in Osmin Purple basil (610 μg g −1 DW), 27 although not significantly higher when compared to the data observed in purple basil plants in the field system (904.80 μg g −1 DW) of the present study. ...
BACKGROUND
Aromatic herbs are an important source of bioactive compounds. Different cultivation systems should give each plant a specific amount of those compounds, which should be of a particular quality. In this study, the effects of three cultivation systems (indoor, greenhouse, and organic field) on the composition of bioactive compounds in parsley (Petroselinum crispum cv. ‘Flat Leaf’), green basil (Ocimum basilicum var. minimum cv. ‘Greek’), and purple basil (Ocimum basilicum cv. ‘Red Rubin’) were evaluated.
RESULTS
β‐Carotene and lutein were the carotenoids with the highest concentration in the three plants in all the cultivation systems. Overall, parsley proved to be a source of flavonoids. The major phenolic compound found in basil plants was rosmarinic acid, whereas most anthocyanins were derived from cyanidin aglycone. Among the three plants studied, the highest vitamin C content was found in parsley from the field. This was 2.6 and 5.4 times higher than the indoor and greenhouse cultivation, respectively.
CONCLUSION
The results suggest that different cultivation systems influence and modulate the concentration of bioactive compounds in plants differently, varying according to their class, and that, above all, an indoor system is an effective cultivation system for the production of bioactive compounds. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.
... The mean value was 10.43 mg/g QE that was lower than those reported by Nyonje (2015)for Amaranthus caudatus (69.67 mg/g QE). Miean and Mohamed (2001)examined the flavonoids content of 62 vegetables and found that broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, Chinese cabbage, and kailan contained between 148 and 219 mg/kg offlavonoids.Flavonoids are a ubiquitous group of polyphenolic substances, which have antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, antineoplastic, antiviral, anti-thrombotic, and vasodilatory activities (Kopsell et al., 2005). Good correlation between the total flavonoids content and antioxidant activity has been show indicating that the flavonoids contribute in free radical scavenging (Cushnie & Lamb, 2005;Nyonje, 2015). ...
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the nutritional and phenolic compositions of leaves of Anchote (Coccinia abyssinica) accessions grown in East Wollega Zone (Nekemte), Ethiopia. Leaves of fifteen accessions of Anchote were collected from research farm of Wollega University Ethiopia. The dried leaves of each accession were grounded separately into fine powder following standard procedures. Thereafter, the proximate, mineral, and phenolic compositions were determined according to published official standard procedures with grade chemicals and reagents. Mineral ratios were considered to examine mineral-mineral interactions and antinutrient/mineral molar ratios were calculated to predict minerals bioavailability. Principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analyses were conducted to characterize the accessions based on nutritional and mineral traits. Proximate compositions (% dwb) except moisture content were varied significantly (P < 0.05) and ranged: moisture 9.21–10.15, crude protein 16.88−29.84, crude fiber 8.52–12.07, crude fat 2.03–4.19, total ash 10.06–17.27, utilizable carbohydrate 37.45–46.36 and gross energy 272.67–293.11 kcal/100 g. PCA of proximate traits showed 74.15% variation for two principal components and the accessions categorized into three clusters. Mineral contents (mg/100 g dwb) were significantly varied (P < 0.05) and ranged: calcium (79.66–100.68), magnesium (31.18–68.47), sodium (41.32–71.95), potassium (71.79–111.13), phosphorus (42.07–66.9), Iron (3.68–11.51) and zinc (1.02–3.11). PCA of mineral traits showed 69.30% variation for two principal components and the accessions grouped into three clusters. Results of phenolic analyses were significantly varied (P < 0.05). Range of condensed tannin, phytate, total flavonoids and total phenols for the examined accessions were 129.0–255.32 mg/100 g, 218.46–240.67 mg/100 g, 8.03–12.74 mg/g QE, and 18.43–29.96 mg/g GAE, respectively. The study revealed that Anchote leaves contain appreciable amount of vital nutrients when compared to the commonly consumed green vegetables in Ethiopia. Particularly, those leaves of Anchote accessions that contained significantly higher amounts can be applied for breeding, new product development, and supplementation programs. Thus, the promotion of Anchote leaves for consumption and cultivation should be encouraged.
... An up to five times lower content of β-carotene and lutein was also reported in rocket (Znidarcic, Ban, & Sircelj, 2011). On the other hand, a three times higher content of both β-carotene and lutein was found in basil (Kopsell, Kopsell, & Curran-Celentano, 2005). The content of β-carotene and lutein in spinach, which is also considered to be a carotenoid rich green leafy vegetable, was evaluated, for example, by Kopsell et al. (2006) and the content was estimated in fresh mass. ...
Wild edible plants have become an attractive variation of the human diet, especially in East Asia, North America, and Oceania. However, their potential in nutrition is only rarely considered in Europe. This study aims to reveal the nutritional and antioxidant potential of mature fern leaves from 13 families grown in Europe. We found that most of the examined fern species displayed a high antioxidant capacity, exceeding 0.5 g Trolox equivalent per gram of extract dry weight in ORAC assay and reaching IC50 values lower than 30 µg·mL⁻¹ in DPPH assay (with the value for Trolox 7 µg·mL⁻¹). Most of the species also appeared to be a good source of carotenoids, especially of lutein (205 µg·g⁻¹ DW on average) and β-carotene (161 µg·g⁻¹ DW in average) when compared to the reference leafy vegetables spinach and rocket. A cytotoxicity test using ovine hepatocytes showed a non-toxicity effect of fern leaf extracts.
... Skoczylas et al. (2018) reported double CHLs content in summer wheat grass as compared to winter wheat grass. Similarly, Kopsell et al., 2005 have reported about 50-100% higher CHLs content in different varieties of field grown basil as compared to those grown in greenhouse. ...
The study was aimed to evaluate if deetiolation of barley and wheat microgreens after cultivaton in dark (for 5, 7 and 9 days) can enhance the contents of pigments, ascorbic acid, polyphenols, and equivalent antioxidant capacities (EAC) (measured by DPPH and FRAP assay) in correlation to other. Chlorophylls and carotenoids were higher in microgreens that were exposed more to daylight. In contrast, ascorbic acid, polyphenols and EAC of microgreens could be enhance by 5-7 days of etiolation. However, prolonged etiolation reduced overall antioxidant capacities of microgreens. All evaluated parameters could be satisfactorily represented by regression expressions for the given number of days of etiolation and growth. The ascorbic acid and total carotenoids content had higher correlations with total chlorophyll contents, while the antioxidant capacities were highly correlated to total polyphenols content. The study confirms the potential of deetiolated cultivation of microgreens to enhance selective phytochemicals content and EAC of microgreens.
... On the other hand, no correlation between these pigments in leaves of barley was found. Other researchers reported about positive correlation between chlorophylls and carotenoids in sweet basil cultivars (Kopsell et al. 2005) and between these pigments in maize (Ndukwe et al. 2016). Niroula et al. (2019) observed a statistically significant positive correlation between Chl a, Chl b, and Ccar in wheat and barley, but the authors calculated the coefficients of correlations for both these plants without their separation into two different groups-barley and wheat. ...
Environmental pollution is becoming one of the most important global problems. Understanding the main factors affecting accumulation of toxic trace elements in consumed crops is of particular value. Unfortunately, possible toxicity of many trace elements is still poorly studied. The development of measures on identification of new potentially toxic trace elements is critical for high quality and safety of food. In the research, we performed greenhouse pot experiments with two major crops, wheat and barley, that were grown in the soil contaminated with bromides of ammonium and neodymium. The concentrations of elements in the plants and soil were determined by ICP-MS/ICP-OES after leaching the samples with tetramethyl ammonium hydroxide. Additionally, variations in the biomasses and concentrations of pigments in the plant leaves were studied. Although wheat and barley are botanically similar and were grown under the same conditions, concentrations of several elements in the plants were rather different. Both wheat and barley were capable of accumulating high concentrations of bromine (Br) when the plants grow in the soil contaminated with this trace element, but demonstrated different response on the soil contamination. The Br concentrations were always higher in barley, while the concentrations of pigments in barley leaves were lower than in leaves of wheat. During first days, biomass of the plants grown in the soil contaminated with bromides was slightly lower than biomass of the wheat and barley grown in uncontaminated soil. However, with time the bromides exhibited positive effect on the plant biomass.
... Siracole. The high carotene content maybe due to the increased chlorophyll content as Kopsell et al. (2005) has stated that carotenoid content was significantly and positively correlated with chlorophyll content. ...
A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of FeS04, MnS04 and their combination on growth and flowering of Tagetes erecta cv. Siracole. Highest linear growth (68.88cm) of marigold was recorded in plants treated with 0.25%MnS04+ 0.25%FeS04. Plant spread (63.79cm), number of branches (19.10), leaf area (5.36cm.sq.), fresh and dry matter accumulation (431.69g and 105.59g), crop growth rate (7.98 g/m.sq./days), biomass duration (2783.03 g.days), number of flowers per plant (78.66), yield of flowers (35.99 t/ha) and petal meal per kilogram of fresh flowers (390.3 g/kg) and carotene content (2.26mg/g) were recorded highest in plants treated with 0.5 % FeS04+ 0.25 %MnS04 at all stages of crop growth. Plant chlorophyll and iron content were recorded highest with 0.5%FeS04 while manganese content was significantly increased with the application of MnS04@0.5%.
... Carotenoid is known as an important natural antioxidant with anti-carcinogenic properties [46]. In the present work, carotenoid levels were measured in basil leaves and a reduction was detected under stress conditions; this is in agreement with previous reports that found a negative correlation between temperature and carotenoid contents in basil leaves [47]. Temperature stress led to a significant increase in total phenolics and flavonoids in leaves of plants subjected to the temperature treatment and an enhancement of the former in water-stressed plants. ...
The effects of climate temperature and water stress on growth and several stress markers were investigated in sweet basil plants. Some growth parameters (shoot length and number of leaves) and photosynthetic chlorophyll contents were determined every two days during plant growth, and foliage leaf material was collected after 15 and 21 days of treatment. Both climate temperature and water stress inhibited sweet basil plant growth; especially, total chlorophyll levels were decreased significantly in response to high-temperature treatments. Under strong stresses, basil plants induced the synthesis and accumulation of glycine betaine (GB) as a secondary osmolyte, although at less content when compared with the proline content under the same stress conditions. Proline concentrations particularly increased in leaves of both basil stressed plants, accomplishing levels high enough to play a crucial role in cellular osmoregulation adjustment. Stress-induced accumulation of these antioxidant compounds was detected in sweet basil. Therefore, it appears that sweet basil-treated plants are able to synthesize antioxidant compounds under strong stress conditions. On the other hand, total sugar concentrations decreased in stress-treated basil plants. Both temperature and water stress treatments caused oxidative stress in the treated plants, as indicated by a significant increment in malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations. An increase in total phenolic and flavonoid concentrations in response to water stress and a highly significant decrease in carotenoid concentrations in basil leaves were observed; flavonoids also increased under high climate temperature conditions.
... Nevertheless, the increasing global popularity of barley grass is due to its rich pigments profile. The Chl t pigments are strong natural antioxidants acting as free radical scavengers [13], and the Car pigments are associated with age-related eye diseases [14]. Studies have revealed that the Chl t and Car content in barley varies with the species, cultivars, cultivation pattern, and temperature [15]. ...
Barley grass possesses high nutritional value and antioxidant properties. In this study, the phytochemical constituents and antioxidant enzyme activities in six cultivars of barley grass were explored at three developmental stages: tillering, jointing, and booting stages. Total chlorophyll (Chl t) and carotenoid (Car) content, chlorophyll a/b (Chl a/b) ratio, total nitrogen nutrition (TNN), and total soluble protein (TSP) content, and superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activities were assayed. The results indicated that the cultivar × development interaction was significant and that developmental stage was the main factor affecting the parameters studied. Cultivars had a negligible effect on these parameters, which varied with the developmental stages. In the tillering stage, Chl t and Car content, TNN, and POD activity achieved their highest value; in the jointing stage, SOD activity peaked; in the booting stage, Chl a/b ratio, TSP content, and PPO activity showed their highest values. TNN showed a negative correlation with TSP. Compared with those in the jointing, Chl t, Car, TSP, TNN content, Chl a/b ratio, and POD and PPO activities increased in the booting and the tillering stages, whereas SOD activity decreased. The differences in phytochemical constituents and antioxidant enzyme activities in barley grass were mainly correlated with the developmental stages. The aim of this study was to demonstrate the influence of developmental stages of barley grass on its phytochemical profile and antioxidant activities. Our results will help understand the mechanism of action of barley grass and provide theoretical support for the therapeutic application of barley grass.
... There are many laboratory studies have shown various protective effects of Basil including chemopreventive activity, anti-inflammatory activity, bactericidal activity, a nervous system stimulant effect, modulator effect on glutathione and antioxidant enzymes, antidiarrheal effects, deduced risks of cancer, protective effects against hypercholesterolemia and age-related eye diseases, and blood-sugar lowering effect [11,12,13] . ...
... Therefore, many researchers use chlorophyll to investigate and extract results of physiological responses to the satisfactoriness and purchasing power of basil. Kopsell D. A. et al. (2005) [20] state that chlorophyll concentration and the green color gradation of leaves can be used as indicators of the xanthophyll carotenoid levels in basil. In these plants, xanthophyll is one of the most important carotenoids affecting the nutritional value; therefore, further research is needed to estimate xanthophyll pigments during different photoperiods in indoor cultivation areas. ...
Vertical farming is a novel type of food production in indoor environments with artificial lighting and controlled cultivation conditions. In this context, sustainability in small-scale indoor cultivation systems is crucial. Sustainability can be achieved by optimizing all the cultivation factors involved in the production process. The effects of different photoperiod conditions under different timing during plant development—from sowing to germination and maturity—have been studied in a small-scale indoor cultivation area. The main objective of this research was to investigate the possibilities of an optimized photoperiod for basil plants to reduce the energy demand cost of the cultivation unit. Three different photoperiod treatments (P8D16L, P10D14L, and P11D13L) were applied to basil plants with stable light intensity. Furthermore, the photoperiod was shortened to test the reaction of the biomass from the plants in a reduced energy demand system. The dry biomass produced was measured along with the energy consumed in each treatment. The basil quality was assessed by measuring different physiological indices, such as chlorophyll a (Chl a), chlorophyll b (Chl b), total chlorophyll (Chl tot), the fraction of photosynthetically active irradiance absorbed by the leaf, and leaf temperature. The results of the study showed that a shorter photoperiod did not negatively affect the quantity and quality of the basil plants. Continuously, the evaluation of the energy demand variation under the different photoperiod treatments can provide a significant positive impact on the energetic, ecological, and economic aspects of small-scale food production.
... Chlorophyll is often referred to as the green blood of plants due to the identical molecular structure with hemoglobin with only difference in center atom (iron or magnesium). This similarity makes chlorophyll so important to our health; it improves digestive, immune and detoxification systems of human body [14]. Leaves contain phenols, flavonoids, β-carotene, anthocyanin, and caffeoylquinic acid derivatives [15]. ...
The investigation was carried out to characterize the chlorophyll components and carotenoids of the leaves of some local and exotic genotypes of sweetpotato viz. Local-1, Local-2, Local-5, Local-8, Exotic-1, Exotic-2, Exotic-4 and BARI SP-4 and their effect on production of total dry matter and storage roots dry weight during November 2016 to March 2017 at farmer's field of Dashpara village of Sylhet Sadar Upazila, Sylhet, Bangladesh. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. Fresh leaves of 5-6th position from the top of vine Original Research Article Hossain et al.; AJRIB, 2(4): 1-11, 2019; Article no.AJRIB.51210 2 were collected from the research field into polybag with proper tagging and brought to the laboratory in the morning of 30, 60, 90 and 120 days after planting (DAP). Collected leaves were washed, wiped out of excess water, cut into small pieces, mixed thoroughly, and 250 mg of leaf materials were taken in a mortar. Leaf materials were grinded finely by a pestle with 25 ml of cold 80% acetone for two minutes. Sample tubes were centrifuged for 10 minutes. The homogenate was filtered and made up to 25 ml with cold 80% acetone. The centrifuged samples were incubated in dark for half an hour. The optical density (OD) for each solution was measured at 663, 645 and 440.5 nm against 80% acetone as blank in one cm cell of spectrophotometer. Triplicate estimation was done for each sample. Chemical analyses were performed at Regional Laboratory of Soil Resource Development Institute, Sylhet. Statistical analyses was done using MSTATC software following analysis of variance technique and Duncan's Multiple Range Test. Results showed that chlorophyll-a gradually increased up to 60 DAP in all genotypes, thereafter continued only in Exotic-4, Exotic-3 and Local-1 up to 90 DAP. The highest amount of chlorophyll-a (10.27±0.45 mg 100 gfw-1) was in Local-1 at 90 DAP. The highest amount of chlorophyll-b was in Exotic-3 (19.13±0.53 mg 100 gfw-1) followed by Local-1 (16.85±0.50 mg 100 gfw-1) at 30 DAP. Carotenoids content in leaves of all genotypes increased gradually up to 90 DAP and thereafter decreased except Exotic-4. The highest carotenoids was in Exotic-3 (10.78 mg 100 gfw-1) followed by Local-1 (10.13 mg 100 gfw-1) at 90 DAP. At 120 DAP, the highest storage roots weight was in Local-8 (232.40±5.97 g plant-1), followed by Local-1 (187.50±5.23 g plant-1). Chlorophylls and carotenoids had no significant effect on total dry matter and storage roots dry weights at 30 DAP. At 120 DAP, all chlorophyll components and carotenoids had positive correlation with total dry matter (TDM) and storage roots dry weights. Genotypes Local-1, Local-8 had the higher chlorophylls while Exotic-3, Local-1 and Local-8 had the higher carotenoids. Genotypes Local-1 and Local-8 showed the highest storage roots dry weight.
Microgreens are nutrient-rich functional foods with health-promoting properties. They have higher levels of beneficial components compared to mature plants, particularly cereal microgreens. In this study conducted in a fully controlled climate room, total phenolic (TPC), total antioxidant activity (TAA), total flavonoid content (TFC), total ascorbic acid content (TAC), carotenoid (CAR), and pigment contents of microgreens produced from two barley (Cetin-2000 and Tarm-92), two wheat (Dogu-88 and Ayyildiz) and three oat (Yeniceri, Faikbey and Kahraman) varieties were determined. According to the group averages, barley had the lowest results in terms of TPC, TAA, and TFC. The wheat group had the highest TAA, TPC (with oats), and TFC values (4728.44 mg TE g⁻¹, 559.53 mg GAE 100 g⁻¹, and 570.89 mg QE 100 g⁻¹, respectively). The highest TAC was found in oat (23.15 mg 100 g⁻¹). Total chlorophyll content (TCHL), chlorophyll a (CHLa), chlorophyll b (CHLb) and CAR contents were the highest in wheat and lowest in barley. According to the averages, there were ratios between TCHL with CHLa 1.3-fold, CHLb 7-fold, and CAR 5.5-fold. And 3.3-fold ratio occurred between CHLa and CHLb levels. It was determined that the examined cereal microgreens contained significantly antioxidant activities, biochemical and pigment contents.
This two-year experiment with different planting seasons (April 2018 and August 2021) aimed to determine the effect of deficit irrigation (DI) levels (DI0: 100%, DI30: 70%, and DI60: 40% field capacity) on light interception, light extinction coefficient (k), dry biomass and radiation use efficiency (RUE) of two basil cultivars (Green and Purple). The greenhouse experiment was arranged in a split-plot design with three replications. The results showed that the k values ranged from 0.57 to 0.68 and 0.31 to 0.43 in April and August planting, respectively. The cumulative solar radiation interception, dry biomass, and RUE depended on DI levels, harvest numbers, and seasons. In two study years, dry biomass decreased and RUE increased with the reduction in irrigation water at all harvests and their total. Compared to DI0, basil dry biomass did not show a considerable decrease under DI30 in three harvests in April planting and in the first and second harvests in August planting. April planting had the higher cumulative solar radiation interception in the first and third harvest than the August planting. The basil dry biomass and RUE in the April planting were higher than those in the August planting at all three harvests and their total.
The main target of this investigation is to design and manufacture of a handy tool for transplanting the medicinal and aromatic seedling. The study was conducted in Agricultural Engineering Research Institute (AenRI) during the year of 2022 while planning the soil for white basil planting. The transplanting handy tool is made up from locally available material, the parts were designed and machined by a laser beam CNC machine with simple jaw type mechanism which mounted at bottom and operated by lever with gauge wire and combination of springs. It was fabricated with a frame (1), seedling feeding pipe (2), gauge wire (3), simple jaw type mechanism (4), seedling try (5) and driven wheel with sonic marker (6), based on (dimension of seedlings, soil resistance to penetration force, clearance limits, clearance between handle and lever, height of equipment and human subject strength). The performance of the transplanting handy tool was evaluated mathematically and ergonomically. A factorial experiment according to randomized complete blocks design of field layout was taken. The workers were taken as replications (blocks), treatments of two penetration cones of 2 jaws and 3 jaws with three angles 20, 25 and 30 º had conducted. The results indicated that the experimental treatments have highly significant differences among the transplanting handy tool workers. Developed transplanting handy tool is simple, light weight, low cost machine found suitable for transplanting of medicinal and aromatic seedlings.
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) is one of the commercially important leafy vegetables worldwide. However, lettuce cultivars vary widely in their carotenoid concentrations at the time of harvest. While the carotenoid content of lettuce can depend on transcript levels of key biosynthetic enzymes, genes that can act as biomarkers for carotenoid accumulation at early stages of plant growth have not been identified. Transcriptomic and metabolomic analysis was performed on the inner and outer leaves of the six cultivars at different developmental stages to identify gene-to-metabolite networks affecting the accumulation of two key carotenoids, β-carotene and lutein. Statistical analysis, including principal component analysis, was used to better understand variations in carotenoid concentration between leaf age and cultivars. Our results demonstrate that key enzymes of carotenoid biosynthesis pathway can alter lutein and β-carotene biosynthesis across commercial cultivars. To ensure high carotenoids content in leaves, the metabolites sink from β-carotene and lutein to zeaxanthin, and subsequently, abscisic acid needs to be regulated. Based on 2–3-fold carotenoids increase at 40 days after sowing (DAS) as compared to the seedling stage, and 1.5–2-fold decline at commercial stage (60 DAS) compared to the 40 DAS stage, we conclude that the value of lettuce for human nutrition would be improved by use of less mature plants, as the widely-used commercial stage is already at plant senescence stage where carotenoids and other essential metabolites are undergoing degradation.
Missing information on plant origin control and nutritional data on herbs, spices and vegetables could lead to sample quality deficit and misusage of the plant database. In this study, twenty vegetables that were collected and managed based on the recommendations of the Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Thailand, were investigated regarding their proximate mineral, vitamin and carotenoid contents using the standard procedures of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). The results showed that these plants (100 g dry weight) exhibited similar energy levels (337.11–420.48 kcal), which were mainly distributed from high carbohydrate content (21.01–88.17 g), while protein (3.14–66.07 g) and fat (0.00–10.33 g) levels were quite low. As a form of carbohydrate, dietary fiber was found to be high in Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf (Cy. citratus) and Solanum torvum Sw. (So. torvum) (57.00–59.54 g). Interestingly, Senegalia pennata subsp. insuavis (Lace) Maslin, Seigler & Ebinger (S. pennata) exhibited exceptionally high protein content, which was between 2.3 and 3.1 times higher than its carbohydrates. High mineral contents were detected in S. pennata, Ocimum africanum Lour. (O. africanum), Ocimum basilicum L. (O. basilicum), Ocimum gratissimum L. var. macrophyllum Briq. (O. gratissimum) and Coriandrum sativum L. (Co. sativum), while Mentha cordifolia Opiz ex Fresen (M. cordifolia) was observed to be a good source of vitamin C (381.36–547.47 mg). High carotenoids were mostly found in Eryngium foetidum L. (E. foetidum), O. gratissimum, Co. sativum and O. basilicum (75.23–119.96 mg). Interestingly, the location of sample collection seemed to have minimal effect on the nutritional and carotenoid compositions. The results of this study provide reliable information concerning the nutritional and carotenoid contents in plant sources with control of origin, which could be used in the future for food development with specific nutritional requirements.
Basil or sweet basil is named Ocimum basilicum L. from the Lamiaceae family, which originated from India, and it is also well known as a culinary herb in other countries such as Italy, Thailand, Vietnam, and Taiwan. Agricultural systems (traditional or alternative agricultural systems) have a different effect on the morphology, yield, and yield components of basil. These agricultural systems include aquaponics and hydroponics systems and organic farming by using organic manure as vermicompost, poultry or cattle manure, biofertilizer, growing techniques, etc., as well as chemical fertilizer. Fertilization, especially organic and chemical fertilizer, combined with minerals, applied in appropriate dose and composition, affects growth, herb weight, and basil inorganic matter content. In this context, the management of the fertilizers is a significant factor to obtain successful basil cultivation and sustainable agriculture. So, the best agricultural system and growing condition should be determined to obtain the maximum yield values in basil. In this chapter, botany, distribution, origin, domestication, spread, genetic resource, collection, conservation, characterization, and evaluation (different agricultural systems, fertilizer application, genetic variability and morphology, and yield properties) will be covered in detail and provide information for basil producers and researchers.
Landraces that adapt to all kinds of stress factors over thousands of years are considered a very important genetic resource. In this study, antioxidant activities, bioactive compounds, and pigment contents of microgreen in Kose and Kirik wheat landraces, which are used extensively in bread making especially in rural areas of Eastern Anatolia, and some cereals, were examined. In the study, chlorophyll (CHLdx), flavonol (FLV), anthocyanin (ANT), and N balance index (NBI) were measured in fresh material with a Dualex device. Also, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), ascorbic acid (AAC) content and pigment values such as total chlorophyll (TCHL), chlorophyll a (CHLa), chlorophyll b (CHLb) and carotenoid content (CAR) were determined. It was observed that TAC capacity of wheat landraces was more than twice that of other cereals (except ‘Alparslan’) and their NBI, AAC, ANT and FLV contents were low. Kirik landrace had high TCHL, CHLa, CHLb and CAR content, while Kose landrace had low all pigment values. Besides, NBI content of barley, AAC and FLV content of oat cultivars and ANT content of wheat ‘Alparslan’ were high as a group. The CHLdx values of barley and oats were twice that of wheat. A very important and positive correlation was determined between TCHL with CHLa, CHLb, and CAR contents. Also, correlations between CHLa with CHLb and CAR, and between CHLb with CAR was important and positive. In the study, especially TAC capacities of local wheat varieties were significantly higher.
Basil is a globally cultivated herb with considerable demand because of its wide range of culinary and medicinal uses. Basil has high levels of aromatic terpenoids, also known as volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Many of these volatiles are known for their positive health benefits in addition to being primary drivers of flavor and aroma. Inhalation and dietary consumption of terpenes have been shown to induce several medically significant effects such as reducing inflammation, preventing heart disease/cancer, managing pain, curing fungal/bacterial infections, and decreasing anxiety/depression symptoms. To date, there are very few studies that evaluate the VOC profiles of basil varieties in relation to key flavor volatiles and human health benefits. The objective of this study was to quantify VOCs with known medicinal benefits in common varieties of basil. Seven basil varieties were used: ‘Genovese,’ ‘Siam Queen,’ ‘Spicy Globe,’ ‘Dark Opal,’ (Ocimum basilicum); Thai Basil (Ocimum basilicum var. thyrsiflora); Lemon Basil (Ocimum basilicum x citriodora); and Holy Basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum). Plants were grown under standard greenhouse conditions and harvested 45 d after seeding. Volatile profiles were analyzed using an Agilent headspace sampler and GC-MS. Terpinene was 2x higher in Lemon and ‘Spicy Globe’ basil, while terpinolene was 2-5x higher in Thai basil than other varieties. (R+/S-)-Limonene concentrations were 3-25x greater in ‘Genovese,’ ‘Thai,’ and Holy basil. ‘Dark Opal’ had significantly more methyl eugenol than other varieties. Linalool concentrations were 3-10x higher in ‘Genovese,’ ‘Siam Queen,’ and Holy basil. Total concentrations of a/b-pinene were highly variable across varieties, but a/b ratio was consistent (4:1). Knowing relative concentrations of these key volatiles will allow growers and processors to optimize essential oil extractions based on crop, with the potential to produce high potential natural supplements as an alternative to synthetic pharmaceuticals. It also establishes a reference point for consumers and medical professionals wishing to improve overall general health, prevent disease, and even treat specific conditions using slight dietary modifications.
Drought-induced reduction in crop growth and productivity can be compensated by increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), a significant contributor to climate change. Drought stress (DS) affects crops worldwide due to dwindling water resources and irregular rainfall patterns. The experiment was set up under a randomized complete block design within a three-by-two factorial arrangement. Six SPAR chambers represent three blocks (10 replications each), where each chamber has 30 pots in three rows. Each chamber was maintained with 30/22 (day/night) °C temperature, with either ambient (aCO2; 420 ppm) or elevated CO2 (eCO2; 720 ppm) concentrations. This experiment was designed to address the impact of DS on the physiological and biochemical attributes and study how the eCO2 helps alleviate the adversity of DS in basil. The study demonstrated that DS + eCO2 application highly accelerated the decrease in all forms of carotene and xanthophylls. eCO2 positively influenced and increased anthocyanin (Antho) and chlorophyll (LChl). eCO2 supplementation increased LChl content in basil under DS. Furthermore, DS significantly impeded the photosynthetic system in plants by decreasing CO2 availability and causing stomatal closure. Although eCO2 did not increase net photosynthesis (Pn) activity, it decreased stomatal conductance (gs) and leaf transpiration rate (E) under DS, showing that eCO2 can improve plant water use efficiency by lowering E and gs. Peroxidase and ascorbate activity were higher due to the eCO2 supply to acclimate the basil under the DS condition. This study suggests that the combination of eCO2 during DS positively impacts basil’s photosynthetic parameters and biochemical traits than aCO2.
Throughout history, nature has been acknowledged for being a primordial source of various bioactive molecules in which human macular carotenoids are gaining significant attention. Among 750 natural carotenoids, lutein, zeaxanthin and their oxidative metabolites are selectively accumulated in the macular region of living beings. Due to their vast applications in food, feed, pharmaceutical and nutraceuticals industries, the global market of lutein and zeaxanthin is continuously expanding but chemical synthesis, extraction and purification of these compounds from their natural repertoire e.g., plants, is somewhat costly and technically challenging. In this regard microbial as well as microalgal carotenoids are considered as an attractive alternative to aforementioned challenges. Through the techniques of genetic engineering and gene-editing tools like CRISPR/Cas9, the overproduction of lutein and zeaxanthin in microorganisms can be achieved but the commercial scale applications of such procedures needs to be done. Moreover, these carotenoids are highly unstable and susceptible to thermal and oxidative degradation. Therefore, esterification of these xanthophylls and microencapsulation with appropriate wall materials can increase their shelf-life and enhance their application in food industry. With their potent antioxidant activities, these carotenoids are emerging as molecules of vital importance in chronic degenerative, malignancies and antiviral diseases. Therefore, more research needs to be done to further expand the applications of lutein and zeaxanthin.
Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is a popular crop worldwide among farmers; it is relatively easy to grow and is well adapted to hydroponic and Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) systems having a high profitability margin. Several studies investigated the effect of the environmental factors on the qualitative and quantitative factors of basil: the effect of light is crucial for development, nutritional properties and sensory characteristics. The principles of sustainability, profitability and resource-effectiveness all encourages farmers to use energy-efficient LED light sources. These tools easily allow for the modification of spectral distribution and light intensity; numerous suggestions have been made for developing goal-driven light recipes for maximum cost-effectiveness and for reducing carbon footprint. Here, the results of several studies are summarized for providing a solid base for light recipe utilization of basil production in terms of light intensity, duration, and spectral distribution. Experimental results related to the impact of light treatments on vegetative parameters, phytonutrient content and sensory properties of basil are discussed, and optimal ranges of light parameters are summarized. Due to the increasing number of promising specialized research the wider application of purpose-driven high-tech production systems is expected in future basil growing.
Early season sowing is one of the methods for avoiding yield loss for basil due to high temperatures. However, basil could be exposed to sub-optimal temperatures by planting it earlier in the season. Thus, an experiment was conducted that examines how temperature changes and carbon dioxide (CO2) levels affect basil growth, development, and phytonutrient concentrations in a controlled environment. The experiment simulated temperature stress, low (20/12 °C), and high (38/30 °C), under ambient (420 ppm) and elevated (720 ppm) CO2 concentrations. Low-temperature stress prompted the rapid closure of stomata resulting in a 21% decline in net photosynthesis. Chlorophylls and carotenoids decreased when elevated CO2 interacted with low-temperature stress. Basil exhibited an increase in stomatal conductance, intercellular CO2 concentration, apparent quantum yield, maximum photosystem II efficiency, and maximum net photosynthesis rate when subjected to high-temperature stress. Under elevated CO2, increasing the growth temperature from 30/22 °C to 38/30 °C markedly increased the antioxidants content of basil. Taken together, the evidence from this research recommends that varying the growth temperature of basil plants can significantly affect the growth and development rates compared to increasing the CO2 concentrations, which mitigates the adverse effects of temperature stress.
Recent evidence suggests that the effects of temperature significantly affect the growth and development of basil plants with detrimental impacts on yield. The current research investigated the interactive effects of varying temperature and CO2 levels on the shoot and root morphology and growth of early and late-season basil plants. Basil plants were subjected to control (30/22 °C), low (20/12 °C), and high (38/30 °C) temperature under ambient (420 μL L⁻¹) and elevated (720 μL L⁻¹) CO2 concentrations. Decreasing the temperature to 20/12 °C caused more adverse effects on the morphological traits of the early-season basil. Relative to the control treatments, low- and high-temperature stresses decreased 71 and 14% in marketable fresh mass, respectively. Basil exhibited an increase in plant height, node and branch numbers, specific leaf area, anthocyanin and nitrogen balance index, root tips, and root crossings when subjected to high-temperature stress. Furthermore, elevated CO2 affected many morphological features compared to ambient CO2 concentrations. The findings of this study suggest that varying the growth temperature of basil plants would more significantly impact the shoot and root morphologies and growth rates of basil than increasing the CO2 concentrations, which ameliorated the adverse impacts of temperature stress.
A field experiment has been used two purple cultivars of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) during summer of 2019 at Al-Diwaniyah
Station for Crop Cultivation and Development, Al-Diwaniyah city, Iraq, to study the effect of different rates of NPK on some
vegetative characters and oil yield. The treatments comprised different rates (0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 g.L-1) of NPK foliar
fertilization which were applied after 50 DAP. Obtained results revealed that NPK had significant effect on all parameters tested
in both cultivars. Red Rubin cultivar showed a linear relationship between all parameters tested and NPK rates. However, only
one parameter; plant height, showed this relationship in Dark Opal cultivar at which, all other four parameter showed polynomial
relationship. The maximum values for the parameters were obtained at the 3.0 g.L-1 NPK treatment for Red Rubin cultivar and at
1.5-2.5 g.L-1 NPK treatments in most parameters for Dark Opal. It can be concluded that NPK application had a pronounced
beneficial effect on basil plant.
Preharvest losses of fruits and vegetables constitute a considerable amount of the total food losses that occur in the food chain. Preharvest losses are typically related to a decrease and/or loss of marketable yield due to reduced crop performance and/or crop damage related to weather and/or pests and plant diseases. However, physical and nutritional quality are also important parameters that can contribute to food losses. There are numerous reports in the literature that indicate that small-acreage farmers in the U.S. can utilize high tunnels to increase the yield of various fruit and vegetable crops. However, it is unclear if the high tunnel production system affects the preharvest food losses of spinach, particularly in regard to physical and nutritional quality. The goal of this study was to examine the effect of the high tunnel production system on preharvest food losses of fall-planted spinach, Spinacia oleracea, cv. ‘Corvair’. Comparative open field and high tunnel trials were conducted at the Kansas State University Olathe Horticulture Research and Extension Center from 2014 to 2017 (three growing seasons). A systems approach was utilized, consisting of six replications per production system. The experiments were conducted using organic production practices. Spinach quality was assessed on the day of harvest during years 2 and 3 of the experiment. Spinach leaves were harvested at full maturity and the preharvest losses were evaluated in regards to yield, percent marketability and physical and nutritional quality. Spinach grown in the high tunnels had 126 %–528.6 % higher marketable yield (P < 0.001) and 11.5 %–26.5 % higher percent marketability (P < 0.001) when compared to open field production during the three years of the study. The high tunnels produced spinach with 30%–50% larger leaves (P < 0.001) and 2.1%–2.4% higher water content (P < 0.001) when compared to spinach grown in the open field. Spinach grown in the open field plots had significantly higher antioxidant capacity (ORAC & FRAP) in both years. There was an inconsistent effect on total phenolic content and ascorbic acid content, with these phytochemicals demonstrating significantly higher values for the open field plots in one of the two years examined. Our results indicate that using high tunnels for production of spinach can reduce the preharvest food losses as the results of increased productivity and marketability and premium crop quality.
Visual perception plays a key role in the selection of nutritious and healthy foods. Color, as one of the most important senses of vision, can be used as an indicator of food quality/defects and grade. It is recommended consumers include various colors in their plate to obtain various vitamins and minerals. Color is also thought to be related to antioxidant capacity. Within this regard, this study investigated the relationship between color and antioxidant capacity in various fruits and vegetables. The results indicate the color hues analyzed by computer vision based image analysis can be related with TAC of fruits and vegetables, but with some limitations and can be used as a guide for food selection to increase daily antioxidant intake. Most of fruits and vegetables having hue values above 180° and below 20°, have high antioxidant capacity (>10 mmol TE/kg fresh weight). The results also emphasized the importance of the serving size of fruits and vegetables in terms of their contribution to daily antioxidant intake. Based on these results, fruits and vegetables could be categorized into low-, medium-, and high-antioxidant groups according to their TAC and potential contributions to fulfill the recommended daily antioxidant intake. Finally, daily antioxidant intake was evaluated with a healthier scenario created by doubling vegetable portion and reducing fruit portion by half in the meal.
Anthocyanins have the potential to mitigate photooxidative injury in leaves, both by shielding chloroplasts from excess high-energy quanta, and by scavenging reactive oxygen species. To distinguish between the impacts of these two putative mechanisms, superoxide (O2•–) concentration and chlorophyll oxidation were measured for Lactuca sativa L. chloroplast suspensions under various light and antioxidant-supplemented environments. A red cellulose filter, the optical properties of which approximated that of anthocyanin, effected a 33% decline in rate of O2•– generation and 37% reduction in chlorophyll bleaching, when used to shield irradiated chloroplasts. Colourless and blue tautomers of cyanidin 3-(6-malonyl)glucoside at pH 7 removed up to 17% of O2•– generated by chloroplasts, indicating that cytosolic anthocyanins can serve as effective antioxidants. Red tautomers, typical of vacuolar anthocyanins, also showed strong reducing potentials as indicated by cyclic voltammetry. These potentials declined by 40% after 15 min exposure to O2•–. Maximum quantum efficiencies of photosynthesis were similar for red and green portions of intact L. sativa leaves, but the red regions were less photoinhibited, and recovered more extensively after exposures to strong light. Anthocyanins evidently offer effective and versatile protection to leaves without significantly compromising photosynthesis.
Morphological, chemical and genetic differences of 12 tree basil (Ocimum gratissimum L.) accessions were studied to determine whether volatile oils and flavonoids can be used as taxonomical markers and to examine the relationship between RAPDs to these chemical markers. Eugenol, thymol, and geraniol were the major volatile oil constituents found in Ocimum gratissimum. Xantomicrol and cirsimaritin were the major external flavones. The accessions morphologically described as O. gratissimum var. gratissimum contained eugenol as the major volatile oil constituent, and cirsimaritin as the major flavone. Ocimum gratissimum var. macrophyllum accessions contained thymol as the major volatile oil constituent, and xantomicrol as the major flavone. A distinct essential oil and flavone chemotype (producing geraniol and a mixture of the flavones cirsimaritin, isothymusin, xanthomicrol, and luteolin) was found in an accession genetically more distant from the other two groups when analyzed by molecular markers. The accessions could be divided based on volatile oil constituents into six groups: (1) thymol: α-copaene (ot24, ot25, ot26, and ot28); (2) eugenol:spathulenol (ot17, ot63, and ot52); (3) thymol:p-cymene (ot65); (4) eugenol:γ-muurolene (ot27 and ot29); (5) eugenol:thymol: spathulenol (ot85); and (6) geraniol (ot84). Cluster analysis of RAPD markers showed that there are three groups that are distinct genetically and highly correlated (r=0.814) to volatile oil constituents.
To characterize fully all the major and minor carotenoids and their metabolites in human retina and probe for the presence of the oxidative metabolites of lutein and zeaxanthin.
Carotenoids of a composite of 58 pairs of human retinas and a monkey retina were elucidated by comparing their high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-ultraviolet/visible absorption spectrophotometry (UV/Vis)-mass spectrometry (MS) profile with those of authentic standards prepared by organic synthesis.
In addition to lutein and zeaxanthin, several oxidation products of these compounds were present in the extracts from human retina. A major carotenoid resulting from direct oxidation of lutein was identified as 3-hydroxy-beta, epsilon-caroten-3'-one. Minor carotenoids were identified as: 3'-epilutein, epsilon,epsilon-carotene-3,3'-diol, epsilon,epsilon-carotene-3,3'-dione, 3'-hydroxy-epsilon,epsilon-caroten-3-one, and 2,6-cyclolycopene-1,5-diol. Several of the geometric isomers of lutein and zeaxanthin were also detected at low concentrations. These were as follows: 9-cis-lutein, 9'-cislutein, 13-cis-lutein, 13'-cis-lutein, 9-cis-zeaxanthin, and 13-cis-zeaxanthin. Similar results were also obtained from HPLC analysis of a freshly dissected monkey retina.
Lutein, zeaxanthin, 3'-epilutein, and 3-hydroxy-beta,epsilon-caroten-3'-one in human retina may be interconverted through a series of oxidation-reduction reactions similar to our earlier proposed metabolic transformation of these compounds in humans. The presence of the direct oxidation product of lutein and 3'-epilutein (metabolite of lutein and zeaxanthin) in human retina suggests that lutein and zeaxanthin may act as antioxidants to protect the macula against short-wavelength visible light. The proposed oxidative-reductive pathways for lutein and zeaxanthin in human retina, may therefore play an important role in prevention of age-related macular degeneration and cataracts.
Surface glandular trichomes distributed throughout the aerial parts of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) produce and store monoterpene, sesquiterpene, and phenylpropene volatiles. Three distinct basil chemotypes were used to examine the molecular mechanisms underlying the divergence in their monoterpene and sesquiterpene content. The relative levels of specific terpenes in the glandular trichomes of each cultivar were correlated with the levels of transcripts for eight genes encoding distinct terpene synthases. In a cultivar that produces mostly (R)-linalool, transcripts of (R)-linalool synthase (LIS) were the most abundant of these eight. In a cultivar that synthesizes mostly geraniol, transcripts of geraniol synthase were the most abundant, but the glands of this cultivar also contained a transcript of an (R)-LIS gene with a 1-base insertion that caused a frameshift mutation. A geraniol synthase-LIS hybrid gene was constructed and expressed in Escherichia coli, and the protein catalyzed the formation of both geraniol and (R)-linalool from geranyl diphosphate. The total amounts of terpenes were correlated with total levels of terpene synthase activities, and negatively correlated with levels of phenylpropanoids and phenylalanine ammonia lyase activity. The relative levels of geranyl diphosphate synthase and farnesyl diphosphate synthase activities did not correlate with the total amount of terpenes produced, but showed some correlation with the ratio of monoterpenes to sesquiterpenes.
Basil, one of the most popular culinary herbs in North America is sold as a fresh-cut and dried processed product. There are over 40 cultivars available (De Baggio and Belsinger 1996), with many developed specifi-cally for the fresh and/or ornamental markets. The popular cultivars for the fresh market and garden have dark green leaves and white flowers, with a rich spicy pungent aroma due to the presence of linalool/ methylchavicol/1,8-cineole. Lesser known cultivars vary in growth habit, size, and color, and can contain a wide range of aromas including, lemon, rose, camphor, licorice, woody, and fruity. The popularity of basil has led to an infusion of many introductions into the marketplace. For example, new cultivars, both All-American selections, include the new fusarium resistant lemon basil,'Sweet Dani', a tall (65-70 cm), up-right plant with an intense lemon aroma (Morales and Simon 1997) and'Siam Queen', an attractive plant with purple flowers on a dense dark green foliage. This paper will address the diversity of basil in the North American market and potential new uses for the natural products of this species.
Green leafy vegetables are important sources of dietary carotenoids, and members of Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala rank highest for reported levels of lutein and ß-carotene. Twenty-three leafy B. oleracea cultigens were field grown under similar fertility over two separate years and evaluated for leaf lutein and ß-carotene accumulation. Choice of B. oleracea cultigen and year significantly affected carotenoid levels. Lutein concentrations ranged from a high of 13.43 mg per 100 g fresh weight (FW) for B. oleracea var. acephala `Toscano' to a low of 4.84 mg/100 g FW for B. oleracea var. acephala 343-93G1. ß-carotene accumulations ranged from a high of 10.00 mg/100 g FW for B. oleracea var. acephala `Toscano' to a low of 3.82 mg/100 g FW for B. oleracea var. acephala 30343-93G1. Carotenoid concentrations were significantly higher in year 2 than in year 1, but rank order among the cultigens for both lutein and ß-carotene did not change between the years. During each year, there were high correlations between leaf carotenoid and chlorophyll pigments. Under similar growing conditions, choice of B. oleracea cultigen will influence carotenoid accumulation, and this may affect the health benefits of consuming these leafy green vegetable crops.
The Lamiaceae family, which includes basil, sage, and thyme, has long been recognized as a rich source of diverse and unique anthocyanins. The development of intensely purple pigmented basil in the ornamental and herb trade prompted this examination of eight commercial varieties of purple basils (Ocimum basilicum L.) as a potential new source of anthocyanins. Anthocyanins were isolated and characterized utilizing high-performance liquid chromatography, spectral data, and plasma desorption mass spectrometry. Fourteen different anthocyanins were isolated, consisting of 11 cyanidin-based pigments and 3 peonidin-based pigments. The large-leaf basil varieties, Purple Ruffles, Rubin, and Dark Opal, had an average extractable total anthocyanin content ranging from 16.63 to 18.78 mg/100 g of fresh tissue, while the ornamental small-leaf variety, Purple Bush, had only 6.49 mg/100 g of fresh tissue. The highest concentration of total anthocyanins occurred just prior to flowering, although by day 8 seedlings already had accumulated all 14 anthocyanins. Comparisons were made to other anthocyanin sources, with results showing that purple basils are an abundant source of acylated and glycosylated anthocyanins and could provide a unique source of stable red pigments to the food industry. Keywords: Basil; Ocimum basilicum L.; anthocyanins; HPLC; plasma desorption mass spectrometry
The relationship between colour parameters of the chlorophylls and carotenoids in the green leaves of Swiss chard was studied. Using the Hunter colour parameters (L*, a*, b*, chroma and hue angle) we found a correlation coefficient r2 = 0.9264 for the chlorophylls and r2 = 0.8595 for carotenoids. The chlorophyll a, b plus chlorophyllide a, b extraction and the carotenoid extraction were carried out on the whole tissue using N,N-dimethylformamide as solvent. Using between 10 and 50 mg tissue, the extractions with 3 ml solvent for 14–16 h at 4°C in darkness were quantitative for the chlorophylls; for the carotenoids, the same procedure indicated a content approximating to the level of provitamin A present in the leafy vegetable.
The adaptation of barley (Hordeum vulgare L. cv. Akcent) plants to low (LI, 50 µmol m−2 s−1) and high (HI, 1000 µmol m−2 s−1) growth irradiances was studied using the simultaneous measurements of the photosynthetic oxygen evolution and chlorophyll
a (Chl a) fluorescence at room temperature. If measured under ambient CO2 concentration, neither increase of the oxygen evolution rate (P) nor enhancement of non-radiative dissipation of the absorbed excitation energy within photosystem 2 (PS2) (determined as
non-photochemical quenching of Chl a fluorescence, NPQ) were observed for HI plants compared with LI plants. Nevertheless, the HI plants exhibited a significantly
higher proportion of QA in oxidised state (estimated from photochemical quenching of Chl a fluorescence, qP), by 49–102 % at irradiances above 200 µmol m−2 s−1 and an about 1.5 fold increase of irradiance-saturated PS2 electron transport rate (ETR) as compared to LI plants. At high
CO2 concentration the degree of P stimulation was approximately three times higher for HI than for LI plants, and the irradiance-saturated P values at irradiances of 2 440 and 2 900 µmol m−2 s−1 were by 130 and 150 % higher for HI plants than for LI plants. We suggest that non-assimilatory electron transport dominates
in the adaptation of the photosynthetic apparatus of barley grown at high irradiances under ambient CO2 rather than an increased NPQ or an enhancement of irradiance-saturated photosynthesis.
chlorophyll fluorescence–
Hordeum vulgare
–non-radiative dissipation–non-assimilatory electron transports–photosynthetic oxygen evolution
A comparative study of the anti-bruchid activity and chemical composition of the essential oils of a germplasm collection of 18 Ocimum basilicum accessions was undertaken. Some essential oils inhibited the oviposition (repellency) and others caused mortality (toxicity) of the stored pulses pest Callosobruchus maculatus. Methyl chavicol and/or linalool were present in the active oils.
There are a few reports on the antimicrobial activity of essential oils or their major constituents towards Shigella sp. The antimicrobial effect of basil and thyme essential oil and its major constituents thymol, p-cymene, estragol, linalool, and carvacrol was determined using the agar well diffusion assay. Thyme essential oil and thymol and carvacrol showed inhibition of Shigella sp. in the agar well diffusion method. The potential of thyme essential oil, thymol and carvacrol at 0.5% and 1.0% v/v for decontamination of lettuce was evaluated. A decrease of the shigellae was observed after washing with 0.5% while at 1% Shigella numbers dropped below the detection limit. However, the antimicrobial effect on a subsequent lettuce sample in the same decontamination solution was significantly decreased. In addition, application of thyme essential oil or thymol or carvacrol for decontamination is hampered by sensoric properties of the lettuce (browning, strong odour).
Using newly available food composition data for carotenoids, the authors reanalyzed a population-based case-control study of diet and lung cancer conducted in Hawaii in 1983-1985 (L. Le Marchand et al., J. Natl. Cancer Inst., 81: 1158-1164, 1989). The analysis included interviews with 230 men and 102 women with lung cancer and 597 men and 268 women as controls, frequency-matched to the patients by age and sex. A previously validated quantitative diet history assessed the usual intake of foods rich in carotenoids. After adjusting for smoking and other covariates, no association was found with lung cancer risk for dietary lycopene or beta-cryptoxanthin intake, whereas dose-dependent inverse associations of comparable magnitude were found for dietary beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, and lutein. When subjects were cross-classified by their joint intakes of the latter three carotenoids, those who had a high intake (> median) for all three had the lowest risk for lung cancer. In a similar two-way interaction analysis, the previously reported inverse association of lung cancer with vegetable consumption in these data was found to be stronger than that with intake of these three carotenoids. Consistent with our previous findings, this analysis provides further evidence for a protective effect of certain carotenoids against lung cancer and for the greater protection afforded by consuming a variety of vegetables compared to only foods rich in a particular carotenoid.
The function of the long-chain, highly unsaturated carotenoids of higher plants in photoprotection is becoming increasingly well understood, while at the same time their function in other processes, such as light collection, needs to be reexamined. Recent progress in this area has been fueled by more accurate determinations of the photophysical properties of these molecules, as well as extensive characterization of the physiology and ecology of a particular group of carotenoids, those of the xanthophyll cycle, that play a key role in the photoprotection of photosynthesis under environmental stress. The deepoxidized xanthophylls zeaxanthin and antheraxanthin, together with a low pH within the photosynthetic membrane, facilitate the harmless dissipation of excess excitation energy directly within the light-collecting chlorophyll antennae. Evidence for this function as well as current contrasting hypotheses concerning its molecular mechanism are reviewed. In addition, the acclimation of the xanthophyll cycle content and composition of leaves to contrasting environments with different demands for photoprotection is summarized.
Carotenoids are usually considered to perform two major functions in
photosynthesis. They serve as accessory light harvesting pigments,
extending the range of wavelengths over which light can drive
photosynthesis, and they act to protect the chlorophyllous pigments from
the harmful photodestructive reaction which occurs in the presence of
oxygen. Drawing upon recent work with photosynthetic bacteria, evidence
is presented as to how the carotenoids are organized within both
portions of the photosynthetic unit (the light harvesting antenna and
the reaction centre) and how they discharge both their functions. The
accessory pigment role is a singlet-singlet energy transfer from the
carotenoid to the bacteriochlorophyll, while the protective role is a
triplet-triplet energy transfer from the bacteriochlorophyll to the
carotenoid.
Previous studies showed that lutein and zeaxanthin, the major human retinal carotenoids, are concentrated in the macula. In this study, the carotenoids in human macular and peripheral retina and the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) were analyzed. They were also determined in the rod outer segments (ROS) before and after removal of extrinsic membrane proteins.
Carotenoids were extracted from the macular and peripheral sections of human retina and RPE with hexane in dim light and analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). ROS samples equivalent to the amount in a single retina were also analyzed.
Retinal carotenoid amounts were similar to previous reports, but only low levels were detected in the RPE. Regional ratios of lutein:zeaxanthin were similar in the retina and RPE. Approximately 25% of the total retinal carotenoids were found in the ROS, indicating that a substantial portion of peripheral retinal carotenoids are present in the ROS. However, after removal of the extrinsic membrane proteins and subsequent analysis, carotenoids were not detected.
Most of the carotenoids in the human peripheral retina are present in the ROS. These ROS carotenoids are associated with soluble or salt-dependently bound proteins.
Lutein and zeaxanthin are the only carotenoids in the macular region of the retina (referred to as macular pigment [MP]). Foods that are rich in lutein and zeaxanthin can increase MP density. Response to dietary lutein and zeaxanthin in other tissues has not been studied.
The objective of this study was to examine tissue responses to dietary lutein and zeaxanthin and relations among tissues in lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations.
Seven subjects consumed spinach and corn, which contain lutein and zeaxanthin, with their daily diets for 15 wk. At 0, 4, 8, and 15 wk and 2 mo after the study, serum, buccal mucosa cells, and adipose tissue were analyzed for carotenoids, and MP density was measured.
Serum and buccal cell concentrations of lutein increased significantly from baseline during dietary modification. Serum zeaxanthin concentrations were greater than at baseline only at 4 wk, whereas buccal cell and adipose tissue concentrations of zeaxanthin did not change. Adipose tissue lutein concentrations peaked at 8 wk. Changes in adipose tissue lutein concentration were inversely related to the changes in MP density, suggesting an interaction between adipose tissue and retina in lutein metabolism. To investigate the possibility of tissue interactions, we examined cross-sectional relations among serum, tissue, and dietary lutein concentrations, anthropometric measures, and MP density in healthy adults. Significant negative correlations were found between adipose tissue lutein concentrations and MP for women, but a significant positive relation was found for men.
Sex differences in lutein metabolism may be an important factor in tissue interactions and in determining MP density.
Dietary carotenoids react with a wide range of radicals such as CCl3O2*, RSO2*, NO2*, and various arylperoxyl radicals via electron transfer producing the radical cation of the carotenoid. Less strongly oxidizing radicals, such as alkylperoxyl radicals, can lead to hydrogen atom transfer generating the neutral carotene radical. Other processes can also arise such as adduct formation with sulphur-centered radicals. The oxidation potentials have been established, showing that, in Triton X-100 micelles, lycopene is the easiest carotenoid to oxidize to its radical cation and astaxanthin is the most difficult. The interaction of carotenoids and carotenoid radicals with other antioxidants is of importance with respect to anti- and possibly pro-oxidative reactions of carotenoids. In polar environments the vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) radical cation is deprotonated (TOH*+ --> TO* + H+) and TO* does not react with carotenoids, whereas in nonpolar environments such as hexane, TOH*+ is converted to TOH by hydrocarbon carotenoids. However, the nature of the reaction between the tocopherol and various carotenoids shows a marked variation depending on the specific tocopherol homologue. The radical cations of the carotenoids all react with vitamin C so as to "repair" the carotenoid.
Nine spice and aromatic herb samples (i.e., basil, bird pepper, black pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, oregano, parsley, rosemary, and sage) were gamma-irradiated at a dose of 10 kGy according to commercial practices. The effects of the disinfection treatment on the content of organic radicals and some nutrients (namely, vitamin C and carotenoids) in the samples were investigated by chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques. Irradiation resulted in a general increase of quinone radical content in all of the investigated samples, as revealed by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. The fate of these radicals after storage for 3 months was also investigated. The cellulose radical was clearly observed in a few samples. Significant losses of total ascorbate were found for black pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, oregano, and sage, whereas a significant decrease of carotenoids content was observed for cinnamon, oregano, parsley, rosemary, bird pepper, and sage.
The effect of acclimation to high irradiance stress (HIS, 250 Wm-2) in wheat leaves grown under three different irradiances was investigated by HPLC analyses of pigments, chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters and photochemical activities of chloroplasts. Significant loss of beta-carotene was observed compared to the xanthophylls in all three types of seedlings exposed to HIS. However, the effect of HIS on neoxanthin and lutein contents was not significant. The loss of partial electron transport (Asc-DCPIP to MV, PSI activity) was less than the whole chain (H2O to MV) and PS II activity (H2O to DCPIP) suggesting that PS I is less susceptible to HIS compared to PS II. The percent of reductions in Fv/Fm and phi PS II were less in plants grown under high irradiance (HI-1, 30 Wm-2 and HI-2, 45 Wm-2) compared to those grown under moderate irradiance (MI, 15 Wm-2). On the other hand, the percent of NPQ increased more in the leaves of HI plants compared to the leaves of MI when exposed to HIS which suggests a more efficient non-radiative dissipation of excess excitation energy in HI plants compared to MI. These observations suggest that plants grown under relatively high irradiance are better adapted to HIS condition.
The cultivated basils
- H H Darrah
Darrah, H.H. 1980. The cultivated basils. Buckeye
Printing Co., Mo.
Sweet basil (Ocimum spp
- B D Davidson
- Johnson
Davidson, B.D. and I Johnson. 1996. Sweet basil
(Ocimum spp.). BioOptions. Univ. Minn.
7(winter).
Sweet basil: A production guide
- J E Simon
Simon, J.E. 1985. Sweet basil: A production guide.
Purdue Coop. Ext. Serv. Res. Bul. HO-189.