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Marine protected areas in the 21st century: Current situation and trends
Abstract
The aim of this investigation is to analyse the evolution of current trends in the management of MPAs within the international framework. To that end, three specific objectives are proposed: Analyse the current situation of the MPAs within the international framework. Determine if there are differences in the declaration of MPAs across different regions of the world. Assess the progress made in the management of MPAs since the beginning of the 21st century.
... The designation of marine protected areas (MPAs) has increased worldwide in recent decades, which places value on protection as one of the most effective tools to conserve biodiversity and natural resources and to decrease human impacts [1,2]. However, the protection of biodiversity is no longer an end in itself but has evolved towards more ambitious goals, such as the conservation of the planet's natural capital or the fight against climate change [2,3]. ...
... The designation of marine protected areas (MPAs) has increased worldwide in recent decades, which places value on protection as one of the most effective tools to conserve biodiversity and natural resources and to decrease human impacts [1,2]. However, the protection of biodiversity is no longer an end in itself but has evolved towards more ambitious goals, such as the conservation of the planet's natural capital or the fight against climate change [2,3]. ...
... Moreover, the benefits have gone beyond fishing, as the whole ecosystem has benefited and this has translated into a very positive flow of other services, such as recreational activities. This integrative approach favors the proactive scenario and adapts to international trends that advocate an ecosystem approach [2]. Other case studies that enjoy proactive management are the Santa Rosa and Cahuita National Parks in Costa Rica [61]. ...
The Galapagos Islands are one of the most emblematic protected areas on the planet and also one of the most studied. Their main economic activity is tourism, which has grown rapidly in recent years. The increase in tourists is associated with the increase in population and the introduction of invasive species, which puts conservation at risk. This makes adequate management even more necessary and relevant on an international scale since the economy of Galapagos depends on the good state of conservation of its ecosystems and species. Numerous studies have shown that social factors, rather than physical–natural ones, determine the success or failure of a marine protected area (MPA), so they must be urgently incorporated into all phases of MPA management. In this study, we analyzed the management of the protected areas of Galapagos, including the National Park and the Marine Reserve, with the purpose of highlighting their weaknesses and strengths. The methodology used presents five prescribed scenarios in which priority is given to one or other factors, each of which has an impact on the biophysical and socio-economic systems that are influenced by the MPA. These scenarios were called proactive, interactive, centralized, learning, and formal management. Data were obtained through a comprehensive literature review and primary data collection methods, including in-depth interviews with key stakeholders and DPNG managers, as well as direct observations. Interviewees covered the main relevant sectors in the archipelago (fishing, tourism, and conservation). The results show that the archipelago’s protected areas follow a proactive management model with a continuous feedback loop. This feedback is a key element in any adaptive management process, which also allows practitioners to anticipate future problems. Both public participation and strategic planning are essential.
... The designation of marine protected areas (MPAs) has increased worldwide in recent decades, which places value on protection as one of the most effective tools to conserve biodiversity and natural resources, and to decrease human impacts [1,2]. However, the protection of biodiversity is no longer an end in itself, but has evolved towards more ambitious goals, such as the conservation of the planet's natural capital or the fight against climate change [2,3]. ...
... The designation of marine protected areas (MPAs) has increased worldwide in recent decades, which places value on protection as one of the most effective tools to conserve biodiversity and natural resources, and to decrease human impacts [1,2]. However, the protection of biodiversity is no longer an end in itself, but has evolved towards more ambitious goals, such as the conservation of the planet's natural capital or the fight against climate change [2,3]. ...
... Because of this, there has also been increased work on the impact that MPAs have on the lifestyle and well-being of coastal communities [12,13]. Numerous studies have shown that social factors, rather than physical-natural factors, determine the success or failure of an MPA [14][15][16][17], so they must be 2 incorporated into all phases of MPA management [9,10]. The inclusion of the social dimension in the design, implementation and management of MPAs is more recent than that of the biological aspects. ...
The Galápagos Islands are one of the most emblematic protected areas on the planet, and also one of the most studied. Their main economic activity is tourism, which has grown rapidly in recent years. The increase in tourists is associated with the increase in population and the introduction of invasive species, which puts conservation at risk. This makes adequate management even more necessary and relevant on an international scale, since the economy of Galápagos depends on the good state of conservation of its ecosystems and species. Numerous studies have shown that social factors, rather than physical-natural ones, determine the success or failure of a marine protected area (MPA), so they must be urgently incorporated into all phases of MPA management. In this study we have analyzed the management of the protected areas of Galápagos: the National Park and the Marine Reserve. The methodology used presents five prescribed scenarios in which priority is given to one or other factors, each of which has an impact on biophysical and socio-economic systems that are influenced by the MPA. These scenarios have been called: proactive, interactive, centralized, learning, and formal management. The results show that the archipelago's protected areas follow a proactive management model, with a continuous feedback loop. This feedback is a key element in any adaptive management process, which also allows practitioners to anticipate future problems. Both public participation and strategic planning are essential.
... Por la singularidad que representan los ecosistemas costero-marinos y las amenazas a las que se enfrentan, son imprescindibles el desarrollo y la aplicación de instrumentos de gestión que permitan un uso sostenible de los recursos y la conservación de la biodiversidad (Cvitanovic et al., 2013;Gallacher et al., 2016;López-Rodriguez y Rosado, 2017;Maestro et al., 2019;Scianna et al., 2019). En este sentido, han surgido diferentes herramientas que pueden ayudar a tal cometido, como la gestión pesquera, las áreas marinas protegidas (AMPs), la gestión integrada de áreas litorales (GIAL) o la planificación espacial marina. ...
... En las últimas décadas ha habido un rápido incremento en el número y la extensión de áreas protegidas a escala global, lo que pone en valor la protección como uno de los instrumentos más eficaces para conservar la biodiversidad y los recursos naturales, y disminuir los impactos humanos (Cifuentes et al., 2000;Maestro et al., 2019). Las ...
... Varían en su ubicación. Sin embargo, la mayoría se localizan en aguas intermareales o cerca de la costa (Maestro et al., 2019;Wood et al., 2008 Las AMPs pueden tener diferentes grados de protección y/o uso de los espacios y sus recursos. Generalmente, los beneficios (Tabla 1) para las comunidades locales y la población en general, así como para la biodiversidad, suelen ser mayores conforme se incrementa el grado de protección (Wilson et al., 2020;Navarro et al., 2018;Buglass et al., 2018;Sala y Giakoumi, 2017;Rossetto et al., 2015;Halpern et al., 2010;Lester et al., 2009). ...
... Nine studies (10%) did not specify their proximity to the mainland (Fig. 9a) and 21 of the studies (23.3%) took place in protected areas (Fig. 9b). Protected areas are defined as areas with a clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated, and managed through legal or other means to maintain the long-term conservation of ecosystems and cultural values associated with the location [60]. A list of the protected areas can be found in Table 3. with study design not clearly identified (two studies) in the literature (Fig. 10a). ...
... Only 23.3% (21 out of 90) of the studies identified here are reported as having conducted research in protected or associated with marine protected areas, while 35.6% of studies (32 out of 90) did not clearly indicate if their published studies took place in or within the region of a marine protected area. Given the recent increases in areas designated MPAs or marine parks internationally [60], future research identifying patterns of research effort, knowledge gaps and evidence synthesis for coral reef ecosystems should consider further investigating the sites within marine protected areas to build evidence-base for park management. ...
Background
Subtropical coral reefs are comparatively understudied compared to tropical coral reef ecosystems, yet also host a diverse and abundant array of marine life and provide substantial socio-economic benefits to communities. Research into the impacts of ocean warming on subtropical coral reefs has increased over the past two decades due to increase frequency and intensity of bleaching and degradation of these ecosystems. Understanding the extent of research effort and type of evidence assessing the response of subtropical corals and reefs to ocean warming provides valuable insight into global patterns in research efforts allowing critical knowledge gaps to be identified. A comprehensive understanding the impact of ocean warming on these systems will underpin our ability to predict and respond to future changes on subtropical coral reefs. Here, a systematic-map approach is used to identify recent research effort, from 2010 to 2023, and highlight patterns in the type, scale, and location of research conducted and as well as identify the availability of data and evidence reported.
Methods
Primary literature was identified by searching Scopus and Science Citation Index Expanded through Web of Science Core Collection databases. The methodologies provided in a previously published systematic map protocol were applied, and 90 primary research publications were subsequently identified. Data extraction from the identified literature included bibliometric data, discipline and type of research, type of data reported and how it was recorded, and data availability.
Findings
The identified literature consisted primarily of experimental (49%) and observational (39%) studies. The majority of the primary literature investigated corals in the ecoregions of Southern China (13%), Western Mediterranean (10%) and across a total of seven ecoregions grouped within Oceania (29%). Stressors reported in the literature as drivers of ocean warming reflect the standardisation of methods applied in reporting of events within the literature. Standardised metrics related to degree heating weeks (DHW) and marine heatwaves (MHW) have been reported when assessing the occurrence and severity of drivers, and are increasing in recent years, particularly in Australia. Finally, the need for increased research effort across much of the subtropics is evident, particularly for understudied regions such as the Western Indian Ocean where there are far fewer studies than other similar subtropical coral reef ecosystems.
Conclusions
Climatic change, increasing ocean temperatures, and the impacts to subtropical and temperate coral reefs are of increasing concern to policy makers and researchers alike. This systematic map provides a broad overview of research topics and effort around the globe since 2010 and identifies areas where more research effort is urgently needed. Our study has identified major research clusters in Asia, Australia, the Mediterranean, and North America and gaps of research in regions such as the East Indian Oceans. Of the research conducted to date approximately one third reports on evidence related to marine protected areas and the vast majority of evidence is from close/territorial sea locations, providing important knowledge base for management of these areas. Of the 17 studies reporting on specific extreme events (rather than experimental studies which is the majority of evidence identified here) 13 have been published since 2019, with the majority reporting on events occurring in 2019/20 indicating a trend of increasing evidence in recent years (a total of 7 studies from 2010 to 2013, compared to over 10 studies published annually since 2019 up to mid-2023).
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13750-024-00349-y.
... Extensive studies have been conducted on the performance of biodiversity conservation worldwide. Several high-income countries outside the OIC, such as the USA, France, United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, have witnessed an increase in the establishment of biodiversity conservation, such as marine protected areas (Maestro et al., 2019). This trend aligns with the growing interest, particularly in the 21 st century, among high-income countries to create and manage protected areas (Maestro et al., 2019). ...
... Several high-income countries outside the OIC, such as the USA, France, United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, have witnessed an increase in the establishment of biodiversity conservation, such as marine protected areas (Maestro et al., 2019). This trend aligns with the growing interest, particularly in the 21 st century, among high-income countries to create and manage protected areas (Maestro et al., 2019). European Community countries located near the Great Adriatic Plain, including Croatia, recognise the biodiversity richness of the Great Adriatic Plain landscape as a vital source of habitats and biome diversity (Sršen et al., 2014). ...
... Extensive studies have been conducted on the performance of biodiversity conservation worldwide. Several high-income countries outside the OIC, such as the USA, France, United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, have witnessed an increase in the establishment of biodiversity conservation, such as marine protected areas (Maestro et al., 2019). This trend aligns with the growing interest, particularly in the 21 st century, among high-income countries to create and manage protected areas (Maestro et al., 2019). ...
... Several high-income countries outside the OIC, such as the USA, France, United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, have witnessed an increase in the establishment of biodiversity conservation, such as marine protected areas (Maestro et al., 2019). This trend aligns with the growing interest, particularly in the 21 st century, among high-income countries to create and manage protected areas (Maestro et al., 2019). European Community countries located near the Great Adriatic Plain, including Croatia, recognise the biodiversity richness of the Great Adriatic Plain landscape as a vital source of habitats and biome diversity (Sršen et al., 2014). ...
According to mainstream literature, Muslim countries often lag behind in terms of environmental sustainability despite their beingfully compliant with global environmental regulations. This raises the question of whether this applies to all aspects of environmentalconservation. Therefore, this paper aims to evaluate the effectiveness of biodiversity conservation efforts in countries that are members of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and determine whether a consistent growth trend in biodiversity conservation can be identified. The study employs semi-quantitative and policy-science methods, analysing data from Yale University’s Biodiversity and Habitat Protection Index from 2010 to 2020. The findings show a significant increase in biodiversity conservation performance over the ten-year study period. Interestingly, low-income countries outperformed their wealthier OIC counterparts in terms of biodiversity conservation, despite having the lowest economic development status. This positive trend highlights the effectiveness of essential biodiversity policies and measures adopted in these Muslim countries. Furthermore, these results align with Stern’s approach, which argues that economic expansion can have diverse impacts on environmental quality, leading to the rejection of the Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis in the context of biodiversity conservation in Muslim countries. The study emphasises the need for further research into the nature of biodiversity policies among low-income nations. The policy ideas and solutions from these countries can provide valuable insights for combating biodiversity loss within OIC countries and globally, contributing to achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Additionally, it has the potential to enhance the capacity of OIC countries in biodiversity conservation and their role in supporting fellow Muslim nations in achieving the SDGs.
... Many of these taxa face significant reductions in their population numbers and are at risk of extinction (Butchart et al., 2010;Dulvy et al., 2021;Mortimer & Donnelly, 2008;Pimiento et al., 2020;Restrepo et al., 2023;Wallace et al., 2011), requiring ocean governance with conservation measures (Dulvy et al., 2021;Pimiento et al., 2020) that range from intergovernmental agreements to national and local conservation programs, including protected areas (Duda, 2016;Huang et al., 2022;Lotze, 2021;Maestro et al., 2019). ...
... coastal terrestrial protected zones could function as vital refuges for turtles, potentially mitigating some of the detrimental impacts associated with anthropogenic threats (Maestro et al., 2019;Nickols et al., 2019;Watson et al., 2014). ...
Sea turtles are critical components of marine ecosystems, and their conservation is important for Ocean Governance and Global Planet Health. However, there is limited knowledge of their ecology in the Gulf of Guinea. To fill this knowledge gap, this study presents the first integrative assessment of green and hawksbill turtles in the region, combining nesting surveys over 9 years and telemetry data, to offer insights into these population dynamics, and behaviours, including nesting preferences, morphological and reproductive parameters, diving patterns and inter-nesting core-use areas. Both green and hawksbill turtles are likely making a recovery on São Tomé, potentially driven by sustained conservation efforts. There are preliminary indications of recovery , but we interpret this cautiously. Coupled with satellite tracking, this study estimated that 482 to 736 green turtles and 135 to 217 hawksbills nest on the beaches of São Tomé. Their movements overlap significantly with a proposed Marine Protected Area (MPA), which suggests they may be well placed for conservation if managed appropriately. However, the presence of artisanal fisheries and emerging threats, such as sand mining and unregulated tourism, highlight the urgent need for robust management strategies that align global conservation objectives with local socioeconomic realities. This study significantly enhances our understanding of the ecology and conservation needs of the green and hawksbill turtles in the Gulf of Guinea. The insights gleaned here can contribute to the development of tailored conservation strategies that benefit these populations and the ecosystem services upon which they depend.
... Las poblaciones que ya están sobreexplotadas podrían reaccionar con mayor sensibilidad y plantear dificultades aún mayores que antes para la ordenación pesquera futura. Puede ser necesario un cese temporal de la pesca de determinadas especies objetivo [17,18]. ...
... En los próximos años se puede esperar un aumento en el nivel del mar incluso si las emisiones de CO 2 se reducen drásticamente de inmediato. Con el aumento de la frecuencia y la fuerza de las tormentas, los hábitats y los medios de subsistencia de muchos residentes costeros, especialmente en las regiones más pobres como resultado de las inundaciones, las marejadas ciclónicas y el aumento del nivel del mar, pueden verse amenazados [17,19]. ...
Se predice que los efectos adversos del cambio climático aumentarán exponencialmente, dependiendo del nivel de cambio climático que finalmente ocurra. Por lo tanto, existe la necesidad de una acción internacional basada en los derechos humanos para abordar el cambio climático. Ante esto, es presente documento tuvo por objetivo analizar los efectos cambio climático, sobre los ecosistemas terrestres y marinos. Para responde a estos objetivos se realizó una revisión bibliográfica. Los resultados del análisis son preocupantes, la tierra se está calentando y a un ritmo constante. En cuestión, el aumento de los gases de efecto invernadero de origen humano, con las consecuencias de las crisis sanitaria, ecológica y humanitaria de las que vemos los inicios. A pesar de ello, la lucha contra el cambio climático es una oportunidad real de transición hacia una sociedad baja en carbono, generando empleo, innovación y justicia social a nivel local e internacional.
... Current efforts in fisheries management focus on combining scientific research, community engagement, and innovative approaches. Key actions include habitat restoration, stock enhancement through breeding programs, and creating marine protected areas (MPAs) to help overfished stocks recover (Maestro et al., 2019). However, these strategies often face challenges, such as resistance from communities that rely on fishing for their income, as well as financial limitations and scarce resources for effective monitoring and enforcement. ...
Immunostimulants play a crucial role in modern aquaculture by enhancing the innate immune response of fish and other aquatic organisms, thereby improving disease resistance and overall health. As the industry faces increasing challenges from pathogens, the use of antibiotics and chemicals has raised concerns about environmental sustainability, food safety, and the development of antibiotic-resistant strains. Immunostimulants offer a safer, more sustainable alternative by boosting the immune system of cultured species without harmful side effects. Common
immunostimulants include compounds such as beta-glucans, probiotics, plant extracts, and vitamins, which stimulate immune cells, improve disease resistance, and enhance growth and survival rates. These agents have been shown to increase the production of immune-related molecules like lysozymes, cytokines, and antibodies, fortifying the organism’s defense mechanisms against bacterial,
viral, and parasitic infections. As aquaculture continues to expand, the use of immunostimulants represents a key strategy for promoting healthier and more sustainable practices in fish farming.
... Current efforts in fisheries management focus on combining scientific research, community engagement, and innovative approaches. Key actions include habitat restoration, stock enhancement through breeding programs, and creating marine protected areas (MPAs) to help overfished stocks recover (Maestro et al., 2019). However, these strategies often face challenges, such as resistance from communities that rely on fishing for their income, as well as financial limitations and scarce resources for effective monitoring and enforcement. ...
Phytoplankton and zooplankton are integral components of aquaculture systems, playing vital roles in maintaining the health and productivity of aquatic environments. Phytoplankton, as primary producers, forms the base of the aquatic food web, providing essential nutrients and oxygen through photosynthesis. Zooplankton, as primary consumers, feed on phytoplankton and serve as a crucial food source for higher trophic levels, including fish and shellfish. Their presence and balance are
essential for the optimal growth and survival of cultured species. This paper explores the significance of phytoplankton and zooplankton in aquaculture, highlighting their ecological functions, contributions to water quality, and impact on the growth and health of farmed aquatic organisms. Understanding and managing these planktonic communities can enhance sustainable aquaculture practices and improve yields.
... Current efforts in fisheries management focus on combining scientific research, community engagement, and innovative approaches. Key actions include habitat restoration, stock enhancement through breeding programs, and creating marine protected areas (MPAs) to help overfished stocks recover (Maestro et al., 2019). However, these strategies often face challenges, such as resistance from communities that rely on fishing for their income, as well as financial limitations and scarce resources for effective monitoring and enforcement. ...
The edited books are penned down prospecting the current scenarios in the relevant field with comparison to the past scenarios equipping the readers with ample knowledge on the subject. The book Applied Trends in Fisheries Management offers a comprehensive overview of key topics and emerging issues in commercial fisheries and aquaculture. It is designed to serve as a resource for aquaculture professionals, researchers, policymakers, and students. This book brings together the latest insights on topics such as sustainable aquaculture practices, climate change impacts, and effective fisheries management strategies. Commercial Fisheries delves into the economic, environmental, and regulatory dimensions of commercial fisheries.
... Using local information on the status and biodiversity of coastal ecosystems as the basis, local government units and other stakeholders can design effective measures to support biodiversity conservation and the long-term sustainability of marine resources (Benham, 2017;Cicin-Sain and Belfiore 2005). Management initiatives become ineffective without adequate coordination and more engaged stakeholder participation, and resource availability continues to deteriorate (Ballarini et al. 2021;Maestro et al. 2019). Consequently, critical stakeholders involved in coastal resource management must make pivotal decisions regarding the most suitable management strategy for implementation in their area (Cowel et al. 2020;Scianna et al. 2019). ...
Decentralized management of marine resources by local governments yields an enhanced opportunity to protect, restore, and create sustainable marine biodiversity in the provision of ecosystem services. However, due to the complexities associated with designing a level of protection for a specific marine resource, local stakeholders may find the process challenging, which may have adverse effects resulting from delayed conservation initiatives. Thus, under various criteria, a systematic approach that assigns a level of protection to marine resources is critical in managing these resources. Despite this criticality, such an agenda gains limited attention from the domain literature. This work advances this gap by proposing a multiple criteria sorting (MCS) method that comprehensively assigns marine resources to a pre-defined set of protection categories under the evaluation of several criteria. It utilizes (1) the entropy method in obtaining the priority weights of the identified criteria associated with evaluating the reef status of marine sites and (2) an extension of the combined compromise solution sorting method, termed CoCoSort, in evaluating marine sites to a pre-determined set of categories (i.e., Category 1, Category 2, Category 3), arranged in increasing order of protection. With the available indicators in the literature, the proposed CoCoSort was implemented in an actual case study of eight marine sites in an eastern Philippine municipality. Findings reveal that feather stars density, giant clams density, and butterfly abundance comprise the top priority criteria in evaluating the case sites. On the other hand, five identified sites are found to be under the maximum protection category, while three sites should be given moderate protection. Both sensitivity and comparative analyses show the efficacy of the proposed CoCoSort. The insights would help local governments manage the biodiversity protection of their marine environments.
... Seasonal closures have little biological rationale in multi-species, small-scale fisheries (Samy-Kamal, Forcada, and Lizaso 2015), and implementation could be ineffective or even negative if not enforced (Correa, Khan, and Freitas 2014). Spatial restrictions on use of aquatic resources include marine protected areas (MPAs), which are implemented to close or restrict fishing to protect biodiversity (Guidetti and Claudet 2010;Maestro et al. 2019). MPAs have improved fishery yields in protected areas and nearby open areas due to a "spill-over effect" from strictly protected areas (Di Lorenzo, Claudet, and Guidetti 2016). ...
Aquatic protected areas and co-management have been proposed as strategies for conserving fisheries resources in several world regions. We analyzed the effects of different levels of governance on yield of experimental fisheries in Amazonian floodplain lakes. Sampling between 2018 and 2022 used gill nets deployed for 24 h during flooding and receding water phases. Generalized linear models (GLMs) were fitted to catch per unit effort (CPUE) and covariates, river level, time, sampling sites, level of management of the collection sites, and lake fishery management type. CPUE was significantly related to governance, management type, sampling site, and water level. Our results indicated that areas of sustainable use where community-based
co-management was implemented were more effective for promoting high fishery yield.
... These changes-and the ecological responses to them-include both gradual long-term effects, such as shifts in species' geographical ranges in response to warming (Pinsky et al., 2020), and an increasing frequency and magnitude of short-term disturbances, such as marine heatwaves (Smith, Burrows, et al., 2023) and El Niño-Southern Oscillation events (Cai et al., 2018). At the same time, there has been a rise in the use of marine reserves (areas of the ocean where fishing and other extractive or destructive human activities are prohibited) as a conservation and management tool (Maestro et al., 2019). Although originally envisioned primarily as a management tool to protect against overfishing and promote habitat conservation (Lubchenco et al., 2003), there is increasing interest in the degree to which marine reserves could provide "climate resilience" by buffering populations against climate-linked disturbances and environmental variability. ...
Globally, decision‐makers are seeking management levers that can mitigate the negative effects of climate change on ecosystems that have already been transformed from their natural state by the effects of fishing. An important question is whether marine reserves can provide buffering (i.e., population‐level resilience) against climate disturbances to fished populations. Here, we examine one aspect of this question, by asking whether marine reserves can reduce the variability in either overall biomass or in fishery yield, in the face of environmental variability. This could happen because greater reproduction of longer‐lived, larger fish inside reserves could supplement recruitment to the fished portion of the population. We addressed this question using age‐structured population models, assuming a system where some proportion of the coastline is protected in marine reserves (0%–30%), and the remainder is fished (at a range of possible harvest rates). We modeled populations with sedentary adults and dispersal via a larval pool. Since recent extreme climate events (e.g., marine heatwaves) have reduced juvenile survival for some fish species, we assumed that environmental variability affected the survival of the first age class in our model. We viewed population variability as a question of buffering, measured as the proportion of time a simulated population spent below a target reference point, with the idea that marine reserves could prevent the population from reaching low levels in the face of fishing and environmental variability. We found that fisheries with more area in marine reserves always had less variability in biomass. However, adding marine reserves only reduced variability in fisheries yield when the fished part of the population was being harvested at a rate exceeding the maximum sustainable yield. This new result on reducing variability is in line with previous findings that the “spillover” effects of marine reserve benefits to fishery yields only accrue when the fishery outside reserve boundaries is being overharvested.
... Marine protected areas (MPAs) have been the primary area-based conservation strategy to protect biodiversity and safeguard the functionality, integrity, and resilience of marine ecosystems. A rapid increase and widespread development of MPAs occurred across our oceans after the Aichi Target 11 (i.e., conserving 10% of marine areas by 2020) was enacted in 2010 (Maestro et al., 2019;Maxwell et al., 2020). Despite increasing coverage, MPAs cover less than 9% of Earth's marine areas (www. ...
Other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) represent a new frontier in conservation, aiming to acknowledge efforts that contribute to biodiversity beyond marine protected areas (MPAs). Many nations, including Indonesia, are establishing country-specific criteria to define what qualifies as an OECM. However, demonstrating the biodiversity contributions of Indonesia’s 382 identified potential OECMs (i.e., non-MPA areas, governed and managed, and likely contributing to biodiversity conservation) poses a challenge due to the absence of national monitoring systems outside MPAs. A spatial approach was used to provide an overview of the expected ecological contributions of potential OECMs upon formal recognition. Potential OECMs were, on average, five times smaller (26,838 ha) than MPAs (133,524 ha). Together with MPAs, they formed a denser conservation network, with many encompassing climate refugia reefs. Upon full recognition, potential OECMs could contribute to conserving <1%, 12%, and 8% of the nation’s mangroves, seagrass, and coral reef areas, respectively. Potential OECMs were restricted to coastal areas, and situated in various ecological contexts, including areas typically excluded from MPA designation, such as turbid reefs. Recognizing these OECMs could potentially add 10 million ha to national marine conservation areas. Collectively, MPAs and potential OECMs could contribute to conserving 13% of the nation’s waters by 2030. Potential OECMs are effective locally and offer unique strengths, including diverse governance approaches, long-term presence, and potential socioeconomic benefits. Nonetheless, they face challenges from human pressures that may compromise their effectiveness. Formal recognition and strengthening of these areas could help mitigate these risks. This study highlights the potential of recognizing OECMs to enhance conservation efforts in Indonesia, complementing the existing MPA network.
... Internationally, the Convention on Biological Diversity's (CBD) Strategic Plan for Biodiversity (2011-2020) enumerated twenty distinct targets for sustainable development, including an aim to minimize anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs (Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, 2010). Both global and federal legislation has also established Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)-specific regions designated to be protected from local stress factors such as human activities [59]. This opens avenues for monitoring ecosystem health, where metrics such as coral color or coverage can be used to study stress factors that plague the marine habitat. ...
Changes in the color of the ocean reflect how changes in Earth’s climate are transforming plankton ecosystems. Collecting data on both surface and underwater coloration is essential to monitoring the health of marine ecosystems across the ocean. Variations in ocean surface color, measured by satellites, hold information about the composition of plankton ecosystems. These ecosystems are sensitive to ocean temperature and to the availability of nutrients and light in the ocean. In underwater habitats, monitoring coral bleaching events serves as an important means for evaluating the health of reef ecosystems. Yet certain challenges remain to be addressed for acquiring and processing data in a standardized and reliable fashion. Current and future policies can be centered around data acquisition and integration as well as efforts for universal collaboration and broader societal impacts.
... There is currently a worldwide initiative to protect 30% of the global ocean in a network of well-managed MPAs by 2030 (the '30 by 30' initiative; Convention of Biological Diversity, 2022). It follows on from a 10-fold increase in global MPAs since 2005 (United Nations Environment Programme & International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2021), including over one million square kilometers of ocean sanctuaries and marine parks declared in large open ocean areas, such as the Cook Islands' Marae Moana, Hawaiian Islands Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, and the Ross Sea Region MPA (Maestro et al., 2019). ...
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a commonly used management tool to safeguard marine life from anthropogenic
impacts, yet their efficacy often remains untested. Evaluating how highly dynamic marine species use static MPAs is challenging but becoming more feasible with the advancement of telemetry data. Here, we focus on southern right whales (Eubalaena australis, SRWs) in the waters off Aotearoa/New Zealand, which declined
from 30,000 whales to fewer than 40 mature females due to whaling. Now numbering in the low thousands, the key socializing and nursery areas for this population in the remote subantarctic islands are under the protection of different types of MPAs. However, the effectiveness of these MPAs in encompassing important whale habitat and protecting the whales from vessel traffic has not been investigated. To address this, we analyzed telemetry data from 29 SRWs tagged at the Auckland Islands between 2009 and 2022. We identified two previously unknown
and currently unprotected areas that were used by the whales for important behaviors such as foraging, socializing, or resting. Additionally, by combining whale locations and vessel tracking data (2020–2022) during peak breeding period (June to October), we found high spatiotemporal overlap between whales and vessels within several MPAs, suggesting the whales could still be vulnerable to multiple anthropogenic stressors even when within areas designated for protection. Our results identify areas to be prioritized for future monitoring and investigation to support the ongoing recovery of this SRW population, as well as highlight the overarching importance of assessing MPA effectiveness post-implementation, especially in a changing climate.
... These results, comprising both anthropogenic stressors and biodiversity, highlight the urgent need of considering a broad perspective that includes socio-economic and coastal biodiversity parameters in management decisions. This will benefit and maximize conservation efforts in the long term (Bennett et al., 2023;Maestro et al., 2019). In this context, future and regular monitoring of both biodiversity parameters and stress factors are needed because they will allow us to evaluate whether the patterns between parameters and stress values found here persist over time. ...
The conservation of marine ecosystems depends on the establishment and functioning of marine protected areas (MPAs). These areas are not exempt from the effects generated by a variety of anthropogenic stressors. Coastal biodiversity can provide key information of MPAs health; however, it is not usually considered in MPAs planning process, particularly in the Southwestern Atlantic.
In this work, we provide an analysis and discussion of the anthropogenic stressors and the rocky intertidal biodiversity parameters occurring along 10 latitudinal degrees within the major MPAs of the continental Patagonia (Argentina). Specifically, we studied the intensity of 10 social, economic and environmental marine‐related anthropogenic stressors and characterized the intertidal biodiversity (biomass, density and size of scorched mussels and its associated communities) in the mid intertidal rocky shore.
We found that most of the anthropogenic stressors studied had some level of intensity at all MPAs in Patagonia. In addition, each MPA has unique biodiversity assemblages. Total anthropogenic stress was not directly correlated with the mussel bed parameters or the richness of the associated fauna. Artisanal fisheries, tourism, invasive species and trampling were found to have the highest intensity on the MPAs. Moreover, a negative relation between artisanal fisheries, tourism and invasive species and the biomass and size of mussels was found, along with a negative relation between tourism and density. Furthermore, three MPAs registered the greatest anthropogenic pressure.
Our study evidence that although Argentina has significantly advanced in the creation of MPAs in the last decades, the objectives for the conservation of the ecosystems are still narrow. Our results highlight that globally, MPAs need to include the perspective of coastal intertidal biodiversity and their stressors in their management strategies. By doing this, it will contribute to have a more holistic approach and thus it will improve MPAs conservation efforts.
... En medio de estos contextos de gran biodiversidad e instituciones de base debilitadas, las políticas de desarrollo mexicanas propician modos de producción destructivos con el medioambiente y buscan mitigar el problema con modos de conservación basados en el manejo de ecosistemas (Maestro et al., 2019). Este enfoque de conservación, que centra la mirada en el objeto biológico, puede funcionar en el momento en que las fuerzas productivas locales son débiles y son los ecosistemas los que más condicionan las dinámicas socioambientales, como sucede en manglares comunitarios utilizados para pesca artesanal, agricultura en pequeña escala en la zona continental, poco TBN y algunas actividades extractivas menores. ...
Este aporte identifica las dinámicas socioambientales que las políticas de desarrollo han generado sobre los manglares comunitarios en tres momentos clave de la historia mexicana: la Constitución de 1917, la industrialización de la década de 1950 y las reformas neoliberales de 1985. Mediante ocho estudios de caso y 180 entrevistas semiestructuradas, se elaboró un insumo conceptual de tres escenarios (manglares comunitarios, turistificados y conservados) y quince categorías que sintetizan estas dinámicas. Los manglares atraviesan una crisis histórica que provocarían las políticas de desarrollo que no atienden si no que debilitarían a las instituciones locales y empobrecerían a los habitantes de las localidades. Los autores ofrecen recomendaciones para que la gestión del gobierno federal sea más efectiva a nivel ambiental y territorial.
... The environmental crisis that is affecting our Planet has caused the deterioration of ecosystems and a great loss of biodiversity and habitats (Cardinale et al., 2012;Sih et al., 2000). In response to these changes, there has been a rapid increase in the number and extension of protected areas on a global scale over the last 20 years (Maestro et al., 2019). In this regard, there has been a signi cant increase in interest and action to protect key ocean habitats and species through Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) (Laffoley et al., 2019). ...
The Marine Protected Area Yaganes (MPAY) was created in response to the great deterioration that has been suffering the ecosystems due to the environmental crisis that is affecting our planet, with the aim to protect key ocean habitats and species. Located at the southern tip of South America, MPAY is home to a wide variety of marine biodiversity and habitats, which makes it of special interest for the conservation of subantarctic environments. For the first time, we described the potential trophic interactions within the MPAY, with emphasis in the pelagic realm. We applied both a network-level and a species-level approach to characterise the structure and complexity properties, aiming to comprehend trophic dynamics and the specific roles of certain species within the food web. In terms of complexity, the MPAY food web consists of 127 species with 658 predator-prey interactions, a density of interactions of 5.18 and a connectance of 0.04. Regarding its structure, around 69% of the species occupied intermediate trophic levels. The Keystone Species Index (KSI), highlighted the importance of some species such as the Patagonian toothfish ( Dissostichus eleginoides ), the amphipod Themisto gaudichaudii , euphausiids and myctophids, among others, to the structure of the food web.
... To ensure the effectiveness of current and future MPAs, their biodiversity must be fully characterised and high-quality monitoring data collected across both space and time (Bates et al. 2019). Adaptation strategies need to be incorporated into MPA design and management plans (including working with local communities and incorporating other effective conservation measures, or OECMs) (Gurney et al. 2021) in all ecosystems and habitat types (Wilson et al. 2020), including areas beyond national jurisdiction (Maestro et al. 2019). ...
... To ensure the effectiveness of current and future MPAs, their biodiversity must be fully characterised and high-quality monitoring data collected across both space and time (Bates et al. 2019). Adaptation strategies need to be incorporated into MPA design and management plans (including working with local communities and incorporating other effective conservation measures, or OECMs) (Gurney et al. 2021) in all ecosystems and habitat types (Wilson et al. 2020), including areas beyond national jurisdiction (Maestro et al. 2019). ...
... Because of this, the discussion with regard to fisheries management was focused on the social aspects of well-being, including livelihood, fisheries governance, particularly through state and international action to prevent Illegal, Unregulated, and Unreported (IUU) fishing activities and specified group of people who have the right to access the fishing resources. Many claimed that this action could prevent the "race to fish" which is causing the overexploitation of fish stocks, declining aquatic ecosystems, and a decrease in the economic and nutritional benefits of the fisheries, particularly in countries with a food deficit that have low income [61,62]. Moreover, better marine governance at the local level would mean the support of the barangay and the local municipal government in apprehending illegal fishers and directly supporting the bantay dagat or fish wardens that protect the marine reserves/fish sanctuaries. ...
... An additional striking result is the ambiguous role of closure size on coral recovery. There is a large body of published work demonstrating the benefits of larger fisheries closures for conservation (Edgar et al., 2014;Maestro et al., 2019). Here, we show that in systems with tipping points, a large closure may concentrate fishing in unprotected areas, triggering degradation. ...
Rotational closures have potential fisheries benefits, yet their impact on coral cover is unknown. Research has shown that permanent closures can protect herbivorous fish, indirectly benefiting corals, but these observations may not apply when closed periods alternate with fishing. Here, we examine how rotational closures affect coral, focusing on systems with the potential to switch between alternative stable states, a context in which temporary closures may have persistent effects. We show that rotational closures can trigger coral recovery, and in some contexts lead to better coral recovery than fixed closures of similar size. Such benthic effects are only possible if closures last long enough for change to occur. We also note that very large fixed or rotating closures may concentrate fishing effort in areas where fishing remains permitted, leading to lower overall coral cover. Our findings offer crucial guidance to managers regarding rotational closures’ potential advantages and drawbacks.
... Such approaches are crucial for addressing anthropogenic pressures and ensuring the resilience of marine ecosystems. The case of Cocos Island, as part of the Eastern Pacific Marine Corridor, exemplifies how national-scale efforts can create biological corridors, enhancing the connectivity between MPAs and contributing to the conservation of globally significant marine biodiversity [34,35]. ...
The marine ecosystem’s balance is crucial for sustaining biodiversity and supporting fisheries. Marine protected areas have been increasingly used to enhance marine habitats, yet their impact on fish populations remains a topic of debate. This study focuses on a marine protected area in Kitros, Pieria, in Greece, where an artificial reef was constructed, to understand its influence on coastal fish populations. The objectives were to investigate the changes in fish biomass and abundance, comparing the data from periods before and after the construction of an artificial reef. This research compares the data between 2007 and 2008 with the data between 2016 and 2017, collected with bottom trawl surveys strategically executed prior to and after the artificial reef’s installation. Fish species captured were identified, with their lengths and masses measured. The findings indicate an increase in the biomass and abundance of certain fish species after artificial reef deployment, notably the commercially significant Mullus barbatus and Pagellus erythrinus. The artificial reef in Kitros, Pieria, with its surrounding marine protected area appears to have had a positive impact on the local fish populations over the years, suggesting that it can contribute to marine conservation and fishery enhancement. These results underscore the potential of artificial reefs as tools for marine ecosystem management, offering insights for policymakers and environmentalists into coastal resource management.
... Due to their importance, MPA represent the majority of protected areas that cover almost 21 million km 2 and have been established worldwide since 2010 (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN, 2021). Nowadays, the strategic management of MPAs is mainly based on the maintenance of ecosystem services (Maestro et al., 2019), also considering the need for resilient responses to the effects of climate change (Wilson et al., 2020). However, biodiversity of MPAs is threatened by environmental contamination due to toxic organic chemicals and plastic waste. ...
Management of plastic litter in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) is expensive but crucial to avoid harms to critical environments. In the present work, an open-source numerical modelling chain is proposed to estimate the seasonal pathways and fates of macro-plastics, and hence support the effective planning and implementation of sea and beach cleaning operations. The proposed approach is applied to the nearshore region that includes the MPA of Capo Milazzo (Italy). A sensitivity analysis on the influence of tides, wind, waves and river floods over the year indicates that seasonality only slightly affects the location and extension of the macro-plastic accumulation zones, and that beach cleaning operations should be performed in autumn. Instead, the influence of rivers on plastic litter distribution is crucial for the optimal planning of cleaning interventions in the coastal area.
... Although MPAs are likely not very effective in combating the impacts of stressors that act at a regional or global level (Aronson and Precht 2006), MPAs contribute to mitigating local impacts such as overfishing, pollution or mass tourism, increasing the resilience of reefs to deal with the impacts of global stressors such as climate change (Selig and Bruno 2010). However, studies carried out in the Caribbean show that there is a marked lack of success in achieving objectives in most of its MPAs (Maestro et al. 2019). Most Caribbean MPAs remain as paper parks whose agencies have little or no budget for enforcement and there is lack of compliance on the part of resource users (Devillers et al. 2020). ...
The coral reefs of Cuba are considered among the best conserved in the Caribbean basin. Of the Cuban coral reefs, 35% (more than one hundred thousand hectares) are included in the Cuban system of protected areas. In this chapter, we present an analysis of representativeness of the coral reefs in the marine-protected areas (MPAs) of Cuba, highlighting the MPAs with the greatest area of coral reefs. The most relevant planning instruments, programs and projects that contribute to the conservation of coral reefs in Cuban MPAs are listed. The main coral reef biological monitoring efforts and methodologies implemented in the Cuban MPAs are detailed. The uses and impacts that threaten coral reefs in MPAs and the main challenges that coral reef management represents in Cuban MPAs are addressed, from a management effectiveness perspective.
... Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been recognized worldwide for their potential in regulating ecosystem use, reducing human pressures on biodiversity and promoting outreach and conservation actions (e.g., Leisher et al., 2012;Sala and Giakoumi 2018;Rolim et al., 2019;Hall et al., 2023). MPAs also assist in the recovery of species populations and marine food webs (Gell and Roberts 2003;Sala and Giakoumi 2018), promoting adaptation against climate change (Roberts et al., 2017;Maestro et al., 2019), maintaining oceanic processes, ecosystem services and functions (Leenhardt et al., 2015), and supporting food security (Cabral et al., 2020). Nevertheless, the conflicts between MPA goals and economic interests put at risk the effectiveness of MPAs for marine conservation. ...
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are powerful instruments to conserve biodiversity and ecosystems, if supported by an effective management structure. In Brazil, no-take and multiple-use MPAs have advisory councils that allow co-management as an important strategy to deal with conservation challenges, mainly in urbanized coastal areas. However, the profile of members and their perceptions regarding advisory council challenges remain poorly known. Here, we assessed the advisory management councils of the largest network of MPAs in the South Western Atlantic, situated next to one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world. Seven MPA advisory councils were initially characterized through consultation with the MPA managers, followed by interviews with each advisory council member. We found that advisory council members were mostly agents of the local government, university scientists, members of local associations, and employees of non-governmental organizations. Compared with no-take MPAs, multiple-use MPAs tended to have greater diversity of member profiles in terms of institutional affiliation, gender, training level and age group. Although the majority of respondents considered the advisory councils an effective management tool, almost 30% of the interviewees did not recognize this mechanism as efficient, and the perceived capacity for advisory councils to respond to challenges was lower in no-take MPAs. This perception was attributed to a lack of complete actor inclusivity and the low decision-making power of advisory councils. There was a general agreement that no-take MPA advisory councils in particular are not achieving their sustainability goals and have progressed less than multiple-use MPAs in terms of co-management. To overcome this, we provide a series of recommendations to improve stakeholder participation and co-management of MPA operation.
... A complete picture of spatial fisheries management initiatives in the Mediterranean Sea is provided by Pipitone et al. (2014). In the context of more holistic and inclusive ecosystem approaches to fisheries management, marine protected areas (MPAs) have been endorsed as an effective tool both for the conservation of habitats and biodiversity as well as for the protection and recovery of overexploited stocks (Maestro et al., 2019;Sala et al., 2021). MPAs were initially created to preserve aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity by minimizing anthropogenic pressures in spatially defined areas (Allison et al., 1998). ...
Spatiotemporal simulation modeling is used in the context of ecosystem-based fisheries management to investigate different management options, including the size and allocation of marine protected and fisheries restricted areas. Here, we used ECOSPACE to assess the effectiveness of existing and potential future spatiotemporal fishing restrictions in the heavily exploited Thermaikos Gulf, Greece for the years 2000-2025 (calibration period 2000-2016; projection period 2017-2025). ECOSPACE combines temporal biomass and commercial catch data with spatial habitat and other environmental data, as well as species ecological preferences, feeding, and dispersal rates to depict changes in trophic interactions, biomasses, and commercial catches in time and space. ECOSPACE simulations supported the empirical data demonstrating that fisheries restricted areas are effective tools for rebuilding the biomass of exploited stocks, with their size and location playing a significant role in the way that different organisms respond to protection. Nevertheless, our results suggested that in order to achieve the highest benefits of protection, fisheries restricted areas would need to be accompanied by a parallel reduction in total fishing effort, rather than a redistribution of fishing activities. Such redistribution would just move the pressure on the boundaries of protected areas, causing a local increase of commercial catches owing to the beneficial spillover effects of protection. One of the tested spatiotemporal restriction scenarios (MPA 5) suggests certain additional management measures on top of the existing restrictions for all four fishing fleets operating in the area. This scenario predicted a considerable increase in the biomass of key commercial and vulnerable species groups, including hake, flatfishes, anglerfish, sharks, and rays and skates, by the end of the simulation period in 2025.
... Recent created larger MPAs helped achieve global protection objectives, as large areas often contain diverse ecosystems and habitats, which interact ecologically and allow a more holistic conservation approach (Wilhelm et al., 2014). In addition, large MPAs can extend their boundaries between different countries (as would be our case) to promote joint protection policies (Christie et al., 2017;García-Barón et al., 2019), or even allow for some human uses in particular areas, such as regulated fishing or sustainable tourism (Maestro et al., 2019). ...
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are widely used tools for conservation and management. Their correct delimitation is challenging, especially when the target species are small, elusive and inconspicuous, as little data are generally available to adequately assess their distribution at sea. Therefore, currently designated MPAs may not effectively cover key areas for small seabirds, particularly during migration and wintering seasons.
We used ensemble species distribution models (ESDMs) on a 15‐year time‐series data set of at‐sea census along the Atlantic Iberian arc to predict the potential distribution of the smallest European seabird, the European storm‐petrel (Hydrobates pelagicus), and compare it with official marine special protection areas (SPAs).
Occurrence of European storm‐petrel was related to shifts in sea surface temperature, and to small distances from the coast over the continental shelf.
Most relevant area for the species in the Atlantic Iberian arc was west‐central Portugal to north‐western coast of the Iberian Peninsula, with an additional key area in the Gulf of Cádiz. Both zones host significant SPAs, but they inadequately cover key areas for European storm‐petrels. Our findings support extending marine SPAs in the Atlantic Iberian arc to ensure their effective protection.
The distribution of the species expands over the years, varying in both size and location. These changes might be attributed to dynamic oceanographic variables, such as sea surface temperature and biomass of micronekton, which seem to play a significant role in their foraging behaviour.
Synthesis and applications. Our study highlights the importance of analysing long time series and ESDMs to design adequate protected areas, which ensure the conservation of small and highly mobile species such as storm petrels. Our results should be considered by decision‐makers to prioritise and update marine protected areas, while incorporating the dynamic nature of the ocean within an ecosystem‐based approach.
... Companies in the green industry vision will thus need to take the required steps to close the gaps found in this research review to promote sustainable development and ongoing process improvement [47]. ...
Waste and resource management in Togo is expected to become more difficult due to increasing socioeconomic development, industrialization, and renewable energy investments. Although there are numerous elements that affect waste and resource management, legislation and policy frameworks are essential. In response to the growing demands for environmental protection, the legal provisions and regulatory frameworks of waste and resource management, as well as the legal implementation process, must be more and more comprehensive. Some actions have been taken in Togo to improve the incorporation of more sustainable industrial processes, which include restrictions and regulations on MSW generation, decentralization of MSW management, policies and incentive systems that promote waste reduction, reuse, and recycling, improvement of enforcement through investigation and treatment of violations, and encouragement of macro-socio-economies in the management of municipal solid waste. In spite of the presence of these policies, the sector is still plagued with numerous challenges, mostly in terms of implementation and the application of these policies to develop tailor made and locally feasible solutions. This research paper highlights relevant policies relating to MSW management in Togo as well as key international conventions and policies. It also discusses the contribution that "transition management" can make to such processes, emphasizes the role of governance for sustainable development, and it suggests solutions with a long-term transformation impact such as the incorporation of waste to energy systems into industrial processes. The paper further identifies some flaws and challenges with law implementation on MSW management and suggests solutions to improve the effectiveness of law implementation and the conditions and criteria for a safe and secure way to use waste-derived materials and fuels or by-products coming from society or other industries. These policy suggestions may also be applicable globally at an individual industry level to encourage the creation of more Green Industrial Companies (GICs). Keywords: sustainability; green industrial companies (GICs); municipal solid waste recovery; co-processing waste to energy; municipal waste management; municipal solid waste mechanical biological management plant (MSW-MBMP)
... E) ( Figure 1) after obtaining prior informed consent and permits from the Local Government Unit (LGU) through Bantay DAGAT and the Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (DA-BFAR). Marine Protected Areas (MPA), such as this are the cornerstone of conservation and resource management for many marine species (Maestro et al. 2019). For this reason, the study had chosen the area for its significance in protecting Philippine marine fish species. ...
Environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding and fish visual census reveals the first record of Doboatherina magnidentata in the Philippines. Biodiversitas 24: 3063-3072. Biodiversity monitoring is the cornerstone for conserving marine fish species. However, classical methods, like the Fish Visual Census (FVC), are often limited due to sampling difficulties, the occurrence of rare and cryptic organisms, and reliance on a taxonomic expert for species identification. Recently, environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding has been suggested as a non-invasive, powerful tool for biomonitoring. This study evaluates the eDNA approach as complementary tool for the FVC data in species detection and identification of important marine fishes from the marine sanctuary of Dalipuga, Iligan City, Philippines. The findings obtained through the eDNA approach provide insights into identifying significant fish species. Notably, the presence of the Hippocampus kuda Bleeker, 1852 (yellow seahorse), categorized as a vulnerable and threatened species, was detected. Additionally, the study identified Herklotsichthys quadrimaculatus Rüppell, 1837 (bluestripe herring), a native species to the Philippines that may pose potential risks to humans and the ecological balance. Furthermore, two demersal fish species, namely Large-scale whiting (Sillaginops macrolepis Bleeker, 1858) and Large-scale mullet (Planiliza macrolepis Smith, 1846), were also detected. The eDNA approach also delineated the morphologically cryptic fishes from Scaridae (parrotfishes) and Mugilidae (mullet fish) taxa to the species level. The highlight of this study was the detection of the new Indo-pacific atherinomorine fish species Doboatherina magnidentata, which to the best of our knowledge, was the first record in the Philippine marine waters. Despite the efficiency of the eDNA metabarcoding in fish species detection and identification, the viability of eDNA in the marine environment and biases of the primer limit this method. Thus, the classical method must complement the molecular approach for better taxonomic resolution and community analysis. Future studies were also recommended to use a multigene eDNA approach to improve taxonomic sensitivity and reduce primer biases.
... In 2015, the UN formulated the global goal to protect 30% of the marine environment, including coastal zones, by 2030 (Maestro et al. 2019). As of 2021, Norway had only protected 3.6% of its territorial waters (Statistics Norway 2022). ...
The intensification of coastal development poses potential threats for coastal seabirds, and understanding their habitat use is a key factor to guide conservation and management. In sub-arctic areas, black guillemots (Cepphus grylle) use coastal habitats year-round, which makes them vulnerable to the increasing human activities in these areas. In mainland Norway, one of the species’ strongholds, black guillemots are red-listed after substantial population declines. However, their fine-scale foraging behaviour has received little attention to date. We collected and analysed GPS tracking data from adult black guillemots at three sites located over a latitudinal gradient of 250 km in central/northern Norway. Maximum foraging ranges of 33 km at Sklinna (65°12′N) for incubating birds, and 18 km at both Vega (65°34′N) and Sklinna for chick-rearing birds, are among the longest reported for this species. At all three sites, foraging probability was highest in shallow waters (< 50 m depth) close to the colony and declined with increasing water depth and distance from colony. However, birds from Vega also foraged over deeper waters. Kelp presence was of high importance at Sklinna, but apparently less important at Røst (67°26’N) and Vega. We also found distinct differences in foraging activity across the day and with tidal height among the sites. Inter-site differences in habitat use and foraging activity may be explained by differences in the availability of habitats and suitable prey. Our study highlights the importance of shallow marine areas for black guillemots and shows that habitat use can vary substantially between sites.
This chapter rigorously analyzes the myriad anthropogenic activities that collectively contribute to multi-stress conditions in exposed organisms, disrupting the delicate ecological equilibrium and resulting in severe ecophysiological problems. Anthropogenic activities such as industrialization, urbanization, agriculture, transportation, and resource extraction generate a wide array of stressors that affect ecosystems and organisms at multiple levels. These stressors include chemical pollutants, habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation, noise pollution, light pollution, and climate change. This chapter examines how these stressors interact and synergize to create complex multi-stress conditions that challenge the resilience and adaptive capacity of exposed organisms. Chemical pollutants released into the environment from industrial processes, agricultural runoff, urban wastewater, and transportation emissions can accumulate in soil, water, air, and biota, exerting toxic effects on organisms and disrupting physiological processes. Habitat destruction and fragmentation resulting from land-use changes, deforestation, and infrastructure development alter ecosystem structure and connectivity, leading to loss of biodiversity and habitat degradation. Noise pollution from anthropogenic sources such as shipping, construction, and recreational activities can interfere with communication, navigation, and foraging behavior in marine and terrestrial organisms, affecting their survival and reproductive success. Similarly, light pollution from artificial sources such as streetlights, buildings, and outdoor lighting disrupts natural light-dark cycles, affecting the behavior, physiology, and ecology of nocturnal species and ecosystems. Climate change exacerbates existing stressors by altering temperature regimes, precipitation patterns, sea levels, and extreme weather events, leading to habitat loss, species range shifts, phenological mismatches, and ecosystem disruptions. This chapter examines the combined effects of these anthropogenic stressors on exposed organisms, including physiological stress, immune suppression, reproductive impairment, population declines, and ecosystem dysfunction. Furthermore, this chapter discusses the implications of multi-stress conditions for ecosystem health, resilience, and ecosystem services, highlighting the need for integrated approaches to environmental management and conservation. By understanding the complex interactions between anthropogenic activities and multi-stress conditions, this chapter aims to inform decision-making and policy interventions aimed at mitigating the impacts of human activities on ecosystems and promoting sustainable development practices that safeguard ecological integrity and biodiversity.
The global decline of fishery resources presents a significant environmental and socioeconomic challenge, necessitating urgent and effective restoration and enhancement strategies. This review delves into the historical context and evolution of fisheries management practices, illustrating the shift from traditional, community-based methods to contemporary approaches that emphasize sustainability and ecological balance. Key factors contributing to fishery decline are analyzed, including overfishing, habitat degradation, pollution, and the adverse impacts of climate change on marine ecosystems. Innovative restoration strategies are critically examined, focusing on ecological restoration techniques, stock management practices, and the integration of aquaponics as a promising sustainable fish production system. The role of ecological restoration encompasses habitat rehabilitation efforts in wetlands, mangroves, and coral reefs, alongside the implementation of artificial reefs and marine protected areas (MPAs). Additionally, the review discusses the benefits of aquaponics, highlighting its capacity for nutrient recycling, water conservation, and the synergy between plant and fish farming systems. Furthermore, challenges and barriers to effective restoration are identified, including ecological factors such as climate change and pollution, as well as socioeconomic barriers related to conflicts among fishing communities and limitations in funding and resource allocation. The review emphasizes the need for a holistic approach to fishery restoration and enhancement, advocating for the adoption of ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM) as a guiding principle. Future directions highlight the expansion of aquaponics within integrated fishery practices, the importance of strengthening community engagement, and the necessity for interdisciplinary research to develop comprehensive restoration solutions. Collaborative efforts among stakeholders, researchers, and policymakers are essential to ensure the sustainability of global fishery resources and to address the complex challenges facing marine ecosystems.
Deniz çevresinin korunması, üç tarafı denizlerle çevrili ve Akdeniz’e en uzun kıyısı olan devletlerden biri olarak Türkiye için fazlasıyla önem arz etmektedir. Deniz çevresine ilişkin ekolojik, tarihsel ve kültürel unsurların korunması ve denizdeki canlı ve cansız kaynakların sürdürülebilir kullanımına yönelik olarak alınabilecek en etkili hukuki tedbirlerden biri deniz koruma alanlarının kurulmasıdır. Türkiye açısından deniz koruma alanlarının hukuki statüsünü düzenleyen uluslararası hukuk kuralları, deniz yetki alanlarında devletlerin hak ve yükümlülüklerini tanımlayan teamül hukuku kuralları ve doğrudan konuya ilişkin olması nedeniyle önem arz eden Akdeniz'in Deniz Ortamı ve Kıyı Bölgesinin Korunması Sözleşmesi’ne (Barselona Sözleşmesi) Ek Akdeniz’de Özel Koruma Alanları ve Biyolojik Çeşitliliğe İlişkin Protokol hükümleridir. Türk hukukunda “deniz koruma alanları” kurulması ve yönetilmesine ilişkin müstakil bir hukuki düzenleme bulunmamaktadır. Oysa Türkiye, 1980’li yıllardan bu yana, Akdeniz ve Ege bölgelerinde, kıyı ve deniz alanlarını içeren özel çevre koruma bölgeleri ihdas etmiştir. Bununla beraber, taraf olunan sözleşmelerin deniz koruma alanlarına ilişkin düzenlemelerinin iç hukukta hukuki ve kurumsal karşılığının bulunması ve etkin şekilde uygulanması gerekmektedir. Bu çalışmada, Türkiye’de deniz koruma alanlarının kurulmasına ilişkin ulusal mevzuat, uluslararası teamül hukuku kuralları ve Özel Koruma Alanları ve Biyolojik Çeşitliliğe İlişkin Protokol’den kaynaklanan hak ve yükümlülükler açıklanarak karşılaştırılacak ve uygulamadaki sorunlara dönük birtakım öneriler getirilecektir.
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are crucial for conserving marine biodiversity, and assessing the effectiveness of boundaries in protecting marine species is essential. In the Southwest Atlantic Ocean, four MPAs have been created. In this study we evaluate the use of these MPAs by Southern Rockhopper Penguins (Eudyptes chrysocome) that nest at Isla de los Estados, Argentina during the pre-molt period in February and March 2020 by combining geolocation sensor data and spatial analysis together with stable isotopes analysis (δ13C and δ15N) to assess their spatial and trophic niches. We recaptured 16 of 25 adults to which loggers had been attached (64% recapture rate, 6 females and 10 males). Penguins dispersed mainly southward and used the MPAs as corridors towards feeding area such as the Antarctic Polar Frontal Zone (APFZ). We found no evidence of sex-specific spatial and trophic niche partitioning. To develop robust conservation strategies, future studies should span multiple years and enhanced sampling effort to comprehensively explore the pre-molt trophic ecology and at-sea distribution of Southern Rockhopper Penguins.
Amid escalating environmental challenges confronting marine ecosystems, the proliferation of coastal and marine protected areas (MPAs) has emerged as a pivotal strategy for mitigating biodiversity loss and fostering sustainable resource management. This research advocates for a paradigm shift towards a trait-based approach to assess functional diversity (FD) within MPAs, with a specific focus on the ecologically crucial Austrochlamys natans banks in Parry Bay, MPA Almirantazgo Sound. By surveying 28 invertebrate species across eight phyla, a PCA using fuzzy-coded functional traits revealed five distinct groupings primarily based on feeding, movement, and reproductive modes. Mobile predators and scavengers clustered distinctly from sessile suspension feeders and limited-mobility grazers, indicating a scarcity of mobile predator species in Parry Bay, which impacts the ecosystem's dynamics. FD indices highlighted low functional α-diversity, emphasizing trait redundancy that enhances resilience but relies heavily on a few unique and specialized species. The potential extinction or migration of these species could directly affect unique ecosystem properties. While revealing the resilience of the benthic community, this research underscores its dependence on a handful of species that are crucial for both ecological functions and regional commercial significance. Urgent conservation and management measures are imperative to protect these species and maintain the delicate balance of this ecosystem.
The aim of this article is to present the multidimensional challenges associated with the exploitation of small
pelagic fish in the West Africa region. The method involved collecting statistical data on the production and trade
of these fish from research centres located in countries along the West African coastline. Field surveys were also
conducted with experts and key stakeholders in fisheries to gather qualitative information on fisheries resource
governance and working conditions within the value chain. These empirical data are enriched by a narrative
review of scientific literature. Our results show an average annual production of small pelagic fish estimated at
1.3 million tonnes. Although this performance has improved over the past decade, primarily due to increased
catches in Mauritania, it remains insufficient to meet the needs of a rapidly growing population. Indeed, per
capita consumption of small pelagic fish has decreased by two kilograms over the past decade, currently standing
at five kilograms per individual per year. The trade deficit in pelagic fish is increasing. This situation is set to
worsen in the coming years due to various factors such as the current state of overexploitation of pelagic stocks,
degradation of marine ecosystems, and climate change. Additionally, the emergence of fishmeal and fish oil
industries, as well as the lack of adequate port infrastructure, hampers the value addition of the small pelagic fish
value chain for human consumption. On the governance front, several challenges remain. Current public policies
are often directive and ineffective, particularly concerning artisanal fisheries. The management of migrant fishers
also remains problematic, exacerbating the pressure on already vulnerable stocks. Despite the establishment of
regional institutions, interviews with experts highlight a lack of integration and synergy in fisheries resource
governance. In a context where issues of food security and climate change are becoming increasingly urgent, it is
imperative to design and implement robust regional strategies to address these critical challenges.
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been implemented globally as a conservation tool for improving the overall health and function of fisheries and marine ecosystems impacted by human activities. Thorough consideration of habitat and depth representation within MPAs is crucial for comprehensive evaluation of existing MPAs, as well as the implementation of new MPAs. Mesophotic (30-100m) rocky reef fish communities are a valuable commercial/recreational resource, though the effects of MPAs on this community remain relatively understudied. We tested the effects of environmental conditions and protection from fishing on demersal fish communities living on mesophotic rocky reefs utilizing Baited Remove Underwater Video (BRUV) surveys at two MPAs in California’s Statewide MPA network. We examined the primary drivers of abundance and biomass for three targeted (i.e. fished) species groups with varying life histories and habitat preferences. Depth and habitat were strong predictors for all groups; ocean whitefish ( Caulolatilus princeps ), California sheephead ( Semicossyphus pulcher ), and targeted rockfish ( Sebastes spp ). The pattern of these effects however, differed between the species groups, providing context to how they responded to fishing cessation. The influence of protection was mixed, with positive MPA effects on abundance when the availability of a species preferred habitat was distributed similarly between MPA and reference sites. This work highlights how species with high habitat affinities benefit differently from protection, as a function of depth and habitat representation within an MPA. With this in mind, continued monitoring of the valuable fish community that inhabits mesophotic rocky reefs would provide resource managers a more nuanced understanding of MPA performance and inform future MPA design.
Marine protected areas contribute to mitigating the effects of human activities on marine ecosystems. The waters of Southampton Island, Nunavut, Canada are under consideration to become a marine protected area, but baseline information of marine mammal presence and habitat use is lacking. This study represents the first passive acoustic monitoring of marine mammals in this area, with data collected in 2018 and 2019. Bioacoustics analyses and generalized linear models were used to investigate species seasonal and temporal vocalization trends; infer behavior and habitat use from vocal cues; and explore vocal activity correlation with sea ice. Over a diel period, bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus (Erxleben, 1777)) and walruses (Odobenus rosmarus (Linnaeus, 1758)) were found to increase their vocal activity at night, whereas belugas (Delphinapterus leucas (Pallas, 1776)) mainly vocalized during daytime. Seasonally, bearded seals were recorded only during their breeding season at sea ice break-up, while walruses vocalized consistently throughout the open-water period outside their breeding season. Beluga vocal trends suggest their use of the area as a migratory corridor during sea ice break-up and freeze-up. Finally, bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus Linnaeus, 1758) were recorded later than expected, concurrently with the onset of their mating vocal displays during the fall migration at sea ice freeze-up.
Ulusal Su Ürünleri Gen Bankası, Türkiye’deki su ürünleri genetik kaynaklarının kayıt altına
alınması, biyoçeşitliliğinin korunması ve incelenmesinde çok önemli bir rol oynamaktadır.
Bu gen bankası, sucul genetik kaynaklar için bir muhafaza alanı olarak işlev görür. Bu
organizmaların genetik çeşitliliğinin koruması, muhafaza edilmesi ve üretilmesi ile ilişkin
araştırmaları kolaylaştırmayı amaçlar. Ulusal Su Ürünleri Gen Bankası ekonomik açıdan
değerli türlerin üzerinde çalışmayı öncelik olarak ele alır. Gen bankası, farklı popülasyonlardan
genetik materyal toplayarak ve koruyarak, değerli genetik özelliklerin ve varyasyonların
gelecekte kullanılmak üzere korunmasını sağlar. Bu genetik çeşitlilik, seçici ıslah programları,
hastalıklara karşı direncin iyileştirilmesi ve su ürünleri türlerinin üretkenliğinin ve kalitesinin
arttırılması için kullanılabilir. Gen bankası aynı zamanda biyolojik çeşitlilik üzerine bilimsel
araştırmaları destekler ve suda yaşayan organizmaların ekolojik yönlerini incelemek için değerli
bir kaynak sağlar. Araştırmacılar, gen bankasında depolanan genetik materyali analiz ederek,
suda yaşayan türlerin genetik yapısı, popülasyon dinamikleri ve geçmişleri hakkında fikir
edinebilir. Bu bilgi, etkili koruma stratejileri geliştirmek ve insan faaliyetlerinin ekosistemler
üzerindeki etkilerini anlamak için çok önemlidir. Ayrıca, uluslararası işbirliğini ve bilgi
alışverişini teşvik eder. Gen bankası, genetik malzeme ve bilgiyi paylaşarak, biyolojik çeşitliliğin
korunması ve sürdürülebilir su ürünleri yetiştiriciliği uygulamalarının desteklenmesine yönelik
çabalara katkıda bulunur. Ulusal Su Ürünleri Gen Bankası, su ürünleri genetik kaynaklarının
korunmasında hayati bir rol oynamaktadır. Bilimsel araştırmaları destekler, sürdürülebilir su
ürünleri yetiştiriciliği uygulamalarını kolaylaştırır ve sudaki biyolojik çeşitliliğin korunmasına
yönelik küresel girişimlere katkıda bulunur. Gen bankası, genetik kaynakları koruyarak
ve işbirliğini teşvik ederek, ekosistemlerinin uzun vadeli canlılığını ve su kaynaklarının
sürdürülebilir kullanımını sağlar.
Central America is highly impacted by current extreme events associated with climate variability and the adverse effects of climate change, showing high vulnerability compounded by its historical context and socioeconomic structure. In light of the important findings published by the WGII of the IPCC AR6 in 2022 on the adverse effects of climate change on the Central American region, there is still a clear need to improve data availability and to increase the number of studies on projections of changes in the climate, risks, impacts, vulnerability, and adaptation from the region to inform decision-makers and practitioners. The region has seen an increase in the number of adaptation projects implemented; however, there is limited information about their success or failure, and there are few case studies and reviews of lessons learned, highlighting an important gap in the implementation of effective adaptation measures. This article presents a current review of the literature on climatology, hydrology, impacts and vulnerability, mitigation and adaptation responses, action plans, and potential losses and damages in the region. It also proposes actionable recommendations based on the main gaps found and presents a case study of the Central American Dry Corridor, one of the climate change and underdevelopment hotspots of the region. We finish with a discussion highlighting the importance of considering system transitions perspectives and the need to plan and implement more transformational adaptation approaches to reduce further losses and damages and to further address adaptation gaps in Central America.
Abstrak: Usaha-usaha memperluaskan Kawasan Perlindungan Marin (MPA) adalah sangat penting untuk memastikan penjanaan sumber hasil lautan dan punca pendapatan yang berterusan. Kesihatan dan kualiti ekosistem marin perlu dipelihara dan dipulihara bagi memastikan ekosistem marin ini dapat terus membekalkan sumber dan perkhidmatan seperti perikanan, peluang pelancongan dan rekreasi, serta perlindungan dari bencana seperti perubahan iklim, hakisan dan tsunami. Perlu ditekankan bahawa MPA ini tidak bermakna akses kepada kawasan persisiran pantai dan lautan ditutup serta pelaksanaan sebarang aktiviti dihalang sepenuhnya. Sebaliknya, mekanisme kawalan akan diterapkan bagi memastikan aktiviti sosio-ekonomi berimpak rendah dapat dijalankan secara lestari dan sebarang pembangunan serta penggunaan sumber yang tidak terkawal dapat dipantau. Kajian ini meneliti perkara yang mempengaruhi perancangan semasa pengurusan kelestarian di taman laut dalam usaha untuk memperluaskan rangkaian MPA disamping mengekalkan kelestarian MPA sedia ada. Kaedah kualitatif digunakan dalam kajian ini melalui temubual mendalam bersama saintis-saintis yang terlibat dalam kajian taman laut bersama Jabatan Perikanan. Hasil kajian mendapati bahawa tadbir urus yang efektif dan penguatkuasaan peraturan yang tegas boleh memacu kepada kejayaan pengurusan MPA yang lestari seterusnya mampu menambah bilangan MPA. Justeru itu, terdapat advokasi penambahbaikan terutamanya dari perspektif pengurusan di mana informan kajian mencadangkan konsep pengurusan seascape iaitu pendekatan pengurusan berdasarkan perkhidmatan ekosistem kawasan marin. Tanggungjawab kelestarian MPA ini tidak terserah sepenuhya kepada institusi kerajaan semata-mata tetapi memerlukan usaha dan kerjasama pelbagai pihak.
During the past decade, global environmental policy discussions have encouraged countries to engage in an ecosystem approach to managing the oceans. An ecosystem approach involves the integrated management of species, other natural services, and the multiple uses of the coast. Improving ecosystem based management efforts requires a better understanding of how it is included within national level policies that influence marine resource management. Chile has committed to implement international recommendations to include ecosystem based management. This study operationalizes an approach to assess the extent to which ecosystem based management is being implemented at national scales through the synthesis of agenda setting documents and national level policy/regulatory responses. The study specifically searches for ecosystem based management principles, as defined by the Convention of Biological Diversity in State of the Nation presidential speeches, national sectorial policies, national decrees and national programs issued between 1990 and 2014 (n = 1335 documents). Results show that although national level policies in Chile increasingly share common grounds with ecosystem based management principles, the overall approach is poorly mainstreamed into agenda setting speeches and reports. Working with existing institutional settings and institutional capacity are key features to maintain trajectories for the implementation of ecosystem based management in national policies. The approach presented complements research on marine policy implementation by effectively informing how national level policies can be analyzed under the lens of ecosystem based management.
The great majority of marine protected areas (MPAs) fail to meet their management objectives. So MPAs can be effective conservation tools, we recommend two paradigm shifts, the first related to how they are located and the second related to how they are managed. MPAs are unlikely to be effective if they are located in areas that are subject to numerous, and often uncontrollable, external stressors from atmospheric, terrestrial, and oceanic sources, all of which can degrade the environment and compromise protection. MPA effectiveness is also limited by low institutional and community capacity for management and inappropriate size with respect to ecological needs. In particular, the check list approach to management does not ensure that key threats are dealt with, or that management expenditures provide a quantifiable return. We recommend a business planning approach to MPA management, in which managers focus on the viability of the management system, i.e., the ability of the MPA to provide ecological goods and services to its target users over the long term.
- El presente trabajo es el primero que aborda la singularidad de los espacios litorales protegidos. Desde el punto de vista académico y de la administración pública, pretende comprobar la viabilidad de un modelo analítico de la gestión para estos espacios. Se abordan temas de tanta trascendencia como políticas públicas, base normativa, competencias administrativas, instituciones, instrumentos de naturaleza estratégica y operativa, aspectos económicos y financieros, así como la participación pública en la gestión de los espacios litorales protegidos. Las conclusiones constituyen verdaderas plataformas argumentales para el sustento de propuestas concretas; cuya finalidad es facilitar un cambio y la mejora de la gestión del litoral.
The expanse of ocean which makes up all marine areas beyond national jurisdiction has been characterized as the last frontier of exploitation on the planet, a figurative final “Wild West”. Existing users of areas beyond national jurisdiction, with the exception of fisheries, currently have a limited footprint there as a consequence, in part, of substantial hurdles in technological development that need to be overcome before many resources can be extracted at a commercially viable scale. However, we argue surprise shifts perpetuated by both established and emerging users could lead to an expansion in actors taking opportunities to chase lucrative resources that they are currently constrained from exploiting. Rapid development could also lead to a “crowded ocean” due to the multiplication of users which could present a problem given the current lack of a unified institutional framework for governance connecting the different user groups. Here, we have collated trends in human use of areas beyond national jurisdiction and offer a framework for, and examples of, unexpected dynamics relevant to living and non-living marine resources. Such an approach is necessary in order to begin to mobilize an adequate governance response to changing conditions and uses of areas beyond national jurisdiction. This governance response must be able to govern established or potential users, be flexible and adaptive in response to unexpected and unpredictable dynamics and be able to transform in the face of unpredictable future uses of this vast area. Here we present a set of institutional design principles as a first tentative step in this direction.
In line with global targets agreed under the Convention on Biological Diversity, the number of marine protected areas (MPAs) is increasing rapidly, yet socio-economic benefits generated by MPAs remain difficult to predict and under debate1, 2. MPAs often fail to reach their full potential as a consequence of factors such as illegal harvesting, regulations that legally allow detrimental harvesting, or emigration of animals outside boundaries because of continuous habitat or inadequate size of reserve3, 4, 5. Here we show that the conservation benefits of 87 MPAs investigated worldwide increase exponentially with the accumulation of five key features: no take, well enforced, old (>10 years), large (>100 km2), and isolated by deep water or sand. Using effective MPAs with four or five key features as an unfished standard, comparisons of underwater survey data from effective MPAs with predictions based on survey data from fished coasts indicate that total fish biomass has declined about two-thirds from historical baselines as a result of fishing. Effective MPAs also had twice as many large (>250 mm total length) fish species per transect, five times more large fish biomass, and fourteen times more shark biomass than fished areas. Most (59%) of the MPAs studied had only one or two key features and were not ecologically distinguishable from fished sites. Our results show that global conservation targets based on area alone will not optimize protection of marine biodiversity. More emphasis is needed on better MPA design, durable management and compliance to ensure that MPAs achieve their desired conservation value.
Charles, A., and Wilson, L. 2009. Human dimensions of Marine Protected Areas. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66: 6–15.
Planning, implementing, and managing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) requires that attention be paid not only to the biological and oceanographic issues that influence the performance of the MPA, but equally to the human dimensions: social, economic, and institutional considerations that can dramatically affect the outcome of MPA implementation. This paper explores ten human dimensions that are basic to the acceptance and ultimate success of MPAs: objectives and attitudes, “entry points” for introducing MPAs, attachment to place, meaningful participation, effective governance, the “people side” of knowledge, the role of rights, concerns about displacement, MPA costs and benefits, and the bigger picture around MPAs. These people-orientated factors and their impact on the success and effectiveness of MPAs are examined in relation to experiences with MPAs globally, and in relation to two Canadian examples specifically, one coastal (Eastport, Newfoundland) and the other offshore (the Gully, Nova Scotia).
En primer lugar, se analiza el concepto de Espacio Natural Protegido, enriquecido con el paso del tiempo, y se repasa su evolución en el Mundo y en España desde los orígenes, donde se detectan tres grandes etapas que se corresponden con tres enfoques y maneras de abordar esta institución. Seguidamente, se analizan los tipos de ENP en el mundo y en España, y las características de la planificación, instrumento básico de la gestión de los ENP. Finalmente, se analiza la Ley Estatal 42/07 del Patrimonio Natural y de la Biodiversidad, que consolida el marco jurídico para los ENP, resaltando las principales novedades, y se proponen las bases de construcción de un sistema de indicadores para su seguimiento. First, we analyze the concept of Protected Natural Area, enriched with the passage of time, and its evolution in the World and in Spain since the origins is reviewed, where three great stages are detected that correspond to three approaches and ways to approaches this institution. Next, the types of PNA in the world and in Spain are analyzed, and the characteristics of planning, a basic tool for management of the PNA. Finally, we analyze the State Law 42/07 of the Natural Patrimony and Biodiversity, that consolidates the legal framework for the PNA, highlighting the main new features, and suggests the bases for an indicators systems construction for their monitoring.
Internationally marine ecosystem-based management has been embraced as an approach to design holistic marine management regimes. In this article a comparative research strategy is applied in the analysis of the holistic marine management regimes in Norway, Australia, US, Canada and the European Union. How can holistic marine management regimes based on an ecosystem approach contribute to sustainable ocean development? Important in this context is how the origin and theory of an ecosystem-based management is implemented and interpreted, and to what extent this is manifested through policies, strategies and legal frameworks. The results of this research indicate that the implementation of marine-ecosystem based management is heterogeneous. This article discusses the concrete mechanisms that are used to reach the aim of sustainable ocean management. Implementation challenges are related to lack of functional metrics, weak spatial measures, weak integration and lack of adaptive management. Still marine ecosystem-based management is an important step forward for sustainable ocean governance.
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are considered key elements to the achievement of conservation and sustainable marine management targets. Yet, even if recently the number of MPAs has increased rapidly worldwide, the area of ocean under some type of MPA classification is far behind the international targets (e.g. Convention on Biological Diversity) considered essential for conservation of the world's oceans. Furthermore, coherence, representativeness and effectiveness of existing MPAs are largely unknown or even weakly defined. In this study, general characteristics of MPAs from Portugal, Spain and France were collected and used to evaluate conservation progress in this geographic area. In addition, an online questionnaire was administered to the MPAs managers, and focused on multiple processes inherent to each MPA, namely on the characteristics and suitability of planning, management, monitoring, governance and enforcement. Obtained responses were used to calculate the overall level of MPA management effectiveness, and multivariate analyses were used to identify the factors that most contributed to differences in effectiveness. Most MPAs are adjacent to the coast, are small in area (near 50% have less than 20 km2) and were established with multiple goals concerning species conservation and sustainable development of economic activities (e.g. fisheries). Only 9% of analysed MPAs are larger than 1000 km2 and are unequally distributed among the study area. Overall, 46% of MPAs and 59% of total area covered were established during the last five years, while only 3 of the 35 no-take areas (22% in area) were implemented during this period. High MPA effectiveness (i.e. the extent to which an MPA is protecting values and achieving its goals and objectives) was related with high levels of stakeholders support, with suitable goals, management and enforcement. Results highlighted the need to improve MPA coverage taking into account other existing MPAs to increase coherence and representativeness of networks, that new no-take areas should be implemented in key conservation sites and that management strategies (e.g. enforcement and monitoring) should be strengthened. These findings are applicable to the study area yet methodology and outcomes are pertinent to MPA management worldwide. Ultimately, strategies aiming at maximizing MPA performance are probably as important as the increase of MPA coverage.
Climate change is impacting upon global marine ecosystems and ocean wide changes in ecosystem properties are expected to continue. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been implemented as a conservation tool throughout the world, primarily as a measure to reduce local impacts, but their usefulness and effectiveness is strongly related to climate change. MPAs may have a role in mitigation through effects on carbon sequestration, affect interactions between climatic effects and other drivers and be affected themselves as the distributions of protected species change over time. However, to date, few MPA programmes have directly considered climate change in the design, management or monitoring of an MPA network. This paper presents a series of international case studies from four locations: British Columbia, Canada; central California, USA; the Great Barrier Reef, Australia and the Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand; to review perceptions of how climate change has been considered in the design, implementation, management and monitoring of MPAs. The results indicate that some MPA processes have already incorporated design criteria or principles for adaptive management, which address some of the potential impacts of climate change on MPAs. Key lessons include: i) Strictly protected marine reserves are considered essential for climate change resilience and will be necessary as scientific reference sites to understand climate change effects ii) Adaptive management of MPA networks is important but hard to implement iii) Strictly protected reserves managed as ecosystems are the best option for an uncertain future. Although the case studies addressed aspects of considering climate change within MPA networks and provided key lessons for the practical inclusion of these considerations, there are some significant challenges remaining. This paper provides new insights into the policy and practical challenges MPA managers face under climate change scenarios.
p>Costa Rica has a set of policies emerged from a process of improvement and analysis of previous instruments and the need to consolidate the management of the Wildlife Protected Areas of the country. In this article, we review the overall framework of public policies, what it means and what it should cover; and finish with a review the overall policy framework of protected areas in Costa Rica with a focus on its application in Isla del Coco National Park. Policies must be improved, including budget, indicators and verification.
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The Aichi Biodiversity Targets were designed to promote and implement the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) by providing a framework for action to save biodiversity and enhance its benefits for people. Specifically, Target 11 aims to protect 10% of all seas by 2020. The percentage of the world's oceans that are protected has increased steadily in recent years, mainly due to very large marine protected areas (MPAs).
The issue of making major gains in achieving protection targets through ‘going big’ has brought added scrutiny to the subject of MPAs. There is economy in scale, but several people have called into question whether going large will protect representative habitat and result in true protection, or whether it is merely a politically expedient way for some nations to attain targets by creating paper parks, while avoiding tough conservation decisions.
The recent creation of large MPAs has greatly enhanced the chance of achieving global protection targets. Large areas typically contain several ecosystems and habitats that interact ecologically, and allow for more holistic conservation. The interactions between ecosystems in large MPAs occur without many of the problems associated with networks of smaller MPAs, where the connectivity between sites is often affected by human activities.
The disadvantages of large MPAs include difficulties of surveillance, enforcement and monitoring of vast offshore areas, as well as high total costs. While the cost per unit area may be lower for large MPAs, conducting surveillance and monitoring in such vast areas requires much more expensive technologies.
Large MPAs complement and add to existing management and conservation measures. Decision makers should consider designating them as one of a suite of possible protection measures. Besides greatly enhancing the chance of reaching agreed biodiversity targets, large MPAs improve the quality of conservation.
Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
For nearly a decade, governments have been discussing the need to improve efforts to conserve and sustainably use marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ). Support for a new international agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) – an Implementing Agreement – on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in ABNJ has been growing. In June 2012, at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, States agreed to take a decision on the development of an international instrument under UNCLOS before the end of the 69th session of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA), which runs from September 2014 to August 2015. In follow-up to this commitment, it was agreed to consider the “scope, parameters and feasibility” of this instrument. To inform these international discussions, this article highlights some potential options for the content of a new UNCLOS Implementing Agreement. It first reviews the history of UN discussions, and then elaborates on options to address key elements identified as priorities for States in 2011: marine genetic resources, including the sharing of benefits, area-based management tools, including marine protected areas, environmental impact assessments, capacity-building and the transfer of marine technology. It addresses cross-cutting issues such as the governing principles, institutional structure as well as on other critical points such as High Seas fishing and flag State responsibilities. The article concludes with suggestions on possible next steps in order to succeed in the negotiations for an agreement.
Various international treaty bodies and non-governmental organisations continuously urge States to establish a network of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction (ABNJ). Although this goal is far from being reached, the OSPAR Convention may serve as an example illustrating the efforts made on a regional level for the North-East Atlantic. However, these efforts to effectively protect the marine environment are subject to limitations under the Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Likewise, the OSPAR Convention itself restricts the scope of such protected areas. The OSPAR Convention does not adequately cover all human uses of the oceans that may interfere with a protected area, and it lacks opportunities for internationalised enforcement measures. Consequently, the responsibility for effective conservation measures under the OSPAR model ultimately remains with individual Contracting Parties, i.e. their commitment to set stricter standards and to agree on their enforcement. Nevertheless, ‘soft’ obligations such as reporting duties are suitable for collecting data on the need for protection and utilisation of the MPAs. Additionally, cooperation with regional fisheries management bodies allows for better protection of the living resources in these areas. Finally, OSPAR MPAs can draw attention to particularly vulnerable ecosystems and promote conservation standards and measures such as those developed under the auspices of the FAO.
Marine protected areas have become the flagships of marine conservation programmes in many parts of the world. For the public
and politicians, they are often the most tangible part of a marine conservation programme — it is possible to visit a marine
protected area, to see what is being done to promote conservation at the site, and to be a part of its success or failure
through individual actions. For the conservation manager, they are an opportunity to concentrate effort and resources on protecting
marine wildlife and habitats. Action taken at these sites also makes a contribution to wider conservation efforts. Two very
different examples of this are their potential as a reservoir for species which can seed other areas, and as a good base for
marine education programmes. Marine protected areas often get a lot of public attention and they are at the leading edge of
the marine conservation programmes in many countries.
El marco normativo general de la protección internacional del medio marino -- La cooperación regional para la protección del medio marino mediterráneo -- La acción institucional de ámbito regional: la Comunidad Europea -- La práctica legislativa de los estados ribereños en el ámbito de la protección del medio marino mediterráneo -- La aplicación de las normas internacionales relativas a la protección del medio marino en el Mediterráneo -- Conclusiones -- Documentación seleccionada
Existing marine reserves are largely ineffective and as a whole remain insufficient for the protection of coral reef diversity.
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