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Abstract

Biodiversity of insects is threatened worldwide. Here, we present a comprehensive review of 73 historical reports of insect declines from across the globe, and systematically assess the underlying drivers. Our work reveals dramatic rates of decline that may lead to the extinction of 40% of the world's insect species over the next few decades. In terrestrial ecosystems, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera and dung beetles (Coleoptera) appear to be the taxa most affected, whereas four major aquatic taxa (Odonata, Plecoptera, Trichoptera and Ephemeroptera) have already lost a considerable proportion of species. Affected insect groups not only include specialists that occupy particular ecological niches, but also many common and generalist species. Concurrently, the abundance of a small number of species is increasing; these are all adaptable, generalist species that are occupying the vacant niches left by the ones declining. Among aquatic insects, habitat and dietary generalists, and pollutant-tolerant species are replacing the large biodiversity losses experienced in waters within agricultural and urban settings. The main drivers of species declines appear to be in order of importance: i) habitat loss and conversion to intensive agriculture and urbanisation; ii) pollution, mainly that by synthetic pesticides and fertilisers; iii) biological factors, including pathogens and introduced species; and iv) climate change. The latter factor is particularly important in tropical regions, but only affects a minority of species in colder climes and mountain settings of temperate zones. A rethinking of current agricultural practices, in particular a serious reduction in pesticide usage and its substitution with more sustainable, ecologically-based practices, is urgently needed to slow or reverse current trends, allow the recovery of declining insect populations and safeguard the vital ecosystem services they provide. In addition, effective remediation technologies should be applied to clean polluted waters in both agricultural and urban environments.

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... Anthropogenic activities such as urbanization, agricultural expansion, and resource extraction have resulted in widespread habitat loss and fragmentation and are recognized as the main drivers of biodiversity decline in ecosystems globally [1]. The disturbance and degradation of natural habitats can profoundly alter ecosystem functioning, community structure, and species interactions, with potential cascading effects across trophic levels [2]. ...
... Lepidopterans (butterflies and moths) represent a diverse and ecologically important group of insects in terrestrial ecosystems, acting as pollinators, herbivores, prey for higher trophic levels, and indicators of environmental change [3,4]. Their relatively short life cycles, sensitivity to environmental fluctuations, and well-studied relationships with host plants make them excellent indicators for assessing habitat quality, ecosystem integrity, and impacts of environmental stressors [1,5]. ...
... This study elucidates how adult butterfly visitation patterns and flowering-plant community composition, abundance, and structure respond to anthropogenic habitat changes and seasonal fluctuations in the studied landscape. The findings reinforce the extensive literature documenting biodiversity losses and biotic homogenization in human-modified environments [1,53,54]. However, it also reveals nuanced responses across different intensities and types of disturbance, as well as to seasonal resource dynamics, underscoring the complexities of biodiversity's responses to multiple interacting stressors. ...
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Habitat disturbance driven by human activities poses a major threat to biodiversity and can disrupt ecological interactions. Butterfly-plant mutualisms represent an ideal model system to study such anthropogenic impacts, as butterflies exhibit intimate dependencies on larval host plants and adult nectar sources, rendering them highly sensitive to habitat changes affecting the availability of these floral resources. This study examined flower-visiting butterfly communities and their associations with flowering plants in a landscape altered by anthropogenic factors in central Mexico. The study area encompassed a mosaic of vegetation types, including native juniper forests, agricultural lands, and introduced eucalyptus plantations, representing different degrees of human-induced habitat modification. Monthly surveys were conducted over a single year, covering both rainy and dry seasons, to analyze butterfly and plant diversity, community composition, and interactions. Results showed the highest diversity in juniper forests, followed by eucalyptus and agricultural sites. Seasonal turnover was the primary driver of community changes, with habitat-based segregation persisting within seasons. Butterfly diversity strongly correlated with flower abundance, while plant richness played a secondary role. SIMPER and indicator species analyses identified key taxa contributing to compositional dissimilarities among habitats and associated with specific vegetation types and seasons. Our research provides insights into temporal dynamics structuring butterfly-plant interactions across this forest disturbance spectrum, highlighting how habitat changes and seasonality shape these mutualistic communities in changing landscapes.
... The decline in bee populations appears to be caused by various factors, with pesticides considered one significant contributor [8][9][10] . Many experimental studies showed that insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides can disrupt various aspects of bee health by impairing their behaviors or the establishment of gut microbiota or by directly influence their mortality [11][12][13] . ...
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Pesticides may have serious negative impacts on bee populations. The pesticide exposure of bees could depend on the surrounding landscapes in which they forage. In this study, we assess pesticide exposure across various land-use categories, while targeting the Japanese honey bee, Apis cerana japonica, a native subspecies of the eastern honey bee. In a project involving public participation, we measured the concentrations of major pesticides in honey and beeswax collected from 175 Japanese honey bee colonies across Japan and quantitatively analyzed the relationships between pesticide presence/absence or pesticide concentration and land-use categories around the colonies. Our findings revealed that the surrounding environment in which bees live strongly influences pesticide residues in beehive materials, whether the pesticides are systemic or not, with a clear trend for each land-use category. Agricultural lands, particularly paddy fields and orchards, and urban areas resulted in higher pesticide exposure, whereas forests presented a lower risk of exposure. To effectively control pesticide exposure levels in bees, it is essential to understand pesticide usage patterns and to develop appropriate regulatory systems in non-agricultural lands, similar to those in agricultural lands.
... However, it is also well known today that pesticides often affect more than just the target pests and can disturb the surrounding ecosystems. Pesticides are considered to be one of the major factors leading to declining biodiversity due to the exposure of non-target organisms in cultivated and surrounding areas (Geiger et al., 2010;Beketov et al., 2013;Sánchez-Bayo and Wyckhuys, 2019). ...
Article
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Although pesticides are a cornerstone of modern agriculture, they are also known to be a major factor in the decline of biodiversity. Even pesticides applied in inland agricultural areas can be transported via rivers and have often been detected in marine environments. Pesticides would disturb not only the ecosystems around agricultural areas but also marine ecosystems, and there is a growing need for research on how pesticides affect marine environments. Recently, several pesticides have been detected at high concentrations in the coastal areas of Ishigaki Island, Japan, where seagrasses and seaweeds form important macrophyte bed ecosystems. To elucidate the effects of pesticides on the macrophyte bed epifauna, a field survey was conducted in the intertidal seaweed-seagrass mixed beds in Ishigaki Island. As a result of the survey, several pesticides were detected, including the highly toxic insecticide fipronil. The epifaunal abundance, taxon richness and Shannon's diversity index (H′) were all negatively and significantly correlated with fipronil concentration. Crustaceans were found to be more affected by fipronil than molluscs. Abundance, taxon richness and H′ of crustaceans were negatively correlated with fipronil concentration, whereas those of molluscs were not. The alteration and decline of epifaunal assemblages by pesticides may lead to a loss of the ecological functions and resilience of macrophyte bed ecosystems. This study demonstrates the disturbance of epifauna by discharged pesticides in in situ coastal macrophyte bed ecosystems. Pesticides appear to disturb a much wider range of ecosystems than previously considered, and accordingly may require a reconsideration of pesticide use and discharge in the future.
... Exposure to pesticides is a significant contributor to terrestrial insect population decline [51,52]. Pesticide exposure is linked to increased ROS production in cells, which, if not neutralized or regulated to low levels, targets proteins whose amino acid residues are oxidation-sensitive and consequently can change their functional structure and/or cause aggregation [53][54][55][56]. ...
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Insects, nematodes, and aquatic animals face several biotic and abiotic stressors that can significantly affect their fitness – specifically damaging their cellular proteins' competent functional nature. In response, they have evolved sophisticated stress-responsive mechanisms. Certain endogenous proteins, known as small heat shock proteins (sHSPs), serve to maintain the stability and function of proteins under stress. Since the identification of the first sHSPs, an increasing number of sHSPs, mainly due to the new robust sequencing tools, continue to be identified and reported to play a critical role in the organism’s response to stress. This review explores and summarizes the contributions of the sHSPs implicated in stress response. Understanding their function is crucial for advancing our knowledge in agricultural pest management, climate change adaptation, and biotechnology.
... Insect communities, biomass and species richness decline have been the subject of several studies worldwide in recent years, particularly in developed and developing countries (Forister et al., 2019;Habel et al., 2019;Hallmann et al., 2021;Sánchez-Bayo & Wyckhuys, 2019). ...
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The number of wild bees and cavity‐nesting wasps is abundant in agricultural areas and they contribute significantly to ecosystem services. Due to their specialization in nesting sites and food sources, these groups are sensitive to habitat condition changes and they are therefore important indicators for environmental impact assessments. As semi‐natural habitats are steadily declining and often understudied, their significance for research is increasingly recognized. During this research, the role of wild bee species and cavity‐nesting Hymenopteran taxa as indicators was examined, along the unique combination of high nature value and traditional land use habitats in Eastern Europe, Transylvania. Transects and trap nests were used to test the diversity and abundance of wild bees and cavity‐nesting Hymenopterans to identify possible differences between highly protected and less protected areas. The differences in taxonomic groups between the sites and the potential effects of landscape structure on wild bees and cavity‐nesting Hymenopterans were also assessed. We detected a high diversity of wild bee species and a significant species replacement from one study year to another. Among the nest‐building Hymenopteran taxa, the majority of nests was built by Trypoxylon sp. during both study years, with a stronger dominance in the second year. The different taxonomic groups of wild bees and cavity‐nesting Hymenopterans showed differences in their habitat affinities. The majority of the sampled bumblebee species as well as Trypoxylon sp. had an affinity towards the study sites located within the highly protected study area. Altogether, we found different habitat preferences for different Hymenopteran groups (both wild bees and wasps) and conclude that these groups definitely have the potential to serve as indicators for differences in the intensity of land use.
... Intensive agriculture is widely recognised as a major cause of biodiversity loss worldwide (Jaureguiberry et al., 2022;Sánchez-Bayo and Wyckhuys, 2019;Wagner et al., 2021). National and international institutions and organisations are calling for changes to shift the overall agricultural impact towards a more sustainable and conservationfriendly scenario (CBD, 2010;Cuadros-Casanova et al., 2023;Cunningham et al., 2013;FAO et al., 2019). ...
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Changes in agricultural land use and management are largely responsible for the current global biodiversity crisis. Addressing this crisis necessitates a change in management practices that are considered to limit biodiversity. Comparing intensive land-use forms with their extensive and traditional counterparts can help define good practice example for integrated conservation. We compare remnants of traditional meadow orchards with intensively managed apple orchards in a mountain region by investigating the multi-taxonomic diversity of seven groups (including vascular plants, wild bees, diurnal butterflies, orthopterans, spiders, birds, and bats) and macro-invertebrates inhabiting four habitat strata (soil, ground-dwelling, herb, and tree layer). Each group and stratum was sampled with a target sampling method. We found a consistent trend of higher abundance, diversity, and presence of threatened species in meadow orchards compared to apple orchards. Specifically, wild bees, butterflies, orthopterans, and birds showed significantly lower diversity in apple orchards across different diversity indices. Furthermore, multi-taxonomic indices of all taxa and most habitat strata followed the same trend, supporting the conclusion that these findings are applicable to the entire orchard ecosystem. We conclude that traditional agroforestry systems, such as meadow orchards, could represent a well-suited good-practice example for integrated biodiversity conservation in the agricultural landscape. Finally, we emphasize the importance of maintaining traditional management practices through effective conservation measures such as subsidies as part of agri-environmental schemes.
... Declines in bee diversity and abundance over the last decades have been widely documented at both local and regional scales (Bartomeus et al., 2013;Biesmeijer et al., 2006;Ollerton et al., 2014;Zattara and Aizen, 2021). Although these declines have multiple causes, the use of pesticides is considered one of the major contributing factors Sánchez-Bayo and Wyckhuys, 2019). Prior to their approval for commercial use, pesticides undergo a risk assessment process to ensure their use will not pose a threat to non-target organisms, including bees (Sgolastra et al., 2020). ...
... At night, moths belong to the most important pollinators ( 7 , 8 ) and there is also evidence for their decline in abundance and distribution ( 9 , 10 ). In addition to general drivers of insect decline ( 11 ), nocturnal pollinators are also threatened by light pollution ( 12 -15 ). ...
Article
One of the most dramatic changes occurring on our planet is the ever-increasing extensive use of artificial light at night, which drastically altered the environment to which nocturnal animals are adapted. Such light pollution has been identified as a driver in the dramatic insect decline of the past years. One nocturnal species group experiencing marked declines are moths, which play a key role in food webs and ecosystem services such as plant pollination. Moths can be easily monitored within the illuminated area of a streetlight, where they typically exhibit disoriented behavior. Yet, little is known about their behavior beyond the illuminated area. Harmonic radar tracking enabled us to close this knowledge gap. We found a significant change in flight behavior beyond the illuminated area of a streetlight. A detailed analysis of the recorded trajectories revealed a barrier effect of streetlights on lappet moths whenever the moon was not available as a natural celestial cue. Furthermore, streetlights increased the tortuosity of flights for both hawk moths and lappet moths. Surprisingly, we had to reject our fundamental hypothesis that most individuals would fly toward a streetlight. Instead, this was true for only 4% of the tested individuals, indicating that the impact of light pollution might be more severe than assumed to date. Our results provide experimental evidence for the fragmentation of landscapes by streetlights and demonstrate that light pollution affects movement patterns of moths beyond what was previously assumed, potentially affecting their reproductive success and hampering a vital ecosystem service.
... An increasing body of empirical research indicates a rapid decline in insect populations across various regions of the biosphere (Hallmann et al. 2017;Sánchez-Bayo and Wyckhuys 2019;Goulson 2019). This trend observed in many taxa-including key functional groups like pollinators-is causing considerable alarm (Potts et al. 2010;Lebuhn et al. 2013;Vasiliev and Greenwood 2021). ...
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Extreme temperature events, such as heat waves, are increasing in frequency, magnitude, and duration. These events are believed to contribute to pollinator decline. Critical thermal maxima (CT max ) is a key physiological trait for understanding an organism’s ecology and predicting its responses to changes in climate. In this study, we investigated whether different life stages with distinct thermoregulatory behaviors differ in their CT max in the solitary bee Osmia bicornis , one of the most common and important pollinators in Central Europe. Additionally, we tested the influence of excessively high temperatures, heat waves, on the CT max in Osmia bicornis . We found CT max varied among life stages, with adults exhibiting higher CT max than larvae. Both females and males of adult bees showed a negative correlation between CT max and body mass. Interestingly, adult bees exposed to different heat waves during their larval stage did not exhibit significant shifts in CT max . These results suggest that bees may have limited capacity to enhance heat tolerance in response to prior heat exposure.
... It is now well understood how farm and landscape level diversification affects biodiversity-mediated ecosystem services like pollination and biological pest control 89,90,116 . For instance, the distribution and amount of semi-natural habitats modify the abundance and diversity of pollinators and biocontrol agents 117,118 . Mechanistically, patterns are driven by floral resources, nesting opportunities, and chemical inputs 119 , which may be modified from NMP effects on soil properties, plant growth, plant communities 39,120 , reproduction 121 , and microbial communities 122 . ...
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Ecosystem services such as pollination and biocontrol may be severely affected by emerging nano/micro-plastics (NMP) pollution. Here, we synthesize the little-known effects of NMP on pollinators and biocontrol agents on the organismal, farm and landscape scale. Ingested NMP trigger organismal changes from gene expression, organ damage to behavior modifications. At the farm and landscape level, NMP will likely amplify synergistic effects with other threats such as pathogens, and may alter floral resource distributions in high NMP concentration areas. Understanding exposure pathways of NMP on pollinators and biocontrol agents is critical to evaluate future risks for agricultural ecosystems and food security.
... Faced with dramatic insect declines (Sánchez-Bayo and Wyckhuys, 2019;Seibold et al., 2019) and increasing food demand of a growing population (Van Dijk et al., 2021), more sustainable management of agricultural landscapes is urgently needed. Past research emphasizes the benefits of preserving semi-natural habitats to mitigate negative impacts of intensive agriculture on biodiversity (Batáry et al., 2011;Duflot et al., 2015;Holland et al., 2017;Shi et al., 2021;Tscharntke et al., 2005Tscharntke et al., , 2021. ...
Article
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Identifying landscapes that are suitable for both biodiversity conservation and agricultural production is a major challenge. Traditionally, much research has focused on biodiversity conservation outside of agricultural production areas, e.g., in semi-natural habitats. In contrast, recent research has mainly focused on the potential of crop heterogeneity. This includes both compositional (crop diversity) and configurational heterogeneity (field border density). However, if and how crop heterogeneity, and semi-natural habitats interact to shape insect diversity in agricultural landscapes remains poorly understood. Here we investigated the combined effects of crop diversity, field border density, and semi-natural habitats (i.e., grassland proportion, hedge density) on insect diversity. We sampled insect communities from 14 – 17 June 2021 with pan traps in 27 study landscapes (500 m x 500 m) covering independent gradients of these landscape variables and identified a total of 587 insect species with DNA metabarcoding. We found that field border density mediated the effects of crop diversity, grassland proportion, and hedge density on insect richness. At low levels of field border density (i.e., landscapes with mostly large fields), effects were either neutral (crop diversity), negative (grassland proportion) or weakly positive (hedge density). By contrast, at high levels of field border density, crop diversity, grassland proportion, and hedge density all exerted positive effects on insect richness. Responses to crop heterogeneity and semi-natural habitat differed among trophic groups of insects (decomposers, herbivores, parasitoids, predators). While variation in richness of herbivorous insects followed the patterns of the overall richness, decomposer richness was not related to any of the investigated variables. Predator richness increased with hedge density in landscapes, whereas parasitoid richness increased when high levels of field border density and grassland proportion coincided. Our study shows that increasing crop heterogeneity is a viable strategy for promoting insect diversity in agricultural landscapes. However, the effects of the amount of remaining semi-natural habitats, such as grassland or hedges, are mediated by configurational heterogeneity, and vary between trophic groups. Efforts to conserve insects in agricultural landscapes must therefore focus on both increasing the heterogeneity of the crop matrix by promoting crop diversity and increasing the density of field borders, while also maintaining or restoring semi-natural habitats as important source habitats for insect species.
... Reducing the exposure of bees to pesticides is a challenge for regulators and land managers. While pesticides are necessary for protecting crops and have documented benefits in controlling pest populations and increasing food security [1][2][3][4], they are also linked to the decline of or a negative impact on pollinating insects [5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. In the United States, the risk assessment framework used by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the first line of defense for reducing pesticide impacts on honey bees [12,13], and specify which pesticide use practices have limited risk to pollinating honey bees during the registration or periodic review of those products [12,13]. ...
Article
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Analysis of trapped honey bee pollen for pesticide residues is the most widely used method of monitoring the amount of pesticide entering colonies and its change over time. In this study, we collected and analyzed pollen from 70 sites across four bee-pollinated crops over two years to characterize the variation in pesticide detection across sites, crops and at different periods during bloom. Hazard Quotient, HQ, is the most common way that pesticide residues are aggregated into a single pesticide hazard value in the current literature. Therefore, change in pesticide hazard (HQ) was quantified in composite pollen samples collected from pollen traps and in pollen color subsamples separated into pollen from the target crop being pollinated and pollen from other plant species. We used our estimates of the variation in HQ to calculate the number of sample location sites needed to detect a 5% annual change in HQ across all crops or within specific crops over a 5-year period. The number of sites required to be sampled varied by crop and year and ranged between 139 and 7194 sites, costing an estimated 129,548and129,548 and 3.35 million, respectively. The HQ values detectable for this cost would be 575 and 154. We identified additional factors that complicate the interpretation of the results as a way to evaluate changes in pest management practices at a state level. First, in all but one crop (meadowfoam), the pollen collected from outside the crop honey bee colonies were pollinating comprised a major percentage of the total pollen catch. Moreover, we found that when the overall quantity of pollen from different pollen sources was taken into account, differences in HQ among crops widened. We also found that while HQ estimates remain consistent across the bloom period for some crops, such as cherry, we observed large differences in other crops, notably meadowfoam. Overall, our results suggest the current practice of interpreting pesticides levels in pollen may come with limitations for agencies charged with improving pesticide stewardship due to the high variation associated with HQ values over time and across crops. Despite the limitations of HQ for detecting change in pesticide hazard, there remains a potential for HQ to provide feedback to regulators and scientists on field-realistic pesticide hazard within a landscape.
... Mounting evidence suggests that exposure to pesticides is an important contributor to worldwide insect declines (Sánchez-Bayo and Wyckhuys, 2019;Cameron and Sadd, 2020;Potts et al., 2010;Woodcock et al., 2016;Vanbergen et al., 2013). Among the many pollinator species experiencing population losses, declines of bumblebees (Bombus spp.) are supported by some of the most compelling data (Cameron and Sadd, 2020;Cameron et al., 2011;Goulson et al., 2015;Ghisbain et al., 2024). ...
... They have specific microhabitat preferences (Guido & Gianelle, 2001) and are related to vegetation structure (Poniatowski & Fartmann, 2008), rendering them good indicators of ecosystem naturalness (Aleksanov et al., 2023;Báldi & Kisbenedek, 1997), vegetation succession (Marini et al., 2009;Schirmel et al., 2011) and microclimatic gradients at fine scale (Gardiner & Hassall, 2009). They are the fourth most-threatened order globally (after Trichoptera, Coleoptera-dung beetles and Lepidoptera) (Sánchez-Bayo & Wyckhuys, 2019), and more than one third of them are red-listed at a global scale (35%: 520 species) . In Europe, one fourth of its Orthoptera fauna is threatened (270 species) due to human pressures such as livestock grazing, arable farming, increasing wildfire frequencies and touristic development . ...
Article
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Orthoptera species are vulnerable to extinction on a global scale. Greece hosts 35% (380 species) of the European Orthoptera fauna with a high degree of endemic (37%) and threatened species (37%). We sampled 46 plots (100 m ² ) to investigate the distribution and ecological requirement of two Greek mountain endemic and red‐listed species: Parnassiana parnassica (Ramme, 1926; Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae; Critically Endangered [CR]) and Oropodisma parnassica (Scudder, 1897; Orthoptera: Caelifera; Endangered [EN]). Species had a restricted geographical range, with two isolated populations confined to high altitudes (1527–2320 m) of Mts. Parnassos and Elikonas. Species distribution models showed that slope affected their suitable habitat, together with the topographic position index and the annual temperature range ( P. parnassica ), and the amount of green vegetation and evapotranspiration ( O. parnassica ). Connectivity analysis showed that P. parnassica ‐suitable habitat consisted of few larger and well‐connected patches (26 patches: effective mesh size of 1.57 km ² ) and that O. parnassica ‐suitable habitat consisted of more but smaller and less connected patches (56 patches: effective mesh size of 0.3 km ² ). Generalised linear models showed that the population density of P. parnassica was negatively influenced by the height of herbaceous vegetation and that of O. parnassica was positively influenced by altitude. The species face three main imminent threats: land take, wildfires and global warming, whereas livestock grazing seems to have a positive impact and skiing a neutral impact on their populations. We assessed both species as EN after International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) criteria and a suite of conservation measures are suggested for their status improvement.
... The dramatic decline in biodiversity over the last few decades, especially among insects, has been demonstrated beyond doubt (Hallmann et al., 2017;Sánchez-Bayo and Wyckhuys, 2019;Seibold et al., 2019). Most recent estimates show losses in the diversity and biomass of insects at a rate of 2.2-2.8 % per year (Hallmann et al., 2017;Lister and Garcia, 2018;Ziesche et al., 2023) with estimates for particular groups, such as moths, being even higher (e.g. ...
Article
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Although our understanding of the dramatic worldwide loss of biodiversity in recent decades is far from adequate, one of the main factors in areas dominated by agriculture is undoubtedly the widespread use of synthetic pesticides. Unfortunately, the ecological risk assessment (EcoRA) for pesticides is based on a few single-species bioassays which do not allow for the evaluation of risks to whole communities. Here we present the results of an experimental assessment of the risk to the ecosystem service provider (ESP) communities – pest control agents – from exposure to the commonly used pyrethroid insecticide, λ cyhalothrin. The study was performed in five European countries (Germany, Poland, Portugal, Spain, United Kingdom) representing different pedoclimatic zones. Representatives of the most common species of the ESP communities in each country were exposed in a standardised insecticide-coated glass vials bioassay to five doses of λ cyhalothrin: 0.8%, 4%, 20%, 100%, and 200% of the recommended field dose (RFD) plus an untreated control. Based on the calculated LD50s, species sensitivity distributions (SSDs) were estimated for each country and on combined data. In all five countries, the estimated hazardous concentration for 5% of the species (HD5) was between 0.23% and 1.67% RFD, with HD5 = 0.44% RFD based on combined data. At the RFD = 7.5 g a.i./ha (active ingredient per hectare), the predicted affected fraction of the ESP communities was between 96.4% and 99.9% of the species (98.5% for combined data). The results indicate an extremely high risk to ESP communities across Europe associated with the use of λ cyhalothrin at the recommended doses when these species are exposed to insecticide treatment. We recommend that EcoRA should include multi-species approaches, such as SSD, to better protect entire ESP communities from the negative impacts of pesticides.
... Insects have achieved tremendous evolutionary success, reflected in species diversity estimated in millions, functional diversity, and distribution across almost all terrestrial ecosystems, where they fulfill multiple critically important roles (Losey & Vaughan, 2006;Weisser & Siemann, 2008). However, their biodiversity is now in steep decline, with habitat degradation, environmental pollution, and climate change identified as some of the key drivers of biomass and diversity losses estimated at 9% per decade, and potentially 40% of all species in the near future (Sánchez-Bayo & Wyckhuys, 2019;Van Klink et al., 2020). Simultaneously, only a fraction, perhaps one-fifth, of all insect species are known to science (Stork, 2018). ...
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Background Symbiotic relationships with diverse microorganisms are crucial for many aspects of insect biology. However, while our understanding of insect taxonomic diversity and the distribution of insect species in natural communities is limited, we know much less about their microbiota. In the era of rapid biodiversity declines, as researchers increasingly turn towards DNA-based monitoring, developing and broadly implementing approaches for high-throughput and cost-effective characterization of both insect and insect-associated microbial diversity is essential. We need to verify whether approaches such as high-throughput barcoding, a powerful tool for identifying wild insects, would permit subsequent microbiota reconstruction in these specimens. Methods High-throughput barcoding (“megabarcoding”) methods often rely on non-destructive approaches for obtaining template DNA for PCR amplification by leaching DNA out of insect specimens using alkaline buffers such as HotSHOT. This study investigated the impact of HotSHOT on microbial abundance estimates and the reconstructed bacterial community profiles. We addressed this question by comparing quantitative 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing data for HotSHOT-treated or untreated specimens of 16 insect species representing six orders and selected based on the expectation of limited variation among individuals. Results We find that in 13 species, the treatment significantly reduced microbial abundance estimates, corresponding to an estimated 15-fold decrease in amplifiable 16S rRNA template on average. On the other hand, HotSHOT pre-treatment had a limited effect on microbial community composition. The reconstructed presence of abundant bacteria with known significant effects was not affected. On the other hand, we observed changes in the presence of low-abundance microbes, those close to the reliable detection threshold. Alpha and beta diversity analyses showed compositional differences in only a few species. Conclusion Our results indicate that HotSHOT pre-treated specimens remain suitable for microbial community composition reconstruction, even if abundance may be hard to estimate. These results indicate that we can cost-effectively combine barcoding with the study of microbiota across wild insect communities. Thus, the voucher specimens obtained using megabarcoding studies targeted at characterizing insect communities can be used for microbiome characterizations. This can substantially aid in speeding up the accumulation of knowledge on the microbiomes of abundant and hyperdiverse insect species.
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O objetivo do estudo foi determinar a taxa de sobrevivência de abelhas Apis mellifera L., após o contato com produtos de origem botânica (azadiractina e alicina), utilizados como inseticidas naturais na agricultura ecológica. Testaram-se quatro tratamentos: sacarose + água (solução testemunha - ST); óleo de Neem a 1,2% + solução testemunha (ON1); óleo de Neem a 2,0% + solução testemunha (ON2) e Alicina + solução testemunha (AL). Foram feitas quatro repetições por tratamento, sendo cada repetição formada por um grupo de 20 abelhas, as quais foram acomodadas em gaiolas, em ambiente controlado. Após o contato com os tratamentos, as avaliações foram realizadas de hora em hora até a 24ª hora e, posteriormente, na 48ª hora. Nas primeiras 24 horas, foram observadas taxas de sobrevivência de 83,75; 87,50; 20,00 e 48,75% nos tratamentos ST; ON1; ON2 e AL, respectivamente. Após 48 horas, as taxas de sobrevivência observadas decresceram para 53,75; 47,50; 3,75 e 38,75%, para ST, ON1, ON2 e AL, respectivamente. Os resultados obtidos nesse estudo mostraram que os produtos de origem botânica, dependendo da concentração utilizada, podem ser tóxicos para as abelhas.
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Soil science plays a pivotal role in addressing some of the most pressing challenges in agriculture, environmental sustainability, and land management. This chapter explores the practical applications of soil science through a series of case studies that highlight its importance in various fields. From improving agricultural productivity through precision farming techniques to restoring degraded lands and mitigating climate change, soil science provides essential tools and knowledge. Case studies from diverse geographic regions demonstrate how innovative soil management practices, such as conservation agriculture, organic amendments, and soil fertility management, have led to significant improvements in crop yields, soil health, and ecosystem resilience. Additionally, the chapter examines the role of soil science in urban planning, infrastructure development, and environmental conservation, illustrating its broader impact beyond traditional agricultural contexts. By integrating scientific research with real-world applications, this chapter underscores the critical role of soil science in promoting sustainable land use and enhancing food security, while also addressing global environmental challenges.
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Es sind die klassischen vier Elemente der großen griechischen Philosophen, die – entmythologisiert – sich in heutiger Sicht als Schauplätze organismischer Evolution präsentieren. Mit ihren unterschiedlichen physikalischen und chemischen Qualitäten bilden sie die abiotischen Umweltfaktoren, an die sich Organismen durch zufällige genetische Veränderungen im Laufe der Evolution anpassen können. Andererseits können die ständig sich ändernden Umweltfaktoren immer wieder Organismenarten zum Aussterben zwingen. Wasser ist das Element, in dem das Leben entstand und sehr lange Zeit auch das alleinige Substrat für Pflanzen war. Die ältesten Landpflanzen-Fossilien kennen wir aus dem Oberen Silur, sind also mehr als 400 Millionen Jahre alt. Sie hatten allgemein dasselbe Bauprinzip, nämlich im Querschnitt runde Stiele, die sich mehrfach räumlich-gabelig verzweigen und einen sog. Telomstand bilden, von dem sich im Verlauf des Devons durch unterschiedliche Formveränderungen (sogenannte Elementarprozesse) u. a. die Bärlappe und Wedelfarne ableiten lassen, die im Karbon ihren Höhepunkt erreichten. Mit dem Landgang der Pflanzen erobern sie gleichzeitig das Element Luft. Unterschiedliche Feuchtigkeitsgrade und Temperaturen dieses Elements „zwingen“ die Pflanzen (aufgrund zufälliger Erbänderungen und anschließender dem Optimierungsprinzip gehorchender Selektion) zu unterschiedlichsten Anpassungen. Kompromisse zwischen „Hungern“ und „Dursten“ finden sich vielfach an ariden Wuchsorten. Das meist zerstörerische Element Feuer bildet als „Feuerball“ Sonne eine für das Pflanzenleben unabdingbare Lichtquelle. Sogar das offene Feuer kann von Pflanzen in Gebieten regelmäßig auftretender Buschbrände zur Samenausbreitung in genialer Weise genutzt werden. Die „Verschmutzung“ der genannten Elemente, insbesondere des Wassers, der Luft und des Bodens, oft verursacht von ethisch entkernten Großkonzernen, stellt uns heutzutage vor fast unüberwindbare Probleme (Klimawandel, Insektensterben, Rückgang der Biodiversität insgesamt, „versaute“ Nahrungsmittel).
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This review summarises the available evidence on the prospects for using microalgae or their extracts to support crop production. The evidence is limited but suggests technological promise in several distinct ways, namely, higher core productivity, enhanced resilience to biotic and abiotic stresses, and better-quality produce. The different efficacy pathways of these microalgal technologies were examined to assess their scope to help address key farmer priorities. Their scope to help farmers face climate change and land degradation was a particular focus, given the magnitude of these threats. These microalgal technologies are framed in terms of their pertinence to farmer priorities due to the centrality of farmers to food systems. Notably, farmers' technology adoption decisions are key to food system outcomes. The findings reported suggest that these crop support technologies could potentially deliver major benefits to farmers, consumers, and the environment. For the moment, however, this emerging literature remains largely neglected. Possible reasons for this are considered, as are potential ways forward. The review focuses particularly on the two most researched and widely available microalgae, the genera Arthrospira and Chlorella, in the interest of highlighting options farmers could adopt rapidly while research on the wider body of microalgae-based crop technologies continues.
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Integrative taxonomic practices that combine multiple lines of evidence for species delimitation greatly improve our understanding of intra- and inter-species variation and biodiversity. However, extended phenotypes remain underutilized despite their potential as a species-specific set of extracorporeal morphological and life history traits. Primarily relying on variations in wing patterns has caused taxonomic confusion in the genus Aciurina, which are gall-inducing flies on Asteraceae plants in western North America. However, species display distinct gall morphologies that can be crucial for species identification. Here we investigate a unique gall morphotype in New Mexico and Colorado that was previously described as a variant of that induced by Aciurina bigeloviae (Cockerell, 1890). Our analysis has discovered several consistent features that distinguish it from galls of A. bigeloviae. A comprehensive description of Aciurina luminaria Baine, sp. nov. and its gall is provided through integrative taxonomic study of gall morphology, host plant ecology, wing morphometrics, and reduced-representation genome sequencing.
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Light pollution poses a significant threat to nocturnal insects, yet our understanding of how insects are affected by lighting across ecosystems is limited. The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in light-induced attraction in abundance and diversity of moths in forest and grassland ecosystems. This study presents a novel comparison of moth attraction between these ecosystems using identical light traps with known lighting properties across 32 sites. We found significantly higher moth abundance and diversity (species richness) in forests compared to open grasslands, where environmental factors such as temperature and cloudiness had stronger effects on moth attraction in grasslands. Notably, moth families showed varying responses across ecosystems, suggesting potential sampling biases in light attraction studies. Our findings point to the need for ecosystem-specific approaches in light pollution mitigation strategies and provide a methodological approach for future research on the impacts of anthropogenic light on biodiversity. The results have important implications for conservation planning and the management of anthropogenic lighting in diverse landscapes.
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Declines in pollinating insects have been linked to changes in land cover, affecting the availability of nesting sites and floral resources. Our study is the first analysis of changes in pollen load composition of 2 mining bees, Andrena barbilabris (Kirby) and Andrena flavipes (Panzer) (Hymenoptera: Andrenidae), at the same sites in central England, over 75 years. This provides a unique opportunity to remove spatial variation and review temporal changes in pollen diet within the context of landscape change. We analyzed modern-day pollen load composition for these species and compared it with historical data from the same sites. We then examined potential links between land-use change and the bees’ diets. Both bees showed dietary flexibility and lower diet breadth for A. barbilabris, and the bees’ foraging strategies appear to have changed. Andrena flavipes collected more pollen taxa in a single load, while A. barbilabris appeared to source pollen from greater distances. Landscape changes at the studied sites have affected the nutritional environment for these bees. Our findings are supported by an existing assessment of floral resources, which found floral diversity has decreased overall in both the habitats used by these bees. However, more research is needed on the nutritional content of pollens used by these bees, both now and historically, to estimate how pollen diversity has changed. The bee’s-eye view underlines the importance of understanding how species respond to local changes so that effective conservation strategies can be developed.
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Climate change and biodiversity conservation are two of the most urgent challenges of the twenty-first century. Current global climate models indicate that climate-related events will continue to increase in frequency and intensity, leading to severe impacts on ecosystems, particularly plant diversity. Despite the 2015 Paris Agreement, efforts to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius and secure adequate climate financing remain unsatisfactory. In addition, the National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plans (NBSAPs), a core mechanism of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), have faced issues in implementation at the national level. Many NBSAPs lack clear and measurable biodiversity targets, which limits their effectiveness. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of these urgent issues, highlighting the significant challenges and deficiencies in current climate and biodiversity conservation policies. It evaluates the effectiveness of the Kew conservation strategy as a model for protecting and conserving plant diversity. Furthermore, this review underscores the pivotal role of plant tissue culture (PTC) technology in achieving plant conservation targets within the post-2020 global biodiversity framework. This review strongly supports the post-2020 global biodiversity framework and the integration of PTC into global plant conservation strategies to meet the ambitious 30-by-30 targets. This review also advocates for the establishment of the Kew-Wide Mechanism (KWM) to bolster climate resilience, reduce anthropogenic impacts on plant diversity, revitalize global conservation efforts, and accelerate ecosystem restoration in the face of ongoing climate change. Proposed as a comprehensive approach to plant conservation, the KWM offers a strategic, innovative, and scalable solution as the global economy transitions toward decarbonization.
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Pollinators are the unsung heroes of our natural world, playing a critical role in maintaining biodiversity and supporting agricultural productivity. From honeybee to the delicate butterfly, these creatures facilitate the reproduction of over 75% of the world’s flowering plants and nearly 35% of global crop production. Humans are deeply dependent on pollinators for their well-being and survival. Pollinators are essential for the production of many of the crops that form the foundation of human diets, including fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds. These crops are not only vital sources of nutrition, providing essential vitamins and minerals, but they also contribute to dietary diversity and food security. Beyond direct food sources, pollinators support the cultivation of crops used for livestock feed, which in turn sustains meat and dairy production. The economic value of pollinators is immense, with their pollination services contributing billions of dollars annually to global agriculture. Furthermore, many plants that pollinators help reproduce are crucial for non-food products, such as cotton and medicinal plants. The loss of pollinators would lead to a decline in crop yields and quality, increased food prices, and reduced availability of a variety of nutritious foods. This dependency underscores the importance of conserving pollinator populations to ensure the sustainability and resilience of agricultural systems, ecosystems, and ultimately, human health and livelihoods. Despite their invaluable contributions, pollinators are facing unprecedented threats that jeopardize their survival and the intricate ecological webs they sustain.
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Plant diseases cost the global economy billions of US dollars every year. The problem has mainly been addressed by using chemical pesticides, but recently, the use of ants has shown promising effects against plant pathogens. However, the mechanisms accounting for these effects have not yet been determined. One possible explanation is antimicrobial microorganisms associated with ants. Through controlled laboratory experiments, we investigated the inhibitory effects of wood ants (Formica polyctena) and their associated microorganisms against economically important plant pathogenic fungi. Both live ants, extracts from crushed ants, and extracts from washed ants significantly inhibited apple brown rot (Monilinia fructigena) while yielding growth of other microbes. Furthermore, all investigated wood ants transferred microorganisms to their surroundings within 10 seconds when walking across a surface. We isolated the most dominant microorganisms deposited by walking ants and from washed ant extracts (i.e., strains likely found on the surface of ants), resulting in four bacterial cultures and one yeast. Two of these isolates, strain I3 (most closely related to Pseudomonas sichuanensis and P. entomophila) and strain I1b (most closely related to Bacillus mycoides), showed inhibitory effects against apple brown rot and apple scab (Venturia inaequalis), while strain I3 also inhibited grey mold (Botrytis cinerea) and Fusarium head blight (Fusarium graminearum). These results suggest that wood ants have potential as biological control agents against commercially relevant plant pathogens, and that their inhibitory effect might be at least partially caused by antibiotic compounds produced by their associated microorganisms.
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Current pest management relies extensively on pesticide application worldwide, despite the frequent rise of pesticide resistance in crop pests. This is particularly worrisome because resistance is often not costly enough to be lost in populations after pesticide application, resulting in increased dependency on pesticide application. As climate warming increases, effort should be put into understanding how heat tolerance will affect the persistence of pesticide resistance in populations. To address this, we measured heat tolerance in two populations of the spider mite crop pest Tetranychus urticae that differ in the presence or absence of a target‐site mutation conferring resistance to etoxazole pesticide. We found that developmental time and fertility, but not survival, were negatively affected by increasing temperatures in the susceptible population. Furthermore, we found no difference between resistant and susceptible populations in all life‐history traits when both sexes developed at control temperature, nor when females developed at high temperature. Resistant heat‐stressed males, in contrast, showed lower fertility than susceptible ones, indicating a sex‐specific trade‐off between heat tolerance and pesticide resistance. This suggests that global warming could lead to reduced pesticide resistance in natural populations. However, resistant females, being as affected by high temperature as susceptible individuals, may buffer the toll in resistant male fertility, and the shorter developmental time at high temperatures may accelerate adaptation to temperature, the pesticide or the cost thereof. Ultimately, the complex dynamic between these two factors will determine whether resistant populations can persist under climate warming.
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Stream restoration is a proposed climate adaptation tool; however, outcomes of floodplain restoration on stream temperature have been debated. Despite a growing number of studies that investigated water temperature in restored streams, few have quantified temperature variations in new habitat types created by restored hydrogeomorphic processes to explore the effects on aquatic macroinvertebrates. We evaluated the hypotheses: (1) restoration increases habitat diversity, (2) habitat diversity increases water temperature variability, and (3) restoration increases the diversity of macroinvertebrate assemblage and temperature associations. In August 2021, we collected environmental data to describe the aquatic habitats, water temperature and quality (continuous and discrete), and macroinvertebrates in 40 riffle, pool, and off‐channel sites in a stream being restored, Whychus Creek, Oregon, USA. Our study is a site comparison of three reaches—one restored in 2012, another restored in 2016, and an unrestored (control) that will soon undergo restoration. Evaluations of the hypotheses show: (1) Habitat diversity in restored reaches is effectively three types of aquatic habitats versus only one in the control (riffles), (2) water temperature variability in habitats created by restoration (off‐channel) is high and low, and suggest a range of hyporheic connectivity and flow paths are present, and (3) restoration created a different macroinvertebrate assemblage, with 16 additional taxa in off‐channel habitats, and the range in macroinvertebrate thermal optima is approximately doubled when off‐channel macroinvertebrate thermal optima are accounted for. Our results support the idea that floodplain restoration creates more diverse thermal conditions and different macroinvertebrate communities in restored stream reaches.
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The decline in abundance and species richness of insects, including butterflies, have been linked to factors such as habitat loss and climate change. While some butterfly species are increasing, an overall decrease has been frequently observed in both Europe and North America. The objective of this study was to assess trends of butterfly abundances in Mediterranean shrublands of conserved lands in San Diego County, CA, USA. Funding and surveys were focused on the threatened Hermes copper (Lycaena hermes), but the abundance of all butterfly species was recorded. Analyses utilized the annual maximum count (Max Count) for each species at each transect during 2010–2022. The 10 most commonly observed species experienced, on average, a 1.4% annual decline in abundance, and 20 less commonly observed species were, on average, found at 5.9% fewer transects each year. The only exceptions to these declines are species (cabbage white [Pieris rapae], checkered white [Pontia protodice], and white checkered-skipper [Burnsius albezens]) that feed on non-native mustards or are more common in disturbed habitats. The Max Count provided an efficient, robust, and stable population index, that can be utilized to leverage funding for focal species to assess the broader community.
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Debate continues over the extent of insect declines and losses of species, but with general acceptance that these are real, substantial, and a major concern for ecological function of the natural world. Recent claims of very severe and continuing losses aroused much attention and concern, but the evidence is sometimes difficult to evaluate, with long-term trends from ‘popular’ insects (notably some Lepidoptera and Coleoptera) the most informative. Much uncertainty persists, and a central task in promoting insect conservation is to convey that uncertainty and accompanying concern to conservation managers. Lack of proven detail does not equate to lack of significance, and conservation must proceed in the absence of exact details of local or more widespread declines, with recognition that those declines to a large extent reflect human activities.
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Though often perceived as an environmentally-risky practice, biological control of invasive species can restore crop yields, ease land pressure and thus contribute to forest conservation. Here, we show how biological control against the mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti (Hemiptera) slows deforestation across Southeast Asia. In Thailand, this newly-arrived mealybug caused an 18% decline in cassava yields over 2009–2010 and an escalation in prices of cassava products. This spurred an expansion of cassava cropping in neighboring countries from 713,000 ha in 2009 to > 1 million ha by 2011: satellite imagery reveals 388%, 330%, 185% and 608% increases in peak deforestation rates in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Vietnam focused in cassava crop expansion areas. Following release of the host-specific parasitoid Anagyrus lopezi (Hymenoptera) in 2010, mealybug outbreaks were reduced, cropping area contracted and deforestation slowed by 31–95% in individual countries. Hence, when judiciously implemented, insect biological control can deliver substantial environmental benefits.
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Neonicotinoids and fipronil are the most widely used insecticides in the world. Previous studies showed that these compounds have high toxicity to a wide taxonomic range of non-target invertebrates. In rice cultivation, they are frequently used for nursery-box treatment of rice seedlings. The use of fipronil and neonicotinoid imidacloprid is suspected to be the main cause of population declines of red dragonflies, in particular Sympetrum frequens, because they have high lethal toxicity to dragonfly nymphs and the timing of the insecticides’ introduction in Japan (i.e., the late 1990s) overlapped with the sharp population declines. However, a causal link between application of these insecticides and population declines of the dragonflies remains unclear. Therefore, we estimated the amount of the insecticides applied for nursery-box treatment of rice seedlings and analyzed currently available information to evaluate the causality between fipronil and imidacloprid usage and population decline of S. frequens using Hill’s causality criteria. Based on our scoring of Hill’s nine criteria, the strongest lines of evidence were strength, plausibility, and coherence, whereas the weakest were temporality and biological gradient. We conclude that the use of these insecticides, particularly fipronil, was a major cause of the declines of S. frequens in Japan in the 1990s, with a high degree of certainty. The existing information and our analyses, however, do not allow us to exclude the possibility that some agronomic practices (e.g., midsummer drainage or crop rotation) that can severely limit the survival of aquatic nymphs also played a role in the dragonfly’s decline. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s11356-018-3440-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Significance Arthropods, invertebrates including insects that have external skeletons, are declining at an alarming rate. While the tropics harbor the majority of arthropod species, little is known about trends in their abundance. We compared arthropod biomass in Puerto Rico’s Luquillo rainforest with data taken during the 1970s and found that biomass had fallen 10 to 60 times. Our analyses revealed synchronous declines in the lizards, frogs, and birds that eat arthropods. Over the past 30 years, forest temperatures have risen 2.0 °C, and our study indicates that climate warming is the driving force behind the collapse of the forest’s food web. If supported by further research, the impact of climate change on tropical ecosystems may be much greater than currently anticipated.
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Insects provide critical ecosystem services to humanity, including biological control of pests. Particularly for invasive pests, biological control constitutes an environmentally sound and cost-effective management option. Following its 2008 invasion of Southeast Asia, biological control was implemented against the cassava mealybug Phenacoccus manihoti (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) through the introduction and subsequent release of the host-specific parasitoid Anagyrus lopezi (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in Thailand. In this study, we quantify yield benefits of mealybug biological control in Thailand’s cassava crop by using two different types of manipulative field trials: i.e., ‘physical exclusion’ cage trials and field-level ‘chemical exclusion’ assays. In cage trials with two popular cassava varieties, root yield and total dry matter (or ‘biological yield’) were a respective 4.0–4.2 times and 3.5–3.9 times higher in the presence of biological control. Extrapolating results from cage trials, biological control thus ensured an approximate yield gain of 5.3–10.0 T/ha for either variety. Under chemical exclusion trials, P. manihoti populations attained levels of 3266 ± 1021 cumulative mealybug-days (CMD) over a 10-month time period, and no longer impact yields. Moreover, under effective P. manihoti control, both root yield and biological yield increased with season-long CMD measures, and pest management interventions-including insecticide sprays-led to notable reductions in yield. This study is the first to show how biological control effectively downgrades the globally invasive P. manihoti to non-economic status and restores yields in Thailand’s cassava crop. Our work emphasizes the economic value of biological control, reveals how current P. manihoti populations do not necessarily cause yield penalties, and underlines the central importance of nature-based approaches in intensifying global agricultural production.
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In order to study the in situ effects of the agricultural landscape and exposure to pesticides on honey bee health, sixteen honey bee colonies were placed in four different agricultural landscapes. Those landscapes were three agricultural areas with varying levels of agricultural intensity (AG areas) and one non-agricultural area (NAG area). Colonies were monitored for different pathogen prevalence and pesticide residues over a period of one year. RT-qPCR was used to study the prevalence of seven different honey bee viruses as well as Nosema apis in colonies located in different agricultural systems with various intensities of soybean, corn, sorghum and cotton production. Populations of the parasitic mite Varroa destructor were also extensively monitored. Comprehensive MS-LC pesticide residue analyses were performed on samples of wax, honey, foragers, winter bees, dead bees and crop flowers for each apiary and location. Significantly higher level of varroa loads were recorded in colonies of the AG areas, but this at least partly correlated with increased colony size and did not necessarily result from exposure to pesticides. Infections of two viruses (DWVa, ABPV) and Nosema apis varied among the four studied locations. The urban location significantly elevated colony pathogen loads, while AG locations significantly benefited and increased the colony weight gain. Cotton and sorghum flowers contained high concentrations of insecticide including neonicotinoids, while soybean and corn had less pesticide residues. Several events of pesticide toxicity were recorded in the AG areas, and high concentrations of neonicotinoid insecticides were detected in dead bees.
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Varroa destructor is one of the most common parasites of honey bee colonies and is considered as a possible co-factor for honey bee decline. At the same time, the use of pesticides in intensive agriculture is still the most effective method of pest control. There is limited information about the effects of pesticide exposure on parasitized honey bees. Larval ingestion of certain pesticides could have effects on honey bee immune defense mechanisms, development and metabolic pathways. Europe and America face the disturbing phenomenon of the disappearance of honey bee colonies, termed Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD). One reason discussed is the possible suppression of honey bee immune system as a consequence of prolonged exposure to chemicals. In this study, the effects of the neonicotinoid thiamethoxam on honey bee, Apis mellifera carnica, pupae infested with Varroa destructor mites were analyzed at the molecular level. Varroa-infested and non-infested honey bee colonies received protein cakes with or without thiamethoxam. Nurse bees used these cakes as a feed for developing larvae. Samples of white-eyed and brown-eyed pupae were collected. Expression of 17 immune-related genes was analyzed by real-time PCR. Relative gene expression in samples exposed only to Varroa or to thiamethoxam or simultaneously to both Varroa and thiamethoxam was compared. The impact from the consumption of thiamethoxam during the larval stage on honey bee immune related gene expression in Varroa-infested white-eyed pupae was reflected as down-regulation of spaetzle, AMPs abaecin and defensin-1 and up-regulation of lysozyme-2. In brown-eyed pupae up-regulation of PPOact, spaetzle, hopscotch and basket genes was detected. Moreover, we observed a major difference in immune response to Varroa infestation between white-eyed pupae and brown-eyed pupae. The majority of tested immune-related genes were upregulated only in brown-eyed pupae, while in white-eyed pupae they were downregulated.
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Managed honey bee colony losses are of concern in the USA and globally. This survey, which documents the rate of colony loss in the USA during the 2015–2016 season, is the tenth report of winter losses, and the fifth of summer and annual losses. Our results summarize the responses of 5725 valid survey respondents, who collectively managed 427,652 colonies on 1 October 2015, an estimated 16.1% of all managed colonies in the USA. Responding beekeepers reported a total annual colony loss of 40.5% [95% CI 39.8–41.1%] between 1 April 2015 and 1 April 2016. Total winter colony loss was 26.9% [95% CI 26.4–27.4%] while total summer colony loss was 23.6% [95% CI 23.0–24.1%], making this the third consecutive year when summer losses have approximated to winter losses. Across all operation types, 32.3% of responding beekeepers reported no winter losses. Whilst the loss rate in the winter of 2015–2016 was amongst the lowest winter losses recorded over the ten years this survey has been conducted, 59.0% (n = 3378) of responding beekeepers had higher losses than they deemed acceptable.
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The use of biological control agents to control pests is an alternative to pesticides and a tool to manage invasive alien species. However, biocontrol agents can themselves become invasive species under certain conditions. The harlequin ladybird ( Harmonia axyridis ) is a native Asian biocontrol agent that has become a successful invader. We reviewed articles containing “ Harmonia axyridis ” to gather information on its presence and surveyed entomologists researching Coccinellidae around the world to investigate further insights about the current distribution, vectors of introduction, habitat use and threats this species pose. The harlequin ladybird has established populations in at least 59 countries outside its native range. Twenty six percent of the surveyed scientists considered it a potential threat to native Coccinellidae. Published studies and scientists suggest Adalia bipunctata , native to Europe, is under the highest risk of population declines. Strict policies should be incorporated to prevent its arrival to non-invaded areas and to prevent further expansion range. Managing invasive species is a key priority to prevent biodiversity loss and promote ecosystem services.
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Achieving sustainable crop production while feeding an increasing world population is one of the most ambitious challenges of this century1. Meeting this challenge will necessarily imply a drastic reduction of adverse environmental effects arising from agricultural activities2. The reduction of pesticide use is one of the critical drivers to preserve the environment and human health. Pesticide use could be reduced through the adoption of new production strategies3, 4, 5; however, whether substantial reductions of pesticide use are possible without impacting crop productivity and profitability is debatable6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17. Here, we demonstrated that low pesticide use rarely decreases productivity and profitability in arable farms. We analysed the potential conflicts between pesticide use and productivity or profitability with data from 946 non-organic arable commercial farms showing contrasting levels of pesticide use and covering a wide range of production situations in France. We failed to detect any conflict between low pesticide use and both high productivity and high profitability in 77% of the farms. We estimated that total pesticide use could be reduced by 42% without any negative effects on both productivity and profitability in 59% of farms from our national network. This corresponded to an average reduction of 37, 47 and 60% of herbicide, fungicide and insecticide use, respectively. The potential for reducing pesticide use appeared higher in farms with currently high pesticide use than in farms with low pesticide use. Our results demonstrate that pesticide reduction is already accessible to farmers in most production situations. This would imply profound changes in market organization and trade balance.
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The widespread use of systemic neonicotinoid insecticides in agriculture results first in contamination of the soil of the treated crops, and secondly in the transfer of residues to the aquatic environment. The high toxicity of these insecticides to aquatic insects and other arthropods has been recognized, but there is little awareness of the impacts these chemicals have on aquatic environments and the ecosystem at large. Recent monitoring studies in several countries, however, have revealed a world-wide contamination of creeks, rivers and lakes with these insecticides, with residue levels in the low μg/L (ppb) range. The current extent of aquatic contamination by neonicotinoids is reviewed first, and the findings contrasted with the known acute and chronic toxicity of neonicotinoids to various aquatic organisms. Impacts on populations and aquatic communities, mostly using mesocosms, are reviewed next to identify the communities most at risk from those that undergo little or no impact. Finally, the ecological links between aquatic and terrestrial organisms are considered. The consequences for terrestrial vertebrate species that depend mainly on this food source are discussed together with impacts on ecosystem function. Gaps in knowledge stem from difficulties in obtaining long-term experimental data that relates the effects on individual organisms to impacts on populations and ecosystems. The paper concludes with a summary of findings and the implications they have for the larger ecosystem.
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The butterfly fauna of lowland Northern California has exhibited a marked decline in recent years that previous studies have attributed in part to altered climatic conditions and changes in land use. Here, we ask if a shift in insecticide use towards neonicotinoids is associated with butterfly declines at four sites in the region that have been monitored for four decades. A negative association between butterfly populations and increasing neonicotinoid application is detectable while controlling for land use and other factors, and appears to be more severe for smaller-bodied species. These results suggest that neonicotinoids could influence non-target insect populations occurring in proximity to application locations, and highlights the need for mechanistic work to complement long-term observational data.
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The threats of old are still the dominant drivers of current species loss, indicates an analysis of IUCN Red List data by Sean Maxwell and colleagues.
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We calculated a Living Planet Index (LPI) for the Netherlands, based on 361 animal species from seven taxonomic groups occurring in terrestrial and freshwater habitats. Our assessment is basically similar to the global LPI, but the latter includes vertebrate species and trends in population abundance only. To achieve inferences on trends in biodiversity more generally, we added two insect groups (butterflies and dragonflies) and added occupancy trends for species for which we had no abundance trends available. According to the LPI, the state of biodiversity has slightly increased from 1990 to 2014. However, large differences exist between habitat types. We found a considerable increase in freshwater animal populations, probably because of improvement of chemical water quality and rehabilitation of marshland habitats. We found no trend in the LPI for woodland populations. In contrast, populations in farmland and open semi-natural habitats (coastal dunes, heathland and semi-natural grassland) declined, which we attribute to intensive agricultural practices and nitrogen deposition, respectively. The LPI shows that, even in a densely populated western European country, ongoing loss of animal biodiversity is not inevitable and may even be reversed if adequate measures are taken. Our approach enabled us to produce summary statistics beyond the level of species groups to monitor the state of biodiversity in a clear and consistent way.
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The decline of pollinators worldwide is of growing concern and has been related to the use of plant protecting chemicals. Most studies have focused on three neonicotinoid insecticides, clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam, currently subject to a moratorium in the EU. Here we focus on thiacloprid, a widely used cyano-substituted neonicotinoid thought to be less toxic to honey bees and of which use has increased in the last years. Honey bees (Apis mellifera carnica) were exposed chronically to thiacloprid in the field for several weeks at a sublethal concentration. Foraging behavior, homing success, navigation performance, and social communication were impaired, and thiacloprid residue levels increased both in the foragers and the nest mates over time. The effects observed in the field were not due to a repellent taste of the substance. For the first time, we present the necessary data for the risk evaluation of thiacloprid taken up chronically by honey bees in field conditions.
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Recent efforts to evaluate the contribution of neonicotinoid insecticides to worldwide pollinator declines have focused on honey bees and the chronic levels of exposure experienced when foraging on crops grown from neonicotinoid-treated seeds. However, few studies address non-crop plants as a potential route of pollinator exposure to neonicotinoid and other insecticides. Here we show that pollen collected by honey bee foragers in maize- and soybean-dominated landscapes is contaminated throughout the growing season with multiple agricultural pesticides, including the neonicotinoids used as seed treatments. Notably, however, the highest levels of contamination in pollen are pyrethroid insecticides targeting mosquitoes and other nuisance pests. Furthermore, pollen from crop plants represents only a tiny fraction of the total diversity of pollen resources used by honey bees in these landscapes, with the principle sources of pollen originating from non-cultivated plants. These findings provide fundamental information about the foraging habits of honey bees in these landscapes.
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Distribution in France and Corsica of species belonging to families Scarabaeidae, Aphodiidae, Aegialiidae, Hybosoridae, Ochodaeidae, Trogidae, Geotrupidae and Pachypodidae. For each species is given: taxonomy, size of individuals, distribution in France, distribution in the world, biology, and phenology. Each species with a distribution map.
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We previously characterized and quantified the influence of land use on survival and productivity of colonies positioned in six apiaries and found that colonies in apiaries surrounded by more land in uncultivated forage experienced greater annual survival, and generally more honey production. Here, detailed metrics of honey bee health were assessed over three years in colonies positioned in the same six apiaries. The colonies were located in North Dakota during the summer months and were transported to California for almond pollination every winter. Our aim was to identify relationships among measures of colony and individual bee health that impacted and predicted overwintering survival of colonies. We tested the hypothesis that colonies in apiaries surrounded by more favorable land use conditions would experience improved health. We modeled colony and individual bee health indices at a critical time point (autumn, prior to overwintering) and related them to eventual spring survival for California almond pollination. Colony measures that predicted overwintering apiary survival included the amount of pollen collected, brood production, and Varroa destructor mite levels. At the individual bee level, expression of vitellogenin, defensin1, and lysozyme2 were important markers of overwinter survival. This study is a novel first step toward identifying pertinent physiological responses in honey bees that result from their positioning near varying landscape features in intensive agricultural environments.
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Several reports suggested that rice seedling nursery-box application of some systemic insecticides (neonicotinoids and fipronil) is the cause of the decline in dragonfly species noted since the 1990s in Japan. We conducted paddy mesocosm experiments to investigate the effect of the systemic insecticides clothianidin, fipronil and chlorantraniliprole on rice paddy field biological communities. Concentrations of all insecticides in the paddy water were reduced to the limit of detection within 3 months after application. However, residuals of these insecticides in the paddy soil were detected throughout the experimental period. Plankton species were affected by clothianidin and chlorantraniliprole right after the applications, but they recovered after the concentrations decreased. On the other hand, the effects of fipronil treatment, especially on Odonata, were larger than those of any other treatment. The number of adult dragonflies completing eclosion was severely decreased in the fipronil treatment. These results suggest that the accumulation of these insecticides in paddy soil reduces biodiversity by eliminating dragonfly nymphs, which occupy a high trophic level in paddy fields.
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Biological control is a valuable and effective strategy for controlling arthropod pests and has been used extensively against invasive arthropods. As one approach for control of invasives, exotic natural enemies from the native range of a pest are introduced to areas where control is needed. Classical biological control began to be used in the late 1800s and its use increased until, beginning in 1983, scientists began raising significant concerns and questions about nontarget and indirect effects that can be caused by these introductions. In recent years, similar issues have been raised about augmentative use of exotic natural enemies. Subsequently, international guidelines, national regulations and scientific methods being used for exotic natural enemies in biological control have changed to require appropriate specificity testing, risk assessment and regulatory oversight before exotic natural enemies can be released. National and international standards aimed at minimizing risk have increased awareness and promoted more careful consideration of the costs and benefits associated with biological control. The barriers to the implementation of classical and augmentative biological control with exotic natural enemies now are sometimes difficult and, as a consequence, the numbers of classical biological control programs and releases have decreased significantly. Based in part on this new, more careful approach, classical biological control programs more recently undertaken are increasingly aimed at controlling especially damaging invasive arthropod pests that otherwise cannot be controlled. We examine evidence for these revised procedures and regulations aimed at increasing success and minimizing risk. We also discuss limitations linked to the apparent paucity of post-introduction monitoring and inherent unpredictability of indirect effects.
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Queen health is closely linked to colony performance in honey bees as a single queen is normally responsible for all egg laying and brood production within the colony. In the U. S. in recent years, queens have been failing at a high rate; with 50% or greater of queens replaced in colonies within 6 months when historically a queen might live one to two years. This high rate of queen failure coincides with the high mortality rates of colonies in the US, some years with >50% of colonies dying. In the current study, surveys of sperm viability in US queens were made to determine if sperm viability plays a role in queen or colony failure. Wide variation was observed in sperm viability from four sets of queens removed from colonies that beekeepers rated as in good health (n = 12; average viability = 92%), were replacing as part of normal management (n = 28; 57%), or where rated as failing (n = 18 and 19; 54% and 55%). Two additional paired set of queens showed a statistically significant difference in viability between colonies rated by the beekeeper as failing or in good health from the same apiaries. Queens removed from colonies rated in good health averaged high viability (ca. 85%) while those rated as failing or in poor health had significantly lower viability (ca. 50%). Thus low sperm viability was indicative of, or linked to, colony performance. To explore the source of low sperm viability, six commercial queen breeders were surveyed and wide variation in viability (range 60-90%) was documented between breeders. This variability could originate from the drones the queens mate with or temperature extremes that queens are exposed to during shipment. The role of shipping temperature as a possible explanation for low sperm viability was explored. We documented that during shipment queens are exposed to temperature spikes (<8 and > 40°C) and these spikes can kill 50% or more of the sperm stored in queen spermathecae in live queens. Clearly low sperm viability is linked to colony performance and laboratory and field data provide evidence that temperature extremes are a potential causative factor.
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Minimizing the impact of invasive alien species (IAS) on islands and elsewhere requires researchers to provide cogent information on the environmental and socioeconomic consequences of IAS to the public and policy makers. Unfortunately, this information has not been readily available owing to a paucity of scientific research and the failure of the scientific community to make their findings readily available to decision makers. This review explores the vulnerability of islands to biological invasion, reports on environmental and socioeconomic impacts of IAS on islands and provides guidance and information on technical resources that can help minimize the effects of IAS in island ecosystems. This assessment is intended to provide a holistic perspective on islandIAS dynamics, enable biologists and social scientists to identify information gaps that warrant further research and serve as a primer for policy makers seeking to minimize the impact of IAS on island systems. Case studies have been selected to reflect the most scientifically-reliable information on the impacts of IAS on islands. Sufficient evidence has emerged to conclude that IAS are the most significant drivers of population declines and species extinctions in island ecosystems worldwide. Clearly, IAS can also have significant socioeconomic impacts directly (for example human health) and indirectly through their effects on ecosystem goods and services.These impacts are manifest at all ecological levels and affect the poorest, as well as richest, island nations.The measures needed to prevent and minimize the impacts of IAS on island ecosystems are generally known. However, many island nations and territories lack the scientific and technical information, infrastructure and human and financial resources necessary to adequately address the problems caused by IAS. Because every nation is an exporter and importer of goods and services, every nation is also a facilitator and victim of the invasion of alien species. Wealthy nations therefore need to help raise the capacity of island nations and territories to minimize the spread and impact of IAS.
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Significance In 2014, a presidential memorandum called for an assessment of the nation’s pollinators, in response to growing awareness of their economic importance and recent declines. We assess, for the first time to our knowledge, the status and trends of wild bee abundance and their potential impacts on pollination services across the United States. We develop national maps of wild bee abundance, report land-use–driven changes over time, and relate them to trends in agricultural demand for pollination. We estimate uncertainty in the findings, so future research can target the least-understood regions and topics. Our findings can also help focus conservation efforts where declines in bee abundance are most certain, especially where agricultural demand for pollination services is growing.
Article
Concerns about the rapid and severe declines of many bumble bee (Bombus spp.) species in Europe, and more recently North America, have spurred research into the extent and possible causes for these losses. Drawing conclusions has been difficult due to a lack of long-term data, especially for specific regions that may have different factors at play than the global trend. In this study, 150 years of Bombus records in the state of New Hampshire from the University of New Hampshire Insect Collection were examined. This allowed for changes in abundance and distribution to be tracked over time, with focus on species designated of greatest conservation need by NH Fish & Game Department. Floral records also provided insight into the diet breadth of these species, which may affect their vulnerability. Evidence of drastic decline was found in Bombus affinis, Bombus fervidus, and Bombus terricola, as well as significant decline in Bombus vagans with data suggesting it has been ecologically replaced by Bombus impatiens over time. We suggest Bombus vagans receive future conservation consideration. Our analyses found a severe constriction of the geographic range of Bombus terricola to high elevation regions in the latter half of the 20th century, and its role as pollinator of several alpine plants necessitates immediate conservation action.
Article
Classical biological control using insects has led to the partial or complete control of at least 226 invasive insect and 57 invasive weed species worldwide since 1888. However, at least ten introductions of biological control agents have led to unintended negative consequences and these cases have led to a focus on risk that came to dominate the science and practice of classical biological control by the 1990s. Based upon historical developments in the field we consider that the era of focus on benefits began in 1888 and that it was supplanted by an era in which the focus was on risks during the 1990s. This paradigm shift greatly improved the safety of biological control releases but also led to a decline in the number of introductions, probably resulting in opportunity costs. We note here the development of a third paradigm: one in which the benefits and risks of biological control are clearly and explicitly balanced so that decisions can be made that maximize benefits while minimizing risks.
Article
Agriculture is the largest contributor to biodiversity loss with expanding impacts due to changing consumption patterns and growing populations. Agriculture destroys biodiversity by converting natural habitats to intensely managed systems and by releasing pollutants, including greenhouses gases. Food value chains further amplify impacts including through energy use, transport and waste. Reducing the food system’s toll on biodiversity is a critical challenge. The ‘sparing or sharing’ debate contrasts two response pathways: intensifying agriculture to release other land for protection versus biodiversity-friendly farming over larger areas. Most conservation policies focus on intensification and set-aside but recent research challenges these assumptions. The Global Land Outlook of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification highlights how modern farming is undermining the sustainability of large land areas. Intensification has not solved the biodiversity crisis and has often made it worse. Effective responses must involve both producers and consumers, and require a mixture of conservation, sustainable management and restoration. Agricultural land serves many purposes beyond food production and mechanisms are needed to pay farmers for wider stewardship of land resources. A multifunctional landscape approach balances different needs at a landscape scale while incorporating site-level specificity on land use, demand, and condition. At the same time, consumers play a critical role in reducing unsustainable food waste. Many of the techniques and strategies for biodiversity-friendly farming systems exist; the challenge is to bring them to scale.
Article
Few groups of insects have been surveyed over a very long period (50 years or more) in an area. Three groups were considered here meeting the long survey condition: ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae), ground Scelionidae (Hymenoptera) and species of Tenthredo (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae). The diversity of ground beetles in agricultural sites around Ottawa (Ontario) and Montreal (Quebec) has been markedly reduced during the 1980s and 1990s. During the same period we witnessed the collapse of other insect groups outside agricultural sites. Species of sawflies of the genus Tenthredo and a group of ground scelionid wasps were clearly affected. The decline is correlated with the presence of a new crop, corn, in these regions with a herbicide spray protocol in late May or early June. Herbicides are not killing insects on contact. Contaminated insects are free to disperse away from agricultural sites to a wide range of habitats where they are preyed upon by insects, spiders and birds. The consumption of contaminated insects by predators is probably behind their population collapse of many species or even the extirpation of some species from the study areas.
Article
Kleptoparasitic and parasitoid insects are expected to be particularly sensitive to changes in habitat availability due to their high trophic position and small population sizes compared with their hosts, but there are only few quantitative studies on their population changes. Here, we studied the distribution and abundance of 48 kleptoparasitic and parasitoid species of cuckoo wasps (Chrysididae) and eight selected host species recorded in Finland from 1840 to 2015 based on an extensive survey of entomological collections. Population trends were assessed by studying changes in occupancy in 10 × 10 km grid squares between two study periods, 1840–1967 and 1968–2015. Statistically significant decreases in occurrence were found for 11 cuckoo wasp species and one host species, while significant increases were not observed for any species. Trends of cuckoo wasps and their hosts were positively correlated, and changes were generally stronger in cuckoo wasps than in their hosts. In a comparative analysis of species traits, abundance, body size and nesting type of host were related to occurrence changes of cuckoo wasps. Scarce and small species that use above ground‐nesting hosts declined more than abundant and large species that use ground‐nesting hosts. Cuckoo wasp species dependent on dead wood are more vulnerable to changes in the environment than species associated with open sandy habitats. While both groups of species have probably suffered from habitat loss, the emergence of secondary habitats may have benefitted species living in sandy areas and compensated for the negative impact of habitat destruction.