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Plant processing in the Late Mesolithic Poland: in search for function of the mysterious ‘curved knives’

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Studies on the treatment and use of plants in the Mesolithic are difficult due to the small number of sources. However, they are important because it was one of the basic branches of the economy of the early Holocene community. This article presents the results of use-wear and experimental studies aimed at the interpretation of the function of the so-called curved knives. These tools are associated with the treatment of silica plants, but their actual function is not fully understood. The research was based on a collection of 66 products of this type from five sites in central Poland and is one of the first published research on tools of this kind from this part of Europe. As a result of microscopic analysis, eight types of curved knives were distinguished. In order to identify the plant species, the knives were used on an experimental programme based on the results of palynological studies carried out at site 6 in Ludowice, an economically specialised site. As a result of the traceological analyses, a number of correlations between artefacts and experimental tools have been identified that can provide an important step towards interpreting the actual function of the curved knives. At the same time, the large discrepancies in the traces resulting from the processing of different species of silica plants were documented and the probable use of many of their species in the European Mesolithic was suggested. Link to the article: https://rdcu.be/bijiF
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Plant processing in the Late Mesolithic Poland: in search for function
of the mysterious curved knives
Grzegorz Osipowicz
1
Received: 28 October 2018 /Accepted: 9 January 2019 /Publ ished online: 24 January 2019
#The Author(s) 2019
Abstract
Studies on the treatment and use of plants in the Mesolithic are difficult due to the small number of sources. However, they are
important because it was one of the basic branches of the economy of the early Holocene community. This article presents the
results of use-wear and experimental studies aimed at the interpretation of the function of the so-called curved knives. These tools
are associated with the treatment of silica plants, but their actual function is not fully understood. The research was based on a
collection of 66 products ofthis type from five sites in central Poland and is one of the first published research on tools of this kind
from this part of Europe. As a result of microscopic analysis, eight types of curved knives were distinguished. In order to identify
the plant species, the knives were used on anexperimental programme based on the results of palynological studies carried out at
site 6 in Ludowice, an economically specialised site. As a result of the traceological analyses, a number of correlations between
artefacts and experimentaltools have been identified that can provide an important step towards interpreting the actual function of
the curved knives. At the sametime, the largediscrepancies in the tracesresulting fromthe processingofdifferent species of silica
plants were documented and the probable use of many of their species in the European Mesolithic was suggested.
Keywords Mesolithic .Silica plants processing .Use wear .Curved knives .Poland
The beginning of the Holocene was a time of transition in the
economic activity of humans inhabiting the area of the North
European Plain. Glacier recession and changes in the natural
environment allowed many branches of economic activity to
develop; the most prominent of which was gathering and
using herbaceous plants, including species with a high silica
content. There is evidence of the processing of these species in
the Late Glacial period (Sobkowiak-Tabaka and Kufel-
Diakowska 2018), but its rapid development is dated to the
Early Holocene. Unambiguous evidence for the high impor-
tance of plant material (including high-silica-content species)
in that period is provided primarily by peat site finds
(Gramsch 1992; Lozovski et al. 2013; Zhilin 2014; Taylor
et al. 2018). Use-wear analyses of flint tools can provide some
indication of the extent of the phenomenon and the type of
plants used; however, wear traces formed as a result of this
type of activity are highly diverse and difficult to interpret.
A very interesting type of the tools associated with
the processing of siliceous plants during the Early
Holocene is sometimes referred to as curved knives
(Juel Jensen 1994;Guéret2013). The use of this term
indicating a certain separateness of these tools from the
other ones used for processing plants seems to be the
most appropriate, because it allows characterisation
(within one group) of the artefacts bearing unique and
linking usage traces that distinguish them from, e.g.
ordinary knives for cutting plants. In terms of morphol-
ogy, these are usually relatively large blades or flakes
with naturally concave or (less often) straight lateral
edges used for working. Traces recorded on them indi-
catethattheywereusedat4590° angles and that the
tools were held in a perpendicular or slanted position.
Previous studies allowed two morphological types of
these tools to be distinguished, those with
microdenticulated and those (the propercurved knives)
with natural working edges (Juel Jensen 1994). Most of
them come from West European settlements dated to the
Late Mesolithic and the Early Neolithic, usually con-
nected to Kongemose and Ertebølle cultures (van Gijn
1989,2010;JuelJensen1994; Little and van Gijn
*Grzegorz Osipowicz
grezegor@umk.pl
1
Institute of Archaeology, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Szosa
Bydgoska 44/48 st., 87-100 Toruń, Poland
Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2019) 11:36133628
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-019-00784-w
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
2017). However, some of the tools were also found at
sites dated to the early Mesolithic (Beugnier and
Crombé 2005; Beugnier 2007;Guéret2013).
Single tools of this type originating from Poland were al-
ready initially presented by the author of this article
(Osipowicz 2010). Also, Katarzyna Pyżewicz described some
Mesolithic artefacts for plants processing from western
Poland, analysing collections of flint products from the sites
of Jastrzębia Góra 4 and Turowiec 3 (Pyżewicz 2013). The
characteristics of use-wear observed on these tools presented
by the author are, however, too general to be sure how often
and exactly in which cases we are dealing with the curved
knives, especially, that the function of these artefacts is often
interpreted different (for example as whittling knives for wood
processing).
In the past, tools of this type were associated with the treat-
ment of very different materials, for example plant fibres
(shoots or stems of plants containing silica), hide with the
addition of ochre, mud or other abrasive materials, the ochre
itself, bone and antler. To interpret the function of curved
knives and microdenticulates, experiments were undertaken
peeling rhizomes, de-barking different types of soft wood,
opening hazelnuts and peeling tubers of lily and water stick
(van Gijn 1989,2010; Juel Jensen 1994; Hurcombe 2008;
Little and van Gijn 2017). Traces similar to those found on
the curved knives were also described by Vaughan (1985)
who characterised the nature of damages formed during ex-
perimental scraping/planing of cane. At present, the results of
the experiments appear to confirm the opinion of most re-
searchers (Vaughan and Bocquet 1987; Juel Jensen 1994;
Hurcombe 2008; van Gijn 2010; Guéret et al. 2014; Little
and van Gijn 2017), indicating a possible relationship between
these tools and work in non-wooden-like material, exhibiting
a high content of silica. The arrangement of registered stria-
tions points to an activity similar to planing, possibly splitting.
The aim of the present study was to interpret the actual
function of curved knives based on experimental studies and
use-wear analyses of this type of tools from several Polish sites,
in particular, a complex of Mesolithic settlements specialising
in siliceous plant processing excavated at Ludowice 6 site
(Osipowicz 2018). This site provided an exceptionally large
and diverse collection of the artefactsofthisfunctionaltype,
which allowed wear traces recorded on these tools to be pre-
cisely classified and, combined with the findings of the con-
ducted palynological studies, created a possibility to make a
correct interpretation of their original function.
Materials and methods
The material applied in the present study was derived
from five Mesolithic sites located in Central Poland, in
the Chełmno-DobrzyńLakeland (Fig. 1). These are
Ludowice, Wąbrzeźno commune, site 6, Sąsieczno,
Obrowo commune, site 4, Lubicz, Lubicz commune,
sites 13 and 18 and Paliwodzizna, Golub-Dobrzyńcom-
mune, site 29. In total, 66 curved knives were subjected
to the use-wear analysis.
The site Ludowice 6 is located in the middle part of
the Chełmno Lakeland, within a slope of a hill reaching
a height of 100 m above sea level. It is situated in a
contact zone of sandur and a large melt ice depression,
presently filled with biogenic sediments (peat).
Prehistoric materials found on the examined part of
the site formed three concentrations, two of which were
Mesolithic. The use-wear analysis was performed on
5129 flints from Mesolithic assemblages most of which
were derived from subsoil with some from topsoil. All
artefacts have been observed both in macro and micro-
scopic scale. Four hundred four specimens were identi-
fied to bear wear traces
1
and to have been used for 443
functions. Among these, there were 58 curved knives.
These constituted the most numerous functional type of
all the products of identified purpose and served as one
of the grounds for a hypothesis on production speciality
of the site (Osipowicz 2010,2015,2017,2018;
Osipowicz et al. 2014).
The site Sąsieczno 4 is situated within the ToruńBasin,
around 5 km from the current Vistula riverbed. The majority
of the artefacts found here are associated with the
Funnealbeaker Culture settlement. Mesolithic specimens oc-
curred only in its northern part, where four flint scatters were
discovered. In total, as much as 4622 flint products were de-
rived at that location; 396 of which were identified in the
course of the use-wear analysis to bear wear traces. These
were used for 446 functions. This collection included only
three curved knives (Osipowicz 2010,2017).
Sites 13 and 18 in Lubicz are situated in the river valley of
the Drwęca in the eastern part of the ToruńPlain on a sandy
cape of the third fluvial terrace. Site 13 is where 158 flint
products were excavated, of which 32 products were identi-
fied with wear traces and to have been used for 36 functions.
As many as 310 flint products were found on site Lubicz 18,
while as a result of a use-wear analysis, 71 products with wear
traces were specified, which related to 80 functions
(Osipowicz 2010). Two tools for silica plant processing
(curved knife and microdenticulate) have been discovered in
collections from sites in Lubicz.
Paliwodzizna site 29 is located in a tunnel valley of lakes
Grodno and Plebanka in the northern part of the Dobrzyń
Lakeland. It is one of several sites in this location examined
as part of the project titled: Mesolithic communities of the
1
Including products of uncertain function, i.e. considered used but with no
possibility of suggesting their function, as well as those described as probably
used.
3614 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:36133628
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Chełmno-DobrzyńLakeland daily life, mobility, external
contacts and relationships with the environment,financedby
the National Science Center (NCN) in Cracow (Poland) (pro-
ject no. 2016/23/B/HS3/00689). Excavation works started
here in 2016 and have not yet been completed. On the site,
numerous remains of Mesolithic and Late Palaeolithic settle-
ments were found. The excavated material is currently sub-
jected to analysis; the results of which will be presented in the
near future. The curved knives (three specimens) covered in
the paper were identified in the course of preliminary use-wear
analyses of parts of flint materials.
Considering the stylistics of the prehistorical materials and
the radiocarbon dating results, all the sites can be dated to the
Late (Atlantic) Mesolithic (Osipowicz 2010,2017), whereas
the curved knives obtained there do not vary in terms of their
form from West European specimens (Fig. 2).
The traceological analyses described in the article were
performed using two microscopes. The initial stage was deter-
mined under a microscope Nikon SMZ-2T with up to 12,6×
magnitude (virtual manification up to 120×). Observations of
polish were obtained using a Zeiss-Axiotech microscope, with
up to 50× magnitude (virtual magnification up to 500×), fitted
with an Axiocam 105 camera. All photomicrographs present-
ed were captured using this equipment. Prior to analysis, the
material was cleaned with a detergent diluted in water and
pure ethanol (C
2
H
5
OH).
Results
Classification of wear traces identified on the curved
knives
The fact that many curved knives were identified in the
materials from the site in Ludowice allowed a detailed
comparative analysis of wear traces visible on the
knives. This allowed significant divergences in their
characteristics to be recorded and could serve as a basis
for a more precise functional classification of this type
of tools.
It is assumed that a feature of products of this functional
type is the presence of different types of polish on their
working edges. These are connected to each other and oc-
cur in repeatable patterns. In general, it is believed that on
most tools, two types of such patterns are encountered. On
non-contact surfaces of the knives, there is a bright polish
of a flat topography and rough texture (type A), and/or
similar to the polish observed on the tools used for working
antler, which is of a domed topography and smooth texture
(type B). In turn, on contact surfaces, a linear polish is
recorded, which is glossy and of a flat topography (type
C) or hidedomedpolishoftypeD.Bothareaccompanied
by slanted linear traces in the form of black striations (Juel
Jensen 1994; van Gijn 2010;Osipowicz2010). Among the
Fig. 1 Location of the sites: 1Ludowice, Wąbrzeźno comm., site 6; 2Sąsieczno, Obrowo comm., site 4; 3Lubicz, gm. Lubicz, stan. 13, 18; 4
Paliwodzizna, Golub-Dobrzyńcomm., site 29
Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:36133628 3615
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identified tools, the most common are specimens with pol-
ish of the ACandBD patterns. Products with these sort
of traces were relatively numerous also in the materials
from the analysed sites. As a result of the conducted use-
wear analyses, however, curved knives were identified with
systems of polish that were substantially different from the
adopted standards. For this reason, an attempt was made
here to re-classify them, as a result of which, eight
main types of these tools were distinguished (compare
Table 1). Some of the identified types of polish have al-
ready been mentioned by Juel Jensen (1994) and by other
researchers.
The working edges of all distinguished types of
curved knives bear usually the same type of use retouch
(wide/irregular, one-step, built with the single scars with
feather terminations). For this reason, it is not discussed
in this work.
Type 1
Curved knives qualified to this type bear on the ventral faces
bright, linear polish usually with a marginal (sometimes me-
dium) degree of intrusion, a domed topography that becomes
flat (slightly pitted) near the cutting edge with a quite rough
Fig. 2 Examples of the curved
knives from the included sites: 1
18Ludowice, site 6; 19
Lubicz, site 13; 20Lubicz, site
18; 21, 22Sąsieczno, site 4; 23
25Paliwodzizna, site 29
Drawnings D. Nowak
3616 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:36133628
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Table 1 A summary of the main features of polish and linear traces observed on the particular types of curved knives
Type of the curved
knife
Polish Linear traces
Distribution Reflectivity Directionality Degree of intrusion Topography Texture Type Orientation Frequency
Type 1 VS Thin line along the edge Bright Perpendicular Marginal/sometimes
medium
Domed/flat and pitted at
cutting edge
Rough Black striations Perpendicular Single
DS Thin line along the edge Glossy Diagonal Up to medium Fluted/flat in some
distance domed
Smooth ––
Type 2 VS Line or band along the edge Bright Diagonal Medium/sometimes
invasive
Domed/flat at cutting edge Very rough Black and filled
in striations
Diagonal Very numerous
DS Thin line along the edge Glossy Diagonal Medium Flat/fluted (slightly pitted) Smooth ––
Type 2A VS Line or band along the edge Relatively dull Diagonal Medium Cratered Rough Filled in striations Diagonal Not very
numerous
DS Thin line along the edge Bright Invasive Domed/flat and slightly
pitted at cutting edge
Smooth ––
Type 3 VS Thin line along the edge Glossy Diagonal Up to invasive Flat/slightly wavy Slightly rough/
smooth
Black and filled in
striations
Diagonal Single
DS Thin line along the edge Glossy Diagonal, almost
not legible
Up to invasive Domed/quite pitted Smooth ––
Type 3A VS Thin line along the edge Glossy/metallicDiagonal Medium Very flat Smooth Black striations Diagonal Single
DS Thin line along the edge Bright Slightly diagonal Marginal Flat/domed, meltedSmooth ––
Type 4 VS Thin line along the edge Glossy Diagonal Up to medium Very flat Smooth/
slightly rough
Black and filled
in striations
Diagonal Single
DS Line or band along
the edge
Bright/glossy Diagonal Up to invasive Flat/fluted (quite pitted) Smooth/rough
in some points
––
Type 5 VS Thin line along the edge Bright/glossy
in some points
Diagonal Medium or invasive Domed Smooth ––
DS Thin line along the edge Bright/glossy
in some points
Diagonal Up to medium Pitted Rough ––
Type 6 VS Thin line along the edge Glossy Marginal Flat Slightly rough Delicate black
striations
Perpendicular Not very
numerous
DS Thin line along the edge Glossy Diagonal Medium Flat/pitted (slightly fluted) Smooth ––
Type 7 VS Band along the edge Matt Diagonal Invasive Cratered Rough Black striations Diagonal Very numerous
DS Thin line along the edge Bright/glossy Diagonal Medium Domed/slightly fluted, near
the cutting edge flat
Smooth Filled in striations Diagonal Single
Type 7A VS Line or band along
the edge
matt Diagonal Up to invasive Cratered Rough Black striations Slightly diagonal Very numerous
DS Discontinuous thin line
along the edge
Bright Up to medium Domed Slightly rough ––
VF, ventral face; DF, dorsal face;
Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:36133628 3617
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texture. The polish is accompanied by single, perpendicular
linear traces (Fig. 3a).
Polish observed on the dorsal faces is legible as a thin line
along the edge, with a degree of intrusion reaching medium
extend. It is glossy and has a flat/fluted (in some distance from
the cutting edge domed) topography and smooth texture (Fig.
3b). The cutting edge is only slightly rounded or not rounded
at all.
In the flint collections analysed here, six tools of this type
were identified. One of them was discovered in a collection
from Sąsieczno, five at the site in Ludowice.
Type 2
On the ventral faces of the curved knives included in this type
occurs a bright polish with a domed topography (flat one only
on the cutting edge) and diagonal orientation. The most
characteristic here is its very rough texture and the presence
of numerous oblique linear traces in the form of black and
filled in striations (Fig. 3c). The polish is abrasive and smooth-
ly changes to a surface not covered by wear traces.
On the dorsal faces of the tools of this type, there is glossy,
linear polish readable asa thin line along the edge. It has a flat/
fluted (slightly pitted) topography and smooth texture. Linear
traces are basically absent. The polished surface is quite
abruptly cut off from the non-polished one (Fig. 3d). The
cutting edge of the tools is only slightly rounded.
Five curved knives included in this category come from the
site in Ludowice and one from site 18 in Lubicz.
Type 2a
Two artefacts of this type were discovered in the collection from
Ludowice, one at the site in Sąsieczno and one in Paliwodziźna,
Fig. 3 Variants of polish sets observed on the curved knives of types: 1, 2, 2a, 3, 3a and 4
3618 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:36133628
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all of which bear on the ventral faces polish with a characteristic
(in general outline) similar to the curved knives of type 2. Their
topography, however, is clearly more cratered and therefore sim-
ilar to the one typical for hide processing (Fig. 3e).
Also, the characteristic of polish observed on the
dorsal faces of these artefacts is definitely different from
the one typical for tools described above. It is bright,
only in some points (at the cutting edge) glossy, has an
invasive degree of intrusion and smoothly changes to a
non-polished surface. Its topography is domed, only
near the cutting edge of it is flat and slightly pitted,
and the texture is smooth (Fig. 3f).
It is difficult at this stage in the research to rule out that
these are type 2 curved knives, with working edges used for a
short time or in a slightly different way, which is why it was
decided to label them as sub-type 2a.
Type 3
Polish legible on the ventral faces of the curved knives of type
3 is visible as a thin line along the edge; however, it can also
have an invasive degree of intrusion. It is glossy and has a flat
topography, which at a distance from the edge becomes in-
creasingly domed. Its texture is slightly rough (in some points
completely smooth). The polish is linear and has diagonal
orientation. It is accompanied by single, similarly oriented
linear traces (black and filled in striationsFig. 3g).
Polish characteristic to the dorsal faces of the tools of
this type is legible also as a thin line along the edge
and can have an invasive degree of intrusion. Very
poorly visible, however, is its linearity. The topography
is domed and quite pitted, and the texture is smooth.
There are no linear traces (Fig. 3h).
The tools of this type were identified mainly from a collec-
tion from Ludowice (11 artefacts). One comes from a site in
Paliwodzizna.
Type 3a
Similar to the type 2 and 2a specimens, two curved knives
were found in the collection from the Ludowice site, which
bear wear traces in some aspects similar to those described in
the case of type 3 tools, however, different enough that there
may be a reason for creating an independent classification
category in the future. A tool of this kind was also probably
discovered in the collection from Sąsieczno; however, the
traces of use discovered on it are too underdeveloped to be
confirmed with a high probability.
Polish observed on the ventral faces of these tools is
very similar to that described above, but its texture is
completely smooth and the polish itself is more metal-
lic. Additionally, its topography is very flat, in the
general profile quite similar to the abrasion typical for
the curved knives of type 4 that are described below.
The cutting edge of the tools is clearly meltedand
rounded (Fig. 3i).
On the dorsal faces of the specimens of this type
polish was observed with a smooth texture, a marginal
degree of intrusion and legible as a thin line along the
edge. In contrast to the situation recorded in the case of
type 3 knives, it is quite clearly cut off from the not-
polished surface, its topography is flat (domed in some
distance from cutting edge), melted, and the profile is
slightly linear (Fig. 3j).
Type 4
On the ventral faces of the curved knives classified as a type 4
can be observed a glossy polish/abrasion with a flat topogra-
phy, smooth or slightly rough texture and diagonal orientation.
It is legible as a thin line along the edge and its degree of
intrusion is not higher than medium. In contrast to the situa-
tion observed on the type 3 tools, the polish is essentially
limited to the area in the immediate vicinity of the cutting edge
and rapidly cut off from the unpolished surface (Fig. 3k). It is
always accompanied with linear traces in a form of diagonal
filled in striations. On the cutting edge itself, there are also
single scratches in the form of black striations. Sometimes,
they are more numerous and visible also on the side surfaces
of the working edge, what makes the texture of polish rougher.
On the dorsal faces of the tools can be observed a bright/
glossy polish with an even invasive degree of intrusion. It has
a flat/fluted (quite pitted) topography, in some (quite large)
distance from the cutting edge passing into a domed one. It
is linear (oriented diagonal) and has a smooth texture (in some
points, slightly rough). The polish quite clearly separates from
the unpolished surface, although the transition between them
is gradual. There are no linear traces (Fig. 3l).
The tools of this type were identified only in the collection
from Ludowice (eight specimens).
Type 5
This type is represented by two tools. One was found in the
collection from the site in Ludowice; the second was on the
site in Paliwodzizna. The polish observed on the ventral faces
of these tools is legible as a thin line along the edge and has a
degree of intrusion from medium to invasive. It is bright (in
some points, slightly glossy) and has a domed topography and
smooth texture. The polish is slightly linear (oriented diago-
nal). There are no linear traces (Fig. 4a).
On the dorsal faces of the tools was observed polish with
similar characteristic. However, it has a slightly smaller degree
of intrusion (maximum medium), and, what is more important,
a pitted (near the cutting edge flat/pitted) topography and with
a rough texture. Also, here, there are no linear traces (Fig. 4b).
Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:36133628 3619
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Type 6
Curved knives of type 6 are represented only by one tool that
was discovered in the collection from Ludowice. The polish
observed on its ventral side is glossy and has a marginal de-
gree of intrusion (it covers only the cutting edge itself). It has a
flat topography and a slightly rough texture with linear traces
in a form of delicate scratches (black striations), oriented per-
pendicularly to the orientation of the tool (Fig. 4c).
The polish discovered on the dorsal face of the specimen
has a medium degree of intrusion. It is glossy and has a flat/
pitted (slightly fluted) topography and a generally smooth
texture. The polish is linear (oriented diagonal), there are no
linear traces (Fig. 4d) and the working edge is rounded.
Type 7
The polish recorded on the ventral faces of the curved knives
of type 7 is different from those described for the types
analysed so far. It is matt and has an invasive degree of
intrusion, a cratered topography and a rough texture (reminis-
cent of work on dry hide). It is legible as a band along the
edge, which is very rounded. The polish is accompanied with
linear traces in a form of diagonal black striations (Fig. 4e).
On the dorsal faces of the tools of this type was observed
bright/glossy and slightly linear polish with a medium degree
of intrusion and a smooth texture, legible as a thin line along
the edge. Its topography is domed, sometimes slightly fluted,
but near the cutting edge is flat. Linear traces (diagonal filled
in striations) occur only sporadically (Fig. 4f).
The polish observed on curved knives classified as type 7
corresponds to the one classified in the literature as type 23
(van Gijn 1989,2010). All three tools of this kind were dis-
covered in the materials from the site in Ludowice.
Type 7a
Use-wear traces identified on the ventral faces of the speci-
mens in this group are similar to those of type 7. The polish
visible here is therefore matt, readable as a thin line or band
Fig. 4 Variants of polish sets observed on the curved knives of types: 57 and 7a(photo ah) and use-wear traces observed on microdenticulate from site
13 in Lubicz (photo I)
3620 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:36133628
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along the edge and has an even invasive degree of intrusion.
Its topography is cratered and the texture is rough. Itis accom-
panied by linear traces in a form of slightly diagonal black
striations. The working edge is rounded (Fig. 4g).
The polish visible on the dorsal faces of this type of spec-
imen, however, has slightly different characteristics and ap-
pears less developed. It is bright and has the character of a
thin, sometimes disappearing line along the edge. It covers
mostly the higher parts of the microrelief, its topography is
domed (in some points passing into the flat) and its texture is
slightly rough. In a sense, it is a kind of abrasion of the upper
parts of the microrelief. There are no linear traces (Fig. 4h). In
addition, atypical spread polish was observed. All four curved
knives bearing such traces appeared in the collection from the
site in Ludowice.
It cannot be ruled out that specimens of types 7 and 7a were
used for similar activities. Perhaps the usage traces recorded
on them occurred even during the same type of activity but
illustrate its various stages. The nature of usable traces ob-
served on the dorsal faces of these tools, however, seems to
be sufficiently different to treat them independently, at least
for now.
A distinct category (type 8) outside the created classifica-
tion should involve a tool obtained from site 13 in Lubicz (Fig.
2: 19). It is an example of a product referred to by H. Juel
Jensen (1994) as microdenticulate, since its blade was made
by means of a fine intentional retouch that gave it a micro-
serrated form. It has been suggested that these tools were
applied to combing plant fibres for textile production (Juel
Jensen 1994). This suggestion can be supported by wear
traces visible on the described specimen, whose characteristics
and arrangement correspond in general to those visible on the
curved knives classified to type 2 (Fig. 4i). However, these
cover the entire surface of the intentional retouch negatives
without overlappingin an invasive manner with the side
edges of the working edge, suggesting that the tool was ap-
plied to the processed raw material close to the right angle.
This tool is hence clearly different to other specimens of the
discussed functional type, since movements performed with it
most probably were similar to scraping and not whittling, as in
the case of typical curved knives.
Experimental study results
The programme of experimental studies was based on the
findings of studies performed on site 6 in Ludowice, which
could be a place specialising in siliceous plant processing.
Thus, the location was probably not a coincidence but deter-
mined by easy access to the raw material. In this case, such
plants should be found in the palynological profile.
In line with the results of the conducted studies of this type,
at the time when the Mesolithic settlements in Ludowice were
functioning, the prevailing herbaceous plants were sedges
(Cyperaceae) and grasses (Poaceae), which are local species
of the peat bog situated here. Ferns (Filicales monolete)and
marsh ferns (Thelypteris palustris) are represented and a rela-
tively high and stable curve is created by the eagle fern
(Pteridium aquilinum). Wetland plant species are increasingly
represented, among which nearly continuous curves are
formed by the bogbean (Menyanthes trifoliata), water lilies
(Nymphaea), the bur-reed (Sparganium) and the common cat-
tail (Typha latifolia). Of spore plants with a high silica content,
the common horsetail (Equisetum arvense) can also be iden-
tified in small numbers (Noryśkiewicz report
2
; Osipowicz
2017).
In the experimental programme, the following plant species
were taken into account: two sedge species common in
Poland, namely the greater tussock-sedge (Carex paniculata)
and the lesser pond-sedge (Carex acutiformis), the common
cattail (Typha latifolia), the marsh fern (Thelypteris palustris),
the eagle fern (Pteridium aquilinum) and the horsetail
(Equisetum). Other species identified in the palynological pro-
file proved currently inaccessible or (as in the case of the
European white water lily) conservation-dependent.
All plants taken into account in the experimental pro-
gramme were identified in archaeological contexts and are
also used by humans in the present day. The sedge is used
for making wattles, ropes and mats. They also serve as an
excellent bedding material (Podbielkowski and Sudnik-
Wójcikowska 2003). Young common cattail plants are used
as fodder. Its shoots, roots and above-ground parts of stems
are sometimes eaten as a vegetable, while leaves and flower
stems are used for making mats and wattles. The fibre obtain-
ed from leaves is turned into ropes. Also, this plant is consid-
ered to have therapeutic properties (Podbielkowski and
Sudnik-Wójcikowska 2003). These, as well as cosmeticprop-
erties, are also ascribed to the common horsetail
(Podbielkowski and Sudnik-Wójcikowska 2003) which is col-
lected from May until September and used for treating, among
others, neoplasms and eye diseases. It is also believed to
strengthen blood vessels and to have anti-haemorrhagic and
diuretic properties (Górnicka 2003). The eagle fern, whose
remains have been excavated in Mesolithic sites, also has a
very wide use (Makohonienko 2000). In the Mesolithic peri-
od, its most probable use was, among others, as food
(Göranson 1986), the edible parts including starch-rich rhi-
zomes and also young leaves. In present times, its shoots are
also used for making fabrics and ropes that are particularly
valued for their resistance to moisture (Makohonienko
2000). It also has therapeutic properties. Although the marsh
fern has a less broad application, some species of this fern
2
Noryśkiewicz reportHistoria roślinności w regionie Ludowic w świetle
badańpalinologicznych. Description of the results of palynological studies
deposited in the Laboratory for the Reconstruction of the Natural
Environment, Institute of Archeology of the Nicolaus Copernicus University
in Toruń(2015).
Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:36133628 3621
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
have been used to fight worms and ringworm (Stichmann-
Marny and Kretzschmar 1994; Podbielkowski and Sudnik-
Wójcikowska 2003). In the Mesolithic, they could have also
been used as mattresses (Grøn 1995).
In the course of the study, various parts of plants
were subjected to processing. The experiments were
morethan60andupto90-minlong.Forthepurpose
of the experiment, 10 blades made of Baltic erratic flint
of natural straight or slightly concave working edges
(analogous to historical products) were used. The blades
were knapped from the same nodule of the raw materi-
al, and all tools were hafted. The experiments were
conducted in a slightly different manner depending on
the species of the processed plant (Fig. 5). Experiments
which involved splitting the fibres of the greater
tussock-sedge and the lesser pond-sedge, as well as
splitting leaves of the common cattail, entailed the
plants being drawn between the tool blade and the
thumb at nearly right angles. The splitting of the stems
of the common cattail and the common horsetail was
performed by whittling with the angle of contact con-
sistently maintained at 30°. The experimental processing
of rhizomes of the common cattail entailed cleaning
them from impurities and basal shoots, and then split-
ting (whittling) into narrow strips. In the course of pro-
cessing roots of the common horsetail and the eagle
fern, two activities were performed. First, they were
cleaned of impurities, and then the external wooden
parts were gently whittled to reach the soft inner flesh.
Processing stems of the eagle fern consisted of remov-
ing leaves and then cleaning and splitting (whittling) the
stems to obtain fibres. In the course of the experiments
on the marsh fern, stems and above-ground parts of
stems were processed. The work comprised two activi-
ties. The first removed leaves by drawing the stems
between the tool blade and the thumb. The second
attempted to split the fibres in the stems is by means
of whittling to uncover the fleshof the above-ground
parts of stems.
As a result of the conducted experiments, highly diverse
wear traces were produced (Figs. 6,7); the characteristics of
which are presented in Table 2.
Discussion
The described experimental work, although based on
results of palynological studies, was not able conclu-
sively to identify the plants that were processed using
the curved knives. However, the obtained results valu-
ably enabled the elimination of some species.
Additionally, on some experimental tools, wear traces
similar to those visible on particular types of curved
knives were recorded. All these findings give hope that
further research will ultimately lead to a solution to
plant identity.
As a result of the analysis of findings of the conducted
experiments, the following similarities and differences were
recorded.
1. Polish of a domed topography recorded on the contact
side of the tool used for processing the greater tussock-
Fig. 5 Examples of experimental work carried out. Processing of aCarex paniculata,bstalks of the Typha latifolia,crhizomes of the Typha
latifolia,droots of the Equisetum arvense,eroots of the Pteridium aquilinum,fstalks of the Thelypteris palustris
3622 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:36133628
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
sedge (Fig. 6a) is similar to that encountered on the neg-
ative side of type 7a curved knives (Fig. 4h).
Unfortunately, no other similarities between use-wear
traces on these tools were observed.
2. The polish recorded on the contact side of the tool used for
processing the lesser pond-sedge (Fig. 6c) is to a large
degree analogous to the one characteristic of the negative
side of type 1 curved knives (Fig. 3b). The differences
between them lie primarily in a slightly different orienta-
tion (on the experimental specimen, the polish is more
perpendicular) and less rounding of the working edge in
the case of the prehistoric specimens. To some extent,
similar wear traces were also observed on opposite sides
of the workingedge on the compared products. The polish
formed on the negative side of the specimen used in the
experiment bears incipient trace characteristic of the
positive side of type 1 knives. It is analogous to the one
visible a certain distance from the edge, hence in a loca-
tion less exposed to quick damage (cf. characteristics of
the polish: a domed shape with the microrelief preserved,
linearity, low gloss). Obviously, as already mentioned,
type 1 curved knives cannot clearly be connected to the
lesser pond-sedge processing. The recorded differences
are too significant, particularly given that traces are incip-
ient, while this type of polish in a well-developed form
was also recorded on other experimental tools (see below,
point 3). However, it seems that the considerable similar-
ity between the observed damage may allow future con-
firmation of the connection between this type of tool and
siliceous plant processing (possibly some sedge species)
more conclusively through further experiments and
analyses.
Fig. 6 Variants of polish sets observed on tools used for splitting the fibres: a, bgreater tussock-sedge; c, dlesser pond-sedge; e, fstalks of
broadleaf cattail; gileaves of broadleaf cattail; j, lprocessing of the rhizomes of broadleaf cattail
Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:36133628 3623
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
3. The polish recorded on the positive side of the tool used
for the common cattail leaves processing, i.e. a
variety visible at a certain distance from the tool blade
(Fig. 6h), is identical to the one characteristic of the pos-
itive side of type 1 knives (Fig. 3a). However, no other
similarities between the use-wear traces on these tools
were observed.
4. The polish recorded on the positive side of the experimen-
tal tool used for whittling stems of the common cattail
(Fig. 6e) is similar to that visible on the positive side of
type 3a curved knives (Fig. 3i). Likewise, in this case, no
similarities in terms of characteristics of other categories
of damage present on these products were observed.
5. The polish visible on the positive side and, particularly,
the negative side of the tool used in the experiment that
consisted in cleaning and splitting rhizomes of the
common cattail (Fig. 6j, k) has much in common with that
observed on the negative side of type 7a knives (Fig. 4h).
However, there are no further similarities between these
products.
6. Wear traces formed on the tool used for splitting stems of
the common horsetail are in general similar to those typ-
ical of type 3 curved knives. On the positive sides of both
these categories of products, polish traces were identified
with basically identical characteristics (Figs. 3g, 7a), yet
oriented somewhat differently. This is because in the case
of the experimental product, its linearity is perpendicular,
whereas on the knives, it is at a slightly diagonal. This
difference may however stem from minor divergences in
how these tools were used.
Against all appearances, the polish identifiable on the
negative sides of the compared products is also similar
Fig. 7 Variants of polish sets observed on tools used for processing: a, bprocessing of the stalks of the field horsetail; cfroots of the field horsetail;
g, hstalks of the eagle fern; i, jroots of the eagle fern; k, lmarsh fern
3624 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:36133628
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Table 2 Characteristics of the use polish observed on the experimental tools
No. Experiment Characteristics of the polish and linear traces at working edge
Contact surface Not-contact surface
1Splittingthefibresofthe
greater tussock-sedge (Carex
paniculata)
Linear (oriented perpendicular), surface and legible as a
band along the working edge. It is visible at some
distance from the cutting edge, and its degree of
intrusion is invasive. It is bright, but not glossy, its
topography is domed and texture is smooth. Linear
traces were not observed (Fig. 6a).
Linear, oriented perpendicular, legible as a band along
the edge but most intensive some distance from it. It
is bright and covers mainly the higher parts of the
microrelief. It has domed topography and an invasive
degree of intrusion. The polish is accompanied by
single linear traces in the form of perpendicular,
filled in striations. (Fig. 6b).
2 Splitting the fibres of the lesser
pond-sedge (Carex
acutiformis)
Linear (oriented perpendicular), glossy, legible as a thin
line along the edge. It has a medium degree of
intrusion and a flat topography at a distance from the
edge passing into a domed one. Its texture is smooth.
Linear traces were not observed (Fig. 6c).
Legible as a band along the working edge. It is dull,
slightly linear (oriented perpendicular). Its
topography is cratered, becoming slightly domed.
The polish basically does not affect the microrelief
image. Its texture is rough (Fig. 6d).
3Processingofthebroadleaf
cattail (Typha latifolia)
whittling (splitting) of the
stems
Linear, glossy polish with a medium degree of
intrusion, visible as a thin line along the edge. Its
topographyis flat passing into a domed area, and the
texture is smooth. Linear traces were not observed
(Fig. 6e).
Very poorly readable. Thin line along the edge, a
marginal degree of intrusion, bright/glossy, weakly
linear. Its topography is atypical and slightly domed
(Fig. 6f).
4Processingofthebroadleaf
cattail (Typha latifolia)
splitting the fibres of the
leaves
Two types of polish. The first is on the cutting edge and
in its immediate vicinity (thin line along the blade). It
has characteristics similar to a polish typical for
processing the hide (scraping), so it islinear, oriented
perpendicularly and has a cratered topography, and
the working edge itself is rounded. This polish,
however, is relatively dull (Fig. 6g). The second is at
some distance from the edge. It ischaracterised by an
invasive degree of intrusion, flat topography and
smooth texture. This polish is bright/glossy, linear
(oriented perpendicular), surface and legible as a
band. It is accompanied by single linear traces in the
form of perpendicular, black striations (Fig. 6h).
Legible as a thin line along the edge. Its features are
largely analogous to those described in the case of
the second variation of polish from the contact
surface. It is bright, and linear, and its topography is
flat, and at a distance from the edge, it becomes
increasingly domed. The texture is smooth. The
working edge is rounded. The polish is accompanied
by single linear traces in the form of perpendicular,
black and filled in striations (Fig. 6i).
5Processingofthebroadleaf
cattail (Typha latifolia)
processing of the rhizomes
Surface polish legible as a band along the edge. It is
bright (flashing) and linear (oriented diagonal). Its
topography is domed, the texture is slightly rough,
and the degree of intrusion is invasive. There are no
linear traces (Fig. 6j).
Identical to the ones observed on the contact surfaces
(Fig. 6k).
6 Processing of the field horsetail
(Equisetum arvense)stems
Polish visible as thin line along the edge. It is glossy,
linear (oriented perpendicular), with a medium
degree of intrusion, flat topography and smooth
texture. Linear traces were not observed (Fig. 7a).
Polish legible as a band along the edge. It is bright,
spread and has an invasive degree of intrusion. Its
topography is flat on the cutting edge (while
maintaining the general microrelief structure) and
strongly pitted. It becomes domed on the side edges.
The texture is rough and the cutting edge slightly
rounded. There are no linear traces (Fig. 7b).
7 Processing of the field horsetail
(Equisetum arvense)roots
Polish legible as a thin line along the edge, glossy,
slightly linear (oriented diagonal), with a marginal
degree of intrusion. In the areas of the working edge
most intensively used, its topography is flat/domed
(Fig. 7c); in places less exposed to contact with the
processed material, it is domed (Fig. 7d). Polish
texture is smooth (in less-used areas slightly rough),
linear traces were not observed. Cutting edge is
slightly rounded.
A developed polish is illegible and observed only at one
point. Here, it was very similar to the legible one on
the contact surface, only with a much less degree of
intrusion. It is glossy and has a domed topography
and smooth texture (Fig. 7e). In addition, a linear,
bright spread polish with an invasive degree of
intrusion, a domed topography and a slightly rough
texture was recorded (Fig. 7f).
8 Processing of the eagle fern
(Pteridium aquilinum)
stems
Polish legible as a band along the edge. Basically it is
matt, slightly linear, has a domed-cratered topogra-
phy and rough texture (Fig.7g). It is accompanied by
single linear traces in the form of black striations
oriented perpendicularly. At the veryedge, the polish
becomes brighter and its topography more domed.
Polish similar to the one observed on the contact
surface. Itis dull, scattered withan invasive degree of
intrusion. Its topography is cratered/domed and the
texture is rough (Fig. 7h).
9
Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:36133628 3625
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
(Figs. 3h, 7b). In both cases, they are of a domed topog-
raphy and smooth texture. The main difference is that the
polish visible on the prehistoric products is glossier and
less pitted. However, it must be borne in mind that the
comparison is with a single experimental tool that was
used for a relatively short period of time, and as a result,
the damage formed on its surface is not very developed.
Here, it is worth drawing attention to the fact that on the
negative side of type 3 curved knives at a certain distance
from their edges (hence, at locations less exposed to dam-
age), polish of basically identical characteristics to those
observed on the discussed experimental product can be
found. This allows the suggestion that in the initial stages
of application, these products could have had similar wear
traces. While this suggestion requires further verification,
this experimental work has recorded the most significant
analogies of wear traces between curved knives and ex-
perimental tools to date.
7. Use-wear traces formed in the course of the conducted
experimental processing of roots of the common horsetail
are not developed enough to allow for a comparative anal-
ysis to be performed. Their present characteristics mani-
fest greatest analogies to traces encountered on type 3
curved knives, as in the case of processing stems of the
same plant. However, these are only general similarities.
8. As a result of the processing of the eagle fern, wear traces
of a clearly different character compared to that typical of
the curved knives were formed on the experimental tools.
9. The domed shape of the polish identifiable on the tool
used for processing stems of the marsh fern (Fig. 7k, l)
makes them similar to these observed on the positive side
of type 7a knives (Fig. 4h). The characteristics of other
features of polish are very different in both cases,
nonetheless.
The conducted experimental works proved that pro-
cessing of even theoretically similar plants may result in
wear traces of clearly different characteristics. Such a
situation was observed in the case of both sedge spe-
cies. Interestingly, significant divergence in the formed
damage was also obtained by processing different parts
of the same plant as during experiments on the common
cattail. This leads to a conclusion that the diversity of
wear traces encountered when analysing the tools used
for processing plants with herbaceous stems is exten-
sive, while the specificity of damage recorded on spe-
cific types of curved knives may result from the fact
that very specific species were processed or from the
use of precisely determined techniques. These can man-
ifest in, for example a polish of hide-likecharacteris-
tics visible on types 7 and 7a knives, which was formed
during the experiment by splitting the fibres of the com-
mon cattail leaves to a very limited extent. It should not
be forgotten that some of the types of curved knives
may be related to the processing of other materials.
This is indicated by a highly abrasive nature of some
of the recorded polish traces, most of all, the presence
of clear linear traces that could not be replicated despite
processing plant roots and rhizomes, which are materials
highly contaminated with sand. As noted above, the raw
materials identified here as those that could have been
subjected to processing in the past are bone and antler,
particularly in the case of softening with natural acids
and bases. To verify this possibility, for the purpose of
the conducted research, tools used in the course of new
experiments on methods for softening these raw mate-
rials were subjected to use-wear analyses, with full re-
sults to be published in the near future. In the experi-
ments, attempts were made to soften bone and antler by
boiling in water and soaking in the following sub-
stances: water, oxalic acid, lactic acid, lye, urine and
flax oil. Due to the specificity of the wear traces record-
ed on the curved knives, the softened raw material was
subjected to whittling and scraping. Each experiment
Ta bl e 2 (continued)
No. Experiment Characteristics of the polish and linear traces at working edge
Contact surface Not-contact surface
Processing of the eagle fern
(Pteridium aquilinum)
roots
Polish is shiny, with a marginal degree of intrusion,
readable as a broken line along the cutting edge
(generally underdeveloped). Its topography is
cratered/domed and the texture is smooth. There are
no linear traces (Fig. 7i).
Polish with a characteristic very similar to the one
observed on the contact surface. However, its
topography is more domed and pitted and the texture
is rough (Fig. 7j).
10 Processing of the marsh fern
(Thelypteris palustris)
Polish readable as a band along the edge. It is bright,
with an invasive degree of intrusion, linear and
oriented diagonal. It has a domed topography and
slightly rough texture (Fig. 7k).
Polish is scattered, linear (oriented diagonal) and shiny
(more dull than on the contact surface), with a domed
topography. It has an invasive degree of intrusion
and rough texture (Fig. 7l). Linear traces were not
observed.
3626 Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2019) 11:36133628
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
took about 60 min. As a result of the use-wear analysis
of the employed experimental tools, no wear traces with
characteristics typical of curved knives were observed.
Therefore, bone and antler can be safely assumed not to
be the materials processed using the discussed tools.
Conclusions
The results of the presented studies explicitly illustrate that the
interpretation of the function of the curved knives and the
general scale and means of processing plants with herbaceous
stems (including siliceous plants) in the Early Holocene are
highly complex. As indicated, traces formed on flint tools as a
result of working a small selection of plant species prove to
have highly different characteristics. Finds from peat bog sites
suggest that a considerably wider range of these plant species
were subject to processing. An excellent illustration of the
range is provided by the equipment found with Ötzi the
Iceman, which included items made of several dozen plant
species (Fleckinger and Steiner 1999; Dickson et al. 2003).
The probable scale is also suggested by a number of Early
Holocene seasonal camps such as Ludowice which demon-
strate a highly specialised plant processing economy. What is
needed is more multifaceted and in-depth research, stepping
beyond the experimental work and use-wear analyses that are
standard in this field into modern botany, studies on plant
properties, results of palynological studies and analyses of
macro fossils from sites where siliceous plant processing
was performed (compare Hurcombe 2008). Lastly, an excep-
tionally important element of this type of analyses should be
analyses of residues present on the actual flint tools. For sure,
it should be also conducted some more precise studies in
search for correlation between the sets of usage traces ob-
served on each type of curved knives and morphology of the
tools (blank type, shape and angle of the working edge, et
cetera). However, to make the obtained results statistically
reliable, more artefacts representing particular types of curved
knives must be gathered before.
The described tools represent one of the first artefacts of
this functional type identified in this part of Europe. As with
most of their Western European counterparts, they come from
sites of the Late Mesolithic chronology. The discovery of such
tools in materials from sites in Lubicz, Sąsieczno and
Ludowice may be therefore (at least for now) an indirect ar-
gument in favour of the chronological proximity and correct-
ness of Atlantic dating of these sites, which is especially im-
portant for the collection from Sąsieczno given no trapezes
were found there. The possibility of making such suggestions
allows the proposition that products of this type, as well as
other functional tools, may soon become not only a priceless
source of information about the economy of prehistoric peo-
ple, but also a relatively good chronology-culture indicator.
This would allow for an explanation of many issues of general
nature presently difficult to solve. Of course, we have to re-
member that in this matter, we are still at the beginning of our
way and still a lot can change. As was shown by the use-wear
analysis of the Belgian flint collections (Beugnier and Crombé
2005;Beugnier2007;Guéret2013), we can expect to identify
the curved knives also in the materials from Early Mesolithic
sites, which, if confirmed in other parts of Europe, can change
to a large extend the way we think about these artefacts. Use-
wear studies should therefore be continued, and the results
used as extensively as possible, including in the analysis of
problems hitherto reserved only for technological and typo-
logical studies.
Acknowledgments I am very grateful to Amanda Satchell (York
University, UK) for the language correction of this article.
Funding information The work was funded bythe scientific projectfrom
the National Science Center (NCN) in Cracow (Poland) no. 2016/23/B/
HS3/00689.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appro-
priate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the
Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
PublishersNoteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdic-
tional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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... Initial studies on plant processing were conducted either as part of broader research on use-wear formation (Kamminga 1979;Keeley and Newcomer 1977;Van Gijn 1990;Vaughan 1985) or to understand the formation of sickle gloss (e.g., Anderson 1980;Curwen 1930Curwen , 1935Fullagar 1991;Gassin 1993). More recently, research has expanded to include topics such as reconstructing cereal harvesting methods (e.g., Anderson 1999;Ibáñez et al. 2008;Mazzucco et al. 2016), fiber production from soft plants (e.g., Caspar et al. 2007;Hurcombe 1994), and investigating the connection between specific tool morphologies and plant processing activities (Beugnier et Crombé 2008;Gassin 1994;Guéret 2014;Osipowicz 2019;Sobkowiak-Tabaka and Kufel-Diakowska 2019;Little 2017). Considering the large number of variables that may influence the development of plant wear, relatively few systematic experiments have been carried out and their scope was generally limited. ...
... Our results therefore confirm that plant polish formation is most likely the result of abrasion and is the outcome of an interplay between multiple variables. The degree of abrasion appears strongly influenced by either silica density or material hardness (including mineral Our experimental study highlights current limitations in adequately understanding plant wear formation due to the broad range of variables that interfere, which explains why it has been so difficult to replicate archaeological use-wear traces assumed to be linked with the processing of wetland plants Crombé 2005, 2007;Crombé and Beugnier 2013;Little et al. 2017;Osipowicz 2019;Van Gijn 2005). ...
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Reconstructing the transformation of plants based on use-wear is challenging due to the variety of technological choices available, the diverse range of plant species that could have been used, and the limited knowledge of how plant wear forms. The frequent appearance of ambiguous plant wear on stone tools from early and middle Holocene wetland contexts in Northwestern Europe provides an ideal case study to explore the complexity of plant wear formation. In this context, we present the outcomes of an exploratory experimental study which aimed to improve our understanding of plant wear formation resulting from processing activities of wetland plants. The program included the creation of a reference collection of plants available in. Particular attention was devoted to the effect of mineral plant elements, such as silica Northwestern European wetland ecosystems and a set of actualistic plant processing experiments minerals or calcium oxalates, on the development of plant polish. The elemental characterisation of wetland plants with scanning electron microscopy and the experimentally reproduced plant wear allowed us to draw comparisons between the plant composition and plant wear formation, and thus grasp the complexity of plant wear formation which depends on a large set of variables.
... Solheim et al., 2018), and some only on plants (e.g. Osipowicz, 2019). Evidence of surface transformation (e.g. ...
... Rights reserved. plant manipulation (e.g. from the Middle Paleolithic site of Payre in France; Hardy & Moncel, 2011;Osipowicz, 2019), plant microremains from dental calculus (e.g. Cristiani et al., 2016;Henry et al., 2011Henry et al., , 2014 and large numbers of animal bones accumulated through butchering activities were identified within both Middle Palaeolithic and Mesolithic sites. ...
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We review palaeoenvironmental proxies and combinations of these relevant for understanding hunter-gatherer niche construction activities in pre-agricultural Europe. Our approach consists of two steps: (1) identify the possible range of hunter-gatherer impacts on landscapes based on ethnographic studies; (2) evaluate proxies possibly reflecting these impacts for both the Eemian (Last Interglacial, Middle Palaeolithic) and the Early–Middle Holocene (Mesolithic). We found these paleoenvironmental proxies were not able to unequivocally establish clear-cut differences between specific anthropogenic, climatic and megafaunal impacts for either time period in this area. We discuss case studies for both periods and show that published evidence for Mesolithic manipulation of landscapes is based on the interpretation of comparable data as available for the Last Interglacial. If one applies the ‘Mesolithic’ interpretation schemes to the Neanderthal record, three common niche construction activities can be hypothesised: vegetation burning, plant manipulation and impact on animal species presence and abundance. Our review suggests that as strong a case can be made for a Neanderthal impact on landscapes as for anthropogenic landscape changes during the Mesolithic, even though the Neanderthal evidence comes from only one high-resolution site complex. Further research should include attempts (e.g. by means of modelling studies) to establish whether hunter-gatherer impact on landscapes played out at a local level only versus at a larger scale during both time periods, while we also need to obtain comparative data on the population sizes of Last Interglacial and Holocene hunter-gatherers, as these are usually inferred to have differed significantly.
... Some of their identified types display a unique structure (e.g., Fig. 7: D, E) and understanding their genesis should be undoubtedly a goal of independent interdisciplinary studies. Investigations of this kind would be surely very helpful for an accurate and univocal interpretation of traces with characteristics like those identified on the artefact T3 (cf., Table 2, Fig. 2: 2), which to a certain degree resemble destruction traces visible on a few types of the so-called curved knives (Osipowicz 2019). Such studies could also be important for the explanation of the genesis of extremely interesting traces observed on the artefact T8 (cf., Table 2, Fig. 3: 3). ...
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Full-text available
The site no. 9 in Kleszczowa is located within the region of the so-called Barańskie Mountains, within a distance of ca. 7 km from the locality named Pilica, Silesian voiv. In the course of the field survey and trial excavations conducted in the area of the site since 2012 relics of the Late Palaeolithic settlement were discovered. Based on technological and typological traits flint inventory obtained from the site was classified as typical of the Magdalenian cultural tradition. Distinctive groups of artefacts were single-platform cores for blades with changed orientation, at various stages of exploitation and blade blanks with diagnostic en éperon butts. Amongst tools there were recorded mainly burins, endscrapers, perforators and truncated blades. Raw materials used for production of artefacts were, in great majority, high quality Jurassic flints, the outcrops of which occurred within direct surroundings of the site. Flint assemblage from the site Kleszczowa 9 was subjected to multi-aspect technological and functional analysis. In this paper the authors would like to stress the results of use-wear analysis, in particular, which revealed that nearly half of the artefacts investigated in this respect bore traces of utilisation for processing of wood, meat and hide. On few of them there were detected traces indicating processing of silica plants and elaboration of soaked bone. Moreover, many forms bore traces of hafting and organic substance, being most likely relics of some sort of a binder. Apart from these traces the artefacts under scrutiny were characterised by an extremely high degree of post-depositional destruction, resulting from deep ploughing employed within the area of the site. The results of analysis performed for flint assemblage from the site Kleszczowa 9 correspond well with the current state-of-the-art referring to utilisation of tools by the Magdalenian societies, and they undoubtedly extend our knowledge upon behaviour of humans at the decline of the Pleistocene in the region of the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland.
... These plants leave very distinctive weartraces on flint tools. They are, for example, grasses (Poaceae, including reed), sedges (Cyperaceae), ferns (Polypodiopsida), bur-reed (Sparganium), and common horsetail (Equisetum arvense) (Osipowicz, 2019). In the sites discussed here, these plants were mainly worked with a scraping motion. ...
Chapter
Mobility is a fundamental part of Mesolithic settlement systems, and it is essential to understand contacts, exchanges, and interactions between Mesolithic groups. Mobility is also a general term, and can be used at different levels and scales (Lovis et al., 2006). In this paper, we will focus on seasonal mobility and the annual time frames that can be reconstructed from features that are often present at Dutch Mesolithic sites.
... Il pourrait s'agir d'éléments de tribulum, auquel cas il s'agirait d'une première attestation de l'utilisation du tribulum dans nos régions avant la période romaine. Les traces végétales se rapprochent également de polis attribués à l'assouplissage des fibres végétales pour des activités de vannerie (Guéret et al., 2014 ;Little & van Gijn, 2017 ;Osipowicz, 2019). Il pourrait donc également s'agir d'outils emmanchés dans ce but, ce qui peut nous renseigner sur l'artisanat A Fig. 7A -Éléments utilisés sur des végétaux interprétés comme de possibles éléments de tribulum. ...
Article
Les études tracéologiques du matériel lithique provenant de contextes d’habitats protohistoriques sont rares, malgré un important potentiel. Les industries de silex taillé de l’Âge du Bronze et du Fer soulèvent de nombreuses questions qui peuvent trouver des réponses dans la fonction qu’ont assumée ces outils. Les résultats de l’analyse fonctionnelle d’Harmignies, daté de l’Âge du Fer, éclairent certains aspects de la vie quotidienne et des choix de matériaux pour la fabrication d’outils. Depuis les briquets aux éléments de tribulum, le silex taillé est encore utilisé de diverses manières sur ce site, qui offre de nouveaux éléments de réflexion et de comparaison pour mieux comprendre la transition technologique de la pierre au métal.
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The studies presented in this paper constitute the first scientific attempt to interpret the manner whereby notched implements made of scapulae were made and used. These implements have been found at numerous European and non-European sites, usually dated to the Neolithic–Early Iron Age (predominantly the Early Bronze Age). Research has examined these products since the beginning of the 20th century, resulting in the development of several hypotheses regarding their functions. This paper presents the analysis results of 41 such artefacts from the early Bronze Age defensive settlement in Bruszczewo (central Poland). This is the largest collection of these products from a single site worldwide. The artefacts were subjected to multi-aspect traceological tests (both technological and functional) using optical, metallographic, and scanning electron microscopes. The residues identified on their surfaces were analysed using optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-rays spectroscopy. Moreover, the studies reported herein involved extensive experimental research. Consequently, the chain of operations followed in producing these tools was reconstructed and the use-wear traces present on their surfaces were classified; it was determined that these tools were most likely used for threshing cereals but might also have been used for threshing legumes. This is the first proof of threshing in central Europe in the Early Bronze Age and the first scientifically substantiated hypothesis regarding the function of these important artefacts.
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Osipowicz, G. et al. (2022). Pedantry in Palaeolithic? The story of two small Swiderian pits from Chełmno-Dobrzyń Lakeland. Sprawozdania Archeologiczne, 74(1), 325–344. The article presents a multifaceted analysis of two collections of flint products from Late Palaeolithic pits discovered during the excavations of sites Ludowice 6 (Ryńsk commune), and Paliwodzizna 29 (Golub-Dobrzyń commune). Both sites are located in the Chełmno-Dobrzyń Lake District in central Poland. The research included raw material analysis, technological and morphological analysis, studies using the refitting method, and use-wear analysis. As a result of the conducted study, it was shown that both features are most likely a remnant of refuse pits in the type of so-called waste heaps, but their detailed functional origins are different.
Article
Full-text available
The Late Glacial site Lubrza 10 yielded new archaeological and use-wear data for discussing the development of plant-based technologies long before the occupation of the European Lowlands by Neolithic societies. More than 4000 Federmesser and Swiderian lithic artefacts were collected from the site, which is located on sandy kames adjacent to former water bodies. Use-wear analysis showed that abandoned tools were engaged in the activities well recognised as Palaeolithic ones, such as hunting, working hide, bone and other soft and hard materials. Microscopic observations have also produced some of the earliest evidence of processing non-woody plants in the North European Plain. There is a considerable number of artefacts with plant-like polish. Tools were used for whittling, splitting, scraping or stripping plant materials—motions that could have also been made while extracting of fibres and other raw materials necessary for making crafts. Morphological parameters of tools suggest a selection of flint implements, and their distribution shows the locations of processing plants. Results of previously conducted pollen and macro-remains analysis demonstrate the presence of a great variety of plants, including high silica content herbaceous species that covered the nearest vicinity of the site both during the Allerød and the Younger Dryas.
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Full-text available
This article presents the results of an interdisciplinary study of the Late Mesolithic site of Ludowice 6 in Central Poland. Here, the remains of three shelters/huts were identified, each with a clearly organised functional space, in which zones for various activity types could be distinguished. It is suggested that the camp was seasonally used in the early autumn. Most probably, it served as a location for conducting the highly specialised processing of silica plants. The functional structure of an excavated tool assemblage indicates that this place might have been used to acquire plant material seasonally, which was later transported to a base camp situated elsewhere. The location and characteristics of individual activity zones, as well as the manner in which projectile points were dispersed, together with the characteristics and the intensity of flint processing allowed us to test a hypothesis that it could have been used mainly by women.
Article
This paper represents an attempt to address the transition to farming through a long-term study of plant microwear traces on flint tools. We report on a series of archaeological research projects which show the presence of a specific type of siliceous plant-working flint tool in the Mesolithic and Early Neolithic of the Rhine/Meuse Delta region that disappears when the first evidence for crop growing appears in the archaeological record. A long-running programme of experimentation has shown that these plant traces are related to plant craftwork. The disappearance of tools displaying traces of this particular type of plant-working at the time agriculture starts to take hold in this region has led us to argue that this craft was related in some way to subsistence, probably a change in subsistence technology. We show that microwear studies of plant polish on tools offer a complimentary and often overlooked form of evidence to more traditional methods of studying the Neolithisation process.
Article
Friesack 4 and Friesack 27 are Mesolithic marshland sites in northern Germany, about 60km northwest of Berlin. The sites lie in the most western part of the Warsaw-Berlin ice-marginal valley which in this area is filled with fluvioglacial sand and has extensive peat cover. At the time of Mesolithic occupation the sands formed a topography of low hills with lakes and ponds in process of peat formation. At Friesack 4, the excavations were undertaken from 1977 to 1989 mainly in the refuse area of the site in the sublittoral zone of a former lake adjacent to the settlement area. A multi-stratified sequence of sediments, consisting of sands, humose sands and peat muds, indicated many Mesolithic occupations from the middle Pre-boreal (around 9700 uncal BP) to the middle Atlantic (around 6600 uncal BP), except the younger Pre-boreal, according to 74 radiocarbon dates and to extensive palynological research. The finds comprise artefacts - besides flint and stone - of bone, antler, teeth, wood, and bark as well as bast including fragments of nets, strings and ropes. The environmental and archaeological data in their chronological contexts add considerably to the knowledge of the development of ecology, technology, subsistence and settlement pattern in the southern marginal zone of the west Baltic Mesolithic. -from Author