ArticlePDF Available

Jan Turek 2016: THE BEAKER WORLD AND OTHERNESS OF THE EARLY CIVILIZATIONS, Musaica Archaeologica, Vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 155-162

Authors:

Abstract and Figures

Recently I have discussed the question of genesis and spread of the Bell Beaker Phenomenon and its cultural impact on its periphery and neighbourhood (Turek 2011; 2013; 2014). In this paper I would like to look at the Bell Beaker World from the outer side. The social processes that we are able to reconstruct for the 3rd Millennium Europe were, however, not isolated from the civilization development in other parts of the Old World. From the point of view of the first civilization centres the European Continent has to be seen as a periphery. The main purpose of this article is to compare the different civilization aspects within the proto-historical early state formations of Near East and North East Africa and within the Mediterranean and Continental European communities.
Content may be subject to copyright.
THE BEAKER WORLD AND OTHERNESS OF THE EARLY CIVILIZATIONS
Jan Turek1
1Český egyptologický ústav, Filozofická fakulta, Univerzita Karlova v Praze, Celetná 20, 110 00 Praha, Česká republika,
turekjan@hotmail.com
Abstract: Recently I have discussed the question of genesis and spread of the Bell Beaker Phenomenon and its cultural impact on its
periphery and neighbourhood (Turek 2011; 2013; 2014). In this paper I would like to look at the Bell Beaker World from the outer
side. The social processes that we are able to reconstruct for the 3rd Millennium Europe were, however, not isolated from the civilization
development in other parts of the Old World. From the point of view of the first civilization centres the European Continent has
to be seen as a periphery. The main purpose of this article is to compare the different civilization aspects within the proto-historical
early state formations of Near East and North East Africa and within the Mediterranean and Continental European communities.
Key-words: Beakers, cosmology, early civilizations, Copper Age, otherness
1. European spread of cultural uniformity
While the Maritime Beakers are clearly south-western element (Case 2004, 14, with further references), a symbolic system
of the burial rites is based on the eastern Corded Ware and even earlier Yamnaya tradition (Harrison and Heyd 2007,
193–9, fig. 45). Maritime Beakers were thus only one investment into the creation of new phenomenon together with
a tradition based on an already existing symbolic system of individual burials under round barrows, emphasizing gender
and social position of individuals and sometimes their craftsmanship, solar cult and drinking Beakers. For the casting
of such new phenomenon perhaps the Lower Rhine area was important, as it was the westernmost region with occurrence
of Corded Ware (SGC). There it was the AOC and AOO Beakers that, together with the Maritime variety, created a new
Bell Beaker style. This establishing process was a result of cultural interaction between the Iberian Peninsula and lower
Rhine region.
Thus if the question is: from where and when did the Bell Beaker (Maritime) style originate, than we have to state that
it was in first half of the third millennium BC between Estramadura and Morocco, but if the question is: where was the
Bell Beaker Phenomenon created?, it needs to be said that it was before the mid-third millennium as a result of commu-
nication between the Maritime style in Portugal and the western late Corded Ware groups.
The Western Mediterranean, as well as, North Western Europe in the mid-third millennium joined the Beaker World
that had previously been represented by the Corded Ware Cultures of the Central and North Eastern Europe. This process
can be described as spreading of spontaneously accepted cultural uniformity. But we still have not mentioned what was
the main driving force behind such spread of material culture and social values. It was apparently the new ideology spre-
ading along with the prestigious significant technology of copper metalurgy. In quest for the motivation that led the local
populations to leave or partially shift away from the local cultural traditions and to adopt the new cultural elements we
can consider more different interpretations. Personally, I believe that the spread of new style in material culture does not
necessarily needs to be related to population shifts. Communication between regions and communities was possibly or-
ganized in the form of marriages or migration of individuals, as it is described, for example by Neil Brodie (1997) in his
model of contacts across the “Chalcolithic frontier”. Brodie combines the desire of the population from the non-chalco-
lithic area of North Western Europe, creating economic and social ties with the communities of the regions possessing
knowledge of copper production technology. But this is probably only part of the problem. An important accelerator
of this cultural exchange was apparently a new ideology, or more precisely, the new cult.
MUSAICA ARCHAEOLOGICA 1/2016 l155-162 155
2. Beyond the Beaker World
In what kind of world was created and spread the Bell Beaker Phenomenon? It was the world of rising great civilizations
of Sumerian/Babylonian and of ancient Egypt, as well as, a prequel of Early Helladic civilization. In the east and northeast
of Europe was the Bell Beaker territory in contact with the complex of Epi-Corded Ware Cultures. To the southeast, it
was a proto-Nagerév circuit, Kosihy-Čaka-Makó and Nyírség-Zatín, further south Bela Crkva, Cetina, Glina III and
Ezero connected further south with the Helladic Early Bronze Age. Considering the Southern Mediterranean it is necessary
to note the cultural ties and communication between the North African communities, including the far advanced civili-
zation of Egyptian Old Kingdom and the Mediterranean people living between the Atlantic and the Levant. In this prism
the Mediterranean Sea should be viewed not as a border, but rather as a link between cultures and civilization and as
a source of communication. The sea in our concept does not separate two isolated worlds, but just the opposite it connects
civilizational space sharing similar cultural and cosmological values. The relations between Egyptian Old Kingdom and
Syrian-Palestinian, Anatolian and Early Helladic World are well known in the Eastern Mediterranean (Fig. 1). From the
Iberian Peninsula are known proto-urban fortified sites such as Los Millares and Zambujal that were also used later in
the Bell Beaker period with significant evidence of copper metallurgy.
In Sardinia and Sicily the chalcolithic civilization was represented by rock-cut tombs. Maltese tradition of monumental
temples ends during the mid-3rd Millennium, followed by the horizon of Tarxien Cemetery. In Crete the Second phase
of the Early Minoan civilization developed as in mainland Greece the Early Helladic (Early Bronze Age II/III) and
on the Greek islands the Middle and Late Cycladic culture.
The environment of advanced copper and bronze metallurgy was characteristic in the Late Bronze Age Anatolia and Cy-
prus. From the Levant (Ebla, Ugarit and Byblos) are known written sources connected to the Early Dynastic IIIa period
(2600 to 2450 BC) – IIIb period (2450–2350 BC) in Babylonia. The most important written sources of this period are
represented by the temple of the goddess Bau archive in Girs (2400–2350 BC) and by the cuneiform tables archive from
Ebla (2350 BC). In the period between the years 2500 and 2350 BC falls first royal dynasty of Ur cemetery, it is also
a period of long-distance contacts with the Arab Peninsula, and area of present day Bahrain as well as with the civilization
in the Indus Valley, where was just blooming the classical period of Harappa Culture. In the Near East after the year
2340 BC Sargon the First established the Akkadian empire.
The written sources of the Old Kingdom of Egypt ranks the Bell Beaker period generally to the period of 5th Dynasty
(2494–2345 BC) witnessing the growing importance of solar cult god Ra. Six kings of the 5th Dynasty expressed their
devotion to the sun god Ra and built the temples worshiping his cult. Compared to the previous period less attention
was paid to the building of the pyramids, the more investments were made in the construction of sun temples in Abusir.
A significant change in the political structure of ancient Egypt occurred in the marriage interconnection of highest royal
officials with the royal family. One of the most striking examples of this practice is the case of the royal hairdresser Ptahs-
hepses who was very close to the king Niuserre and as result of such relationship he was privileged to marry his daughter
Princess Chamerernebtej and actually took part in a performance of the highest power in the state. This development
brought the first seeds of the crisis in the form of uncontrolled growth of the state bureaucracy and the decentralization
of power. The crisis has further deepened during the 6th Dynasty (2345–2180 BC) and thus led to the collapse of the
Old Kingdom and anarchy of the first transitional period. South of Egypt, in Nubia (namely in the present-day Sudan)
began at this time, the development of Kerma Culture (Early Kerma, group C, Phase Ia-b 2500–2050 BC). Ceramics
of the Kerma culture has a remarkably similar ornaments as the Late Neolithic Saharan pottery and Bell Beakers in Nor-
thwestern Africa and Europe.
At that time also significantly developed long-distance trade and seafaring. The inner Asia and southern Siberia is repre-
sented by the late phase of the Afanasevo Culture, and by the Okunevo Culture. The end of the 3rd Millennium is
covered by the Andronovo Cultural complex. The northern Caucasus is represented by the Maykop Culture. In Southeast
Asia at this time developed the Neolithic Cultures of Phung Nguyen and Ban Chiang, in China the Liangzhu Culture
and then Dawenkou Longhsan. These Cultures created the highly developed civilization environment that produced first
bronzes in China appearing after the year 2100 BC. and creating the cultural substrata for the rise of the first historical
dynasty of Zhang (around 1600 BC). At the opposite end of the then Old World, on the British Isles the Bell Beaker
communities have created monuments such as the late phase of construction of Stonehenge shrine or a giant burial
mound of Silbury Hill, which are comparable with Egyptian temples and pyramids. It is clear that cultural uniformity
Jan Turek lThe Beaker World and otherness of the Early Civilizations156
of the European Beaker World was sort of periphery counterpart to the emerging great civilizations and early state for-
mations in Early Helladic zone, Anatolia, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Indus Valley (see Fig. 2).
3. The World of otherness
How and to what extend was the Beaker World connected to the other regions of the third millennium Old World?
As I have demonstrated earlier (Turek 2013) the Beaker World had certain impact even beyond the main territory of its
occurrence (see Fig. 3). Even in the regions with strong local cultural tradition the ideological content of the Bell Beaker
Phenomenon was apparently known in terms of the spatial concept of otherness (Spatial otherness, Neustupný 1998, 66–
68). Negation of the Bell Beaker Phenomenon in some regions was therefore a conscious act of rejection of something
MUSAICA ARCHAEOLOGICA 1/2016 l155-162 157
Fig. 1. 1-The Cycladic Idol of the 3rd Millennium BC (Musée du Louvre), 2-The 3rd Millennium Harappa culture lingam (Indian National Museum,
Delhi), 3-Sumerian statue from Mari (Damascus National Museum), 4- Byblos, 3rd Millennium fortification, 5-The 3rd Millennium BC royal
pyramid fields of Abusir and Giza. Photoby: J. Turek.
123
45
familiar but alien. However, even in these regions some elements of the “Beaker Package” might have been partially adop-
ted. Deliberate negation may also be related to cultural and perhaps even cosmological orientation of communities
in some regions. Neustupný (1998, 66) introduced his concept of spatial otherness and further postulated that: “…in-
tercommunal contacts proceeded along several lines. The first of them are economic relations by means of exchange
of either commodities or labour.” He presumed that: “…economic relations with “other” communities were aimed at
creating social ties, their motivation not being material necessity”. The second category of inter-regional contact describes
Neustupný (1998, 67) as: “…based on social relations by means of marriage and war (leading to people being relatives,
allies or enemies). These relations are non-economic. An important role in the communication and creating bonds over
long distances were marriages. Neustupný (1998, 67) suggested that: “…marriage was the main, if not the only, regular
social mechanism for the physical inclusion of “other” people into one’s own community”. Such connections were already
discussed by Evžen Neustupný in his study on “Migrations by infiltration” (Neustupný 1982). For the argument of the
importance of marital relations for the inter-regional communication was also productive the concept of marriages over
Chalcolithic frontier between the Central and North-western Europe during the 3rd millennium BC, that was introduced
by Neil Brodie (1997). In his model of contacts through the “Chalcolithic frontier”. Brodie combines the desire of people
in the non-Chalcolithic Northwestern Europe to establish economic and social links with communities possessing know-
ledge of copper production technology. Similar relationships have probably developed between the communities of Eu-
ropean Chalcolithic and Early Helladic, Anatolian and Near Eastern populations. Applying the Neustupný’s concept
of spatial otherness, these people knew about each other, about each others culture, religion and about their connections
to further, even more distant, communities.
4. Beaker World and the first civilizations, comparing incomparable?
Was the Beaker World of similar nature as the civilizations of Egypt, Near East and beyond? Seen from Sumerian Meso-
potamia or from the Old Kingdom Egypt the European continent seems to be a periphery, well behind their civilization
Jan Turek lThe Beaker World and otherness of the Early Civilizations158
Fig. 2. Map of the Old World with main regions of the first civilizations in the 3rd Millennium BC and routes of their contacts 1 – The Beaker World
and its periphery; 2 – Early Helladic and Anatolian; 3 – Egyptian Old Kingdom and Early Kerma; 4 - Sumerian/Mesopotamian City States; 5 -
Mohenjo Daro/Harappa; 6 – Predynastic China:Liangzhu, Dawenkou – Longshan Cultures (Proto-Chang).
development. The civilization features such as early state organization, written records, urbane centres and central ruling
authority are missing in the European chalcolithic context, we can, however, see certain foundations for such future de-
velopments. These, however, took another two millennia to be fully incorporated in the European Proto-historic civili-
zation. As the central ruling authority is concerned, there are some obvious signs of establishment of first elites within
the European chalcolithic society. The elite burials with representation of craftsmanship (Neustupný 1995; Bátora 2002;
Turek 2003; Berthemes 2004) and control over prestigious technologies (metallurgy) and materials (copper, gold and
silver) and objects of social prestige (weapons, archery equipment, jewellery, cf. Turek 2003; 2004) occurred during the
Third millennium BC in different parts of Europe. The creation of central proto-urban agglomerations is known from
Fourth/third millennium Iberian Peninsula (Los Millares, Zambujal etc.), however in Central Europe such centres have
not occurred until the Reinecke A2 Bronze Age (Maďarovce and Ottomany Cultures – Nitrianský Hrádok, Spišský
Štvrtok or Barca) and the beginning of state organization can be assumed as late as during the final Iron Age (late La-
Tène Period). The same goes for the very beginning of literacy in Central Europe. It occurred during the late Iron Age
but only in connection to the Latin written sources of Roman Empire.
On the other hand we can find several common features between the Chalcolithic Europe and Near Eastern first civili-
zations. I is for example the creation of monuments, such as early 5th millennium roundel sanctuaries and late 5th mi-
llennium causewayed enclosures or 4th and 3rd millennium henge monuments, including Stonehenge. Also the
monumental representation of individual status in form of gigantic Silbury Hill burial mound comparable to the Egyptian
Old Kingdom pyramids. It is also the representation of individual social status and representation of social stratification
in form of elaborate funerary rituals, grave constructions and display of abundant prestigious objects both in real as burial
MUSAICA ARCHAEOLOGICA 1/2016 l155-162 159
Fig. 3. Map of the Bell Beaker Phenomenon and neighbouring influenced territories (Background map by R. Fourestier).
assemblages and on iconography of stele and tomb decorations. The number of artefacts, their quality and the often rare
and precious materials (gold, silver, amber etc.) which they were made of, were all used to define very high status
of perhaps even supreme status. This process continues in the Early Bronze Age, when some daily use objects (axes) were
made of solid gold. Such as in case of tombs of Egyptian Old Kingdom elite there was number of objects multiples (cf.
Hansen 2002). This may represent not only the real personal assemblage of the dead individual but also reflection
of other members of the community in form of their gifts to the deceased.
In this context it should be emphasized that there is a significant similarity between perception of the afterlife amongst
the communities of European Chalcolithic period and well known believes of the ancient Egyptians. People in both
regions believed in living soles of their ancestors and in underworld of some kind, where the deceased people were expected
to present their social status and power. This was maintained by carefully selected objects symbolizing the social position
of the individual and by funerary feast of some kind. Both the Beaker people and ancient Egyptians were using food and
(alcoholic) beverages to provide the deceased with feast for themselves (in case of ancient Egypt even long time after
the funeral), as well, as for the ancestors who were expected to accept them to the society of ancestors. The symbolism
of beer as the signifying and socially valuable commodity is also something common for both that Near Eastern/Egyptian
and European society of the Third millennium (Sherratt 1987; Turek 2006; 2011).
Perhaps the most important connection between the Beaker World and the world of ancient civilizations is the common
cosmology. Despite the fact that we do not know the pantheon of the Chalcolithic Europeans it is very likely that the
centre point of their religion was a solar deity of some kind. This can be demonstrated on variety of solar symbols depicted
on pottery, shell pendants, burial stelae, rock art etc. The symbolic relation to sun is also evident on the orientation
of burials in both the Corded Ware and Bell Beaker period (Turek 1996).
5. Conclusion
In conclusion of this debate I would like to outline the relationship between Beaker World/Chalcolithic Europe and
the Near Eastern first civilizations. There is no doubt about the peripheral role of Continental Europe, not mentioning
Scandinavia and British Isles in the cultural and civilization development. There were some innovations that occurred
roughly at the same time in both territories, such as introduction of wheeled transport, animal traction or ploughing.
Then in the third millennium the development of first civilizations get accelerated and Europe lost its drive (but not
the track). On the other hand in terms of the concept of otherness, I would like to stress that the European Chalcolithic
communities were to certain extend aware of the developed world in their south-eastern neighbourhood and that whole
this wide area between Atlantic Ocean, Red Sea and Persian Gulf was connected by common traditions and values.
The later development of the European civilization was always connected to this civilization cradle region of our part
of the Old World.
Jan Turek lThe Beaker World and otherness of the Early Civilizations160
Bibliography:
Bátora, J. 2002: Contribution to the problem of „craftsmen“ graves at the end of Aeneolithic and in the Early Bronze
Age in Central, Western and Eastern Europe. Slovenská archeológia 50, 179–228.
Berthemes, F. 2004: Frühe Metallurgen in der Spätkupfer -und Frühbronzezeit. In: Meller, H. (ed.): Der geschmeidete
Himmel. Die weite Welt im Herzen Europas vor 3600 Jahren. Halle /Saale, 144–149.
Brodie, N. 1997: New perspectives on the Bell beaker Culture. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 16, No. 3, 297–314.
Case, H. 2004: Beakers and the Beaker Culture. In: Czebreszuk, J. (ed): Similar but different. Bell Beakers in Europe.
Poznan: Adam Mickiewicz University, 11–34.
Hansen, S. 2002: „Überausstattungen“ in Gräbern und Horten der Frühbronzezeit. In: Müller, J. (ed): Vom Endneoli-
thikum zur Frühbronzezeit: Muster sozialen Wandels ?. Tagung Bamberg 14.–16. Juni 2001, Universitätsforschungen
zur prähistorischen Archäologie 90. Bonn, 151–173.
Harrison, R. – Heyd, V. 2007: The Transformation of Europe in the Third Millennium BC: the example of ‘Le Petit-
Chasseur I + III’ (Sion, Valais, Switzerland). Prehistorisches Zeitschrift, Band 82, 129–214.
Neustupný, E. 1982: Prehistoric migrations by infiltration. Archeologické rozhledy 34, 278–293.
Neustupný, E. 1995: Úvaha o specializaci vpravěku. Archeologické rozhledy 47, 641–650.
Neustupný, E. 1998: Otherness in Prehistoric Times. KVHAA Konferenser 40. Stockholm, 65–71.
Sherratt, A. G. 1987: ‚Cups that cheered´. In: Waldren, W. H. – Kennard, R. C. (eds.): Bell Beakers of the Western Medi-
terranean, The Oxford International Conference 1986, British Archaeological Reports (IS) 331, vol. 1–2. Oxford, 81–114.
Turek, J. 1996: Osídlení Pražské kotliny v závěru eneolitu. Nástin problematiky období zvoncovitých pohárů. Archaeo-
logica Pragensia 12, 5–58.
Turek, J. 2003: Řemeslná symbolika vpohřebním ritu období zvoncovitých pohárů. Suroviny, výroba a struktura společ-
nosti vzávěru eneolitu (Craft symbolism in the Bell Beaker burial customs. Resources, production and social structure).
In: Šmejda, L. – Vařeka, P. (eds.): Sedmdesát neustupných let. Plzeň, 199–217.
Turek, J. 2004: Nátepní destičky z období zvoncovitých pohárů, jejich suroviny, technologie a společenský význam (Bell
Beaker wristguards, their raw-materials, technology and social signifikance). In: Kazdová, E. – Měřínský, Z. – Šabatová,
K. (eds.): Kpoctě Vladimíru Podborskému, Ústav archeologie a muzeologie, Filozofická fakulta Masarykovy univerzity
vBrně, Brno, 207–226.
Turek, J. 2006: Bell Beaker gendered cups in central Europe, In: Alex Gibson (ed.): Prehistoric Pottery: Some Recent Re-
search. Prehistoric Ceramics Research Group: Occasional Paper 5 British Archaeological Reports, International Series
1509, Oxford, 63–68.
Turek, J. 2011: Pivo místo dýmky míru, Respekt, ročník 22, č. 31, 71–73.
MUSAICA ARCHAEOLOGICA 1/2016 l155-162 161
Turek, J. 2013: Echoes and Traditions of the Bell Beaker Phenomenon. In: M. Bartelheim – J. Peška – J. Turek (eds.):
From Copper to Bronze. Cultural and Social Transformations at the Turn of the 3rd/2nd Millennia B. C. in Central Eu-
rope. Gewidmet PhDr. Václav Moucha, CSc. anlässlich seines 80. Geburtstages. Beitrage zur Ur-und Frühgeschichte
Mitteleuropas 74, Beier&Beran. Archäologische Fachliteratur, Langenweissbach, 9–23.
Turek, J. 2014: Lost and found paradigms: Creation of the Beaker World. In: Kristian Kristiansen, K. – Šmejda, L. –
Turek, J. (Eds.): Paradigm Found: Archaeological Theory – Present, Past and Future. Essays in Honour of Evžen Neus-
tupný. Oxbowbooks: Oxford, 265–279.
Jan Turek lThe Beaker World and otherness of the Early Civilizations162
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
Chapter
Full-text available
ŘEMESLNÁ SYMBOLIKA V POHŘEBNÍM RITU OBDOBÍ ZVONCOVITÝCH POHÁRŮ. SUROVINY, VÝROBA A STRUKTURA SPOLEČNOSTI V ZÁVĚRU ENEOLITU ÚVOD Kamenné sekeromlaty, náhrdelníky ze zvířecích zubů a perleťové šperky, které hrály významnou prestižní a označovací roli v pohřební výbavě období šňůrové keramiky, byly v symbolice pohřebních obřadů následného období zvoncovitých pohárů nahrazeny lukostřeleckou vý-bavou, měděnými dýkami a zlatými předměty. V období zvoncovitých pohárů se tyto artefakty, ale také náčiní a suroviny související s jejich výrobou objevují ve specifických pohřebních celcích, které se vyznaču-jí vnitřní dřevěnou konstrukcí hrobu, někdy včetně kruhového příko-pu a dokladů druhotných žárových pohřbů a byly zatím dokumento-vány především v Čechách, na Moravě a v Bavorsku. Jedinci pohřbení v takových hrobech jsou zpravidla provázeni zdobenými zvoncovitými poháry, tradičně řazenými do starších fází vývoje tohoto období, což podporují i některá radiokarbonová data. Jejich spojení s dalšími pres-tižními předměty a specifickou formou pohřbu však může snad spíše naznačovat rozdíly sociální než chronologické. Nástroje, případně suroviny související s výrobou pazourkových šipek či kovotepectvím, tvoří v hrobě zpravidla prostorově jasně vymezený depozit, který lze chápat jako symbolickou výbavu, která měla zemřelému umožnit výro-bu významných artefaktů i na cestě na onen svět. Tento symbolický de-pozit nazývám "výrobním balíčkem" a předpokládám, že v pohřebním ritu reprezentuje spíše jakousi ritualizovanou kontrolu nad význam-nou výrobní technologií spojenou s určitým společenským statusem, nežli odznak konkrétní řemeslné specializace. SYMBOLICKÉ ARTEFAKTY V HROBECH OBDOBÍ ZVONCOVITÝCH POHÁRŮ V období zvoncovitých pohárů se ze symboliky pohřebních výbav vytrácejí kamenné sekery, sekeromlaty a kulovité mlaty, které byly častým milodarem převážně mužských pohřbů v předcházejícím ob-dobí se šňůrovou keramikou. Tyto "mužské" prestižní předměty byly nahrazeny měděnými dýkami a souborem artefaktů souvisejících s lukostřelbou. Změny proběhly rovněž v pravidlech pohřebního ritu, zdá se však že jde o variaci na formální úrovni v rámci jednoho sym-bolického systému. Výraznou kontinuitu mezi zmíněnými kulturami naznačuje vedle systému pohřebního ritu (Turek-Černý 2001) také jejich podobný projev ve smyslu modelu sídelních struktur, archeolo-gického záznamu osídlení a charakteru hmotné kultury (Turek 1996; Turek-Peška 2001).
Article
The megalithic cemetery of Sion-'Le Petit Chasseur I+III' offers a unique chance to analyse patterns of social change throughout most of the third millennium BC, and to demonstrate how a local population adjusts to the pan-European ideological changes of that period. Our analysis of the funeral monuments, the anthropomorphic stelae, and the material remains (which form three independent Quellengruppen) shows the tensions between tradition and innovation, and the successive adaptions of a local Late Neolithic population to the different branches of the Bell Beaker ideology and the Early Bronze Age. We compare Sion with the similar structured site of Aosta-'St.Martin-de-Corléans', and locate both complexes in the wider framework of Europe in the third millennium BC. The comparison extends to include the immigration of the Yamnaya populations from the northern Pontic steppes into east and southeast Europe, and ends with the emergence of the Bell Beaker phenomenon on the west of the Iberian Peninsula. This is all set into the wider transformation horizon between 2900 and 2700 BC. Specific innovations are described and analysed.
Contribution to the problem of "craftsmen" graves at the end of Aeneolithic and in the Early Bronze Age in Central, Western and Eastern Europe
  • J Bátora
Bátora, J. 2002: Contribution to the problem of "craftsmen" graves at the end of Aeneolithic and in the Early Bronze Age in Central, Western and Eastern Europe. Slovenská archeológia 50, 179-228.
  • N Brodie
Brodie, N. 1997: New perspectives on the Bell beaker Culture. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 16, No. 3, 297-314.
Prehistoric migrations by infiltration
  • E Neustupný
Neustupný, E. 1982: Prehistoric migrations by infiltration. Archeologické rozhledy 34, 278-293.
Úvaha o specializaci v pravěku
  • E Neustupný
Neustupný, E. 1995: Úvaha o specializaci v pravěku. Archeologické rozhledy 47, 641-650.
1987: ‚Cups that cheered´
  • A G Sherratt
Sherratt, A. G. 1987: ‚Cups that cheered´. In: Waldren, W. H. -Kennard, R. C. (eds.): Bell Beakers of the Western Mediterranean, The Oxford International Conference 1986, British Archaeological Reports (IS) 331, vol. 1-2. Oxford, 81-114.
  • J Turek
Turek, J. 1996: Osídlení Pražské kotliny v závěru eneolitu. Nástin problematiky období zvoncovitých pohárů. Archaeologica Pragensia 12, 5-58.
Nátepní destičky z období zvoncovitých pohárů, jejich suroviny, technologie a společenský význam (Bell Beaker wristguards, their raw-materials, technology and social signifikance)
  • J Turek
Turek, J. 2004: Nátepní destičky z období zvoncovitých pohárů, jejich suroviny, technologie a společenský význam (Bell Beaker wristguards, their raw-materials, technology and social signifikance). In: Kazdová, E. -Měřínský, Z. -Šabatová, K. (eds.): K poctě Vladimíru Podborskému, Ústav archeologie a muzeologie, Filozofická fakulta Masarykovy univerzity v Brně, Brno, 207-226.