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Correlates of Homophobic Attitudes in Lebanon: Results of a Cross-Sectional Study
Abstract
To assess homophobic attitudes toward gay and lesbian persons and examine how those negative attitudes contributed to risk factors that may impact gay and lesbian persons among a sample of Lebanese individuals. A cross-sectional study, conducted between March and July 2017, enrolled 400 participants aged between 15 and 80 years. 129 (32.3%) of the participants had severe homophobic attitudes. An increase in intense homophobia would significantly increase the odds of emotion focused engagement and decrease the problem focused engagement (Beta = 1.05 and Beta = −1.19, respectively). A stepwise linear regression, using the total homophobia score as the dependent variable showed that knowing someone gay (Beta = −12.97), university education level (Beta = −14.93), high monthly income (Beta = −4.33), and higher problem-focused engagement subscale (Beta = −0.54) would significantly decrease the total homophobic score. Our study supports the prevalence of homophobia among people in Lebanon. Understanding the correlation factors and predict discriminative attitudes can be of great help for policymakers when it comes to approaching the problem of homophobia with evidence-based solutions.
... For instance, Walch et al. (2010) found a positive relationship between age and homophobia. It is observed that homophobia decreases as the education level increases (Detenber et al., 2013;Herek and Glunt, 1993;Obeid et al., 2020;Walch et al., 2010). For instance, Lambert et al. (2006) showed that grade level has a positive effect on attitudes towards individuals with different sexual orientations and that upper-class students have open ideas towards homosexuals compared to lowerclass students. ...
... It is observed that the level of religiosity was positively associated with homophobia (Altemeyer and Hunsberger, 1992;Detenber et al., 2013;Herek, 1988;Mahfir and Parameswari, 2020;Nagoshi et al., 2008). For instance, Obeid et al. (2020) revealed that as the score for feeling religious increases, the homophobia score also increases among Lebanese Muslims. In addition, Çetiner and Assche (2021) revealed that people who define themselves as Muslims in the sample of Türkiye had higher homophobia scores than people who do not have religious views. ...
... Pettigrew andTropp's (2006, 2008) meta-analyses also supported this idea. In parallel with the implications of the intergroup contact hypothesis conceptualized by Pettigrew (1998) after Allport, many studies have tested whether contact with homosexuals differentiates homophobia (e.g., Çırakoğlu, 2006;Herek & Capitanio, 1996;Metin-Orta & Metin-Camgöz, 2020;Obeid et al., 2020;Serbes, 2017;Şah, 2012). For instance, experience of contact with homosexuals is associated with lower negative attitudes in people who state that they are more religious (Herek & Glunt, 1993). ...
Authoritarian personality traits are associated with compliance and obedience to prevailing social norms and values. In contexts where the political climate fuels homophobia, people with authoritarian personality traits display more homophobic attitudes and behaviors. On the other hand, positive intergroup contact can reduce problems between groups. This positive intergroup contact, which emphasizes similarities by weakening baseless information about the outgroup, has long been used to reduce intergroup conflicts. In a heterogeneous sample, whether positive intergroup contact will have a moderating role in the relationship between authoritarianism and homophobia is an open question. To answer this question, 241 young adults (Mage = 20.0, SD = 2.04; 59.3% female, 40.7% male) from 47 different cities of Türkiye were reached. Participants completed the right-wing authoritarianism scale, the social contact form with sexual minorities, and the Hudson & Ricketts homophobia scale. In parallel with the hypotheses, the findings show that authoritarian personality score positively predicted homophobia (β = .49, SE = .05, z = 10.07, p < .001), while it negatively predicted homophobia (β = -.66, SE = .08, z = -8.67, p < .001). However, contrary to the hypothesis, no moderating role of positive intergroup contact in the association between authoritarianism and homophobia was observed (β = -.03, SE = .05, z = -.53 p = .593). Simple slope analyzes showed that authoritarianism positively predicted homophobia at both high and low levels of positive intergroup contact. The findings are discussed in the context of intergroup contact theory.
... Although there has been some research into gay men in Lebanon (e.g. Michli & El Jamil, 2020;Obeid, Haddad, Salame, Kheir, & Hallit, 2019;Wagner et al., 2013), none has focused specifically on differences between gay and bisexual men in this country (Maatouk & Jaspal, 2019). Using tenets of identity process theory (Breakwell, 1986) as an interpretative framework, we examine the correlates of internalized sexual orientation stigma and mental health outcomes (i.e., depression and psychological distress) in a religiously diverse sample of gay and bisexual men in Lebanon. ...
... Although identity threat is not a focus of the present study, it is noteworthy that gay and bisexual men in Lebanon do face diverse stressors that can threaten their identity. For instance, coming out may be psychologically stressful if there are high levels of societal stigma in relation to one's sexual orientation (Obeid et al., 2019;Wagner et al., 2013). Another important minority stressor is perceived family pressure to get married. ...
... Although there is an established empirical link between internalized sexual orientation stigma and mental health outcomes in samples of gay and bisexual men (Herek & Garnets, 2007), this has not been studied in Lebanese gay and bisexual men specifically. In societies with widespread stigma toward sexual minorities, such as that of Lebanon (Obeid et al., 2019), people may focus on other aspects of identity (other than their sexuality) and draw on religious coping in response to stressors associated with these other aspects of identity (such as job insecurity, COVID-19 and so on). ...
This study explores the correlates of internalized sexual orientation stigma, psychological distress and depression in a religiously diverse sample of gay and bisexual men in Lebanon. A convenience sample of 200 participants completed a cross-sectional survey. Bisexual men reported greater internalized sexual orientation stigma and less outness to their family and were more likely to face family pressure to have a heterosexual marriage than gay men. People of no religion reported more outness than Muslims and Christians but also higher psychological distress and depression. Multiple regression analyses showed that religiosity, outness, family pressure to marry and being bisexual were positively associated with internalized sexual orientation stigma; and that frequency of attending one's place of worship was negatively associated with psychological distress and depression. Individuals may be coping with adversity through engagement with institutionalized religion, which also appears to be a source of negative social representations concerning their sexuality.
... This may entail the regulation of sexuality, for instance. Indeed, both Lebanese law and social attitudes tend to take a negative stance on sexual diversity, such as non-heterosexual identities (Obeid et al., 2020). According to Article 534 of the Lebanese Penal Code of 1943, sexual relations which 'contradict the law of nature' are prohibited by law, and those found guilty of this offence (which can include homosexual relations) can face up to a year in prison (Human Rights Watch, 2018;Makarem, 2012). ...
... According to Article 534 of the Lebanese Penal Code of 1943, sexual relations which 'contradict the law of nature' are prohibited by law, and those found guilty of this offence (which can include homosexual relations) can face up to a year in prison (Human Rights Watch, 2018;Makarem, 2012). Although this law is not widely enforced, there is evidence that social attitudes towards homosexuality are generally negative (Obeid et al., 2020), which in turn may lead non-heterosexual Lebanese people to experience negative mental health outcomes, such as psychological distress and self-harm. ...
... Although the protective effects of religion in the face of poor mental health have been established in older Lebanese people (Chaaya et al., 2007), it is unclear whether this effect is also true in younger samples of Lebanese people of diverse sexual orientations. In view of the negative social attitudes towards non-heterosexual people in Lebanon (Obeid et al., 2020) and the powerful anti-gay rhetoric associated with religious leaders (Maatouk & Jaspal, 2020), it is unlikely that non-heterosexual Lebanese people exhibit high levels of religiosity or that religion functions in a protective manner. ...
Drawing on identity process theory, this study explores the protective and risk factors of psychological distress and self-harm in a religiously diverse sample of heterosexual and non-heterosexual students in Lebanon. A convenience sample of 209 undergraduate students participated in a cross-sectional survey and completed measures of religiosity, identity threat, psychological distress and self-harm. Results indicated that non-heterosexual participants exhibited higher levels of psychological distress, were more likely to report self-harm, and reported lower levels of religiosity than their heterosexual counterparts. It was shown that religiosity was protective against psychological distress, and that sexual orientation distress predicted self-harm. In order to reduce the risk of psychological distress and self-harm, it will be necessary to challenge stigma towards sexual minorities, to promote engagement with a broader range of social identity categories (other than just religion), and to ensure the availability of effective counselling support to all who need it.
... LGBTQ+ phobic behaviors and discourses may cause LGBTQ+s to have a negative perspective, especially toward cisgender heterosexuals (Kara, 2022b). The interaction of different group members with each other, the increase in positive social contacts with LGBTQ+s, their getting to know each other, and their awareness of their common characteristics are important factors in reducing prejudices and establishing empathy (Anderssen, 2002;Duhigg et al., 2010;Herek & Capitanio, 1996;Herek & Glunt, 1993;Jarvis et al., 2022;Obeid et al., 2020;Sakallı & Uğurlu, 2003;Şah, 2012). Based on the inference that positive contact between groups can change people's feelings and thoughts positively by increasing the positive knowledge of the groups about each other, it can be said that the activities where LGBTQ+s and cisgender heterosexual individuals come together for a common purpose (e.g., empathy-focused group work) can be encouraged and negative attitudes can be reduced. ...
Purpose: This study evaluated the possible effects of empathy-focused group work on the participants, which is designed by bringing together cisgender heterosexual and LGBTQ+ people. Method: The study group of the research consists of 28 people (14 people in each of the experimental and control groups) who receive social service from a municipality in Istanbul, Turkey. The empathy-focused group work lasted 8 weeks, and pretest and posttest measurements were performed using the Affective and Cognitive Measure of Empathy (ACME) Scale and the Social Dominance Orientation Scale. Results: The result of this study showed that the participants were able to experience positive contact experiences in group work with heterogeneous groups, and an increase in the emotional and cognitive empathy levels of the participants and a decrease in their social dominance orientation. Conclusions: Implications for future research and professional practice are discussed.
... Fakat mevcut yasal düzenlemelere rağmen toplumların kültürel ve dini inançları, ahlaki değer yargıları, heteroseksist anlayışın kabul görmesi, damgalama, bireylerin ön yargıları ve konu ile ilgili yanlış ve eksik bilgileri nedeniyle LGBT bireylere karşı olumsuz tavırlar sergilenmeye devam etmektedir 6 . Homofobi, eşcinsel bireylere karşı duyulan nefret, korku, takınılan olumsuz tutum ve davranışlar ile eşcinsellikle ilgili olumsuz inançları tanımlamaktadır ve heteroseksüel yönelimin dışındaki yönelimlerin yok edilmesi ya da gizli kalması görüşünü savunmaktadır 7,8 . Homofobik tutum ve davranışlar bireysel düzeyde; damgalanma, ayrımcılığa maruz kalma ve dolayısı ile dışlanma, toplumsal düzeyde ise istihdam ve barınma sorunları başta olmak üzere sağlık ve sosyal hizmetlere ulaşımlarını engelleyen, yaşam hakkı ihlaline kadar giden yok sayılma şeklinde kendini göstermektedir 9 . ...
Aim: This study aims to examine the homophobic attitudes and empathy skill levels of nursing students and the influencing factors. Material and Methods: This descriptive study was conducted with 545 students studying nursing departments at two universities between September 2018 and January 2019. The data were collected using a Descriptive Characteristics Information Form, Hudson & Ricketts Homophobia Scale, and the Empathic Skill Scale (Form B). Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, number, percentage), student t-test, one-way analysis of variance, and Pearson correlation analysis were used to evaluate the data. Results: 71.4% of the students participating in the study were women, and the mean age was 20.02±1.47 years. It was determined that 51% of the students knew the concept of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender (LGBT) correctly, and 60.6% of them perfectly explained the concept of homosexuality. The students’ Hudson & Ricketts Homophobia Scale total mean score was 98.44±23.19. It was determined that male students, students from the Eastern Anatolian region, and students who misunderstood the concept of LGBT had more homophobic attitudes (p
... This study is the first of its kind amongst the Lebanese population looking into factors associated with xenophobia and the xenophobia's effect on the coping strategies and is the second of a project that aims at looking into phobias among the general population in the country. 25 A high percentage of moderate and high xenophobia was found, consistent with what's found in the European society, which has witnessed growing rates and prevalence of xenophobia due to the migratory influx of workers from Africa, Asian countries and the Middle East and North Africa regions 7,26 Regardless of the causes of migration, the movement of individuals in mass numbers has resulted in growing fears and concerns amongst natives. Some justify xenophobia by attributing the increased occurrence of thefts, murders, and assaults to nonnatives, while others consider xenophobia a natural and protective mechanism by which one preserves cultural and social convictions and norms. 1 The growing number of immigrants Lebanon has witnessed after the beginning of the Syrian war in 2011, had led to growing tensions in Lebanese communities, with growing concern and fear on the economic (labor market) and cultural issues (threat to social status and personal/family honor) by Lebanese people. ...
Purpose: To assess the relationship between xenophobia and the coping strategies and evaluate factors associated with xenophobia in Lebanon.
Design/Methods: This cross-sectional study, conducted between March-July 2017, enrolled 433 participants.
Results: Severe xenophobia (Beta=1.46) and female gender (Beta=1.45) were associated with higher problem-focused engagement scores. Participants with low income had lower problem-focused disengagement score compared to those without income. Moderate (Beta=0.80) and intense xenophobia (Beta=1.38) were significantly associated with higher emotion focused engagement, whereas female gender was significantly associated with lower emotion-focused engagement (Beta=-0.71) and disengagement (Beta=-0.83).
Being divorced compared to single (Beta=2.32) and female gender (Beta=2.04) were associated with higher xenophobia.
Practice implications: Our study supports the prevalence of xenophobia amongst Lebanese, but requires a broader assessment of that trend.
While the power of legal exclusion in stigmatisation is undeniable, its impact on ally behaviour has never been explored. This gap in stigma, law, and allyship is the focus of the present study. More specifically, this study shows how exclusion of the stigmatised from a legal system increases prejudicial attitudes expressed by allies. Using sexual prejudice, negative attitudes towards sexual minorities, as a proxy for stigma, this study explores ‘Superficial Allies’ or those who express full support for sexual minorities while refusing neighbouring proximity to them. Using attitudinal data from the Integrated Values Surveys (1981–2016), a large international (113 countries/regions) cross-sectional time-series survey, this study investigates the role of legal inclusion and social obedience in sexual prejudice expressed by those who fully support sexual minorities and those who fully reject them. The results of logistic regression models suggest that the absence of legal recognition and protection for sexual minorities at the national level increases expression of sexual prejudice among both allies and the stigmatisers. While social obedience plays a significant role in stigmatisers’ expression of sexual prejudice, it shows no significance for the ally population. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
The Lebanese population has been exposed to multiple stressors associated with political and economic instability for decades. Using survey data from 203 university students in Beirut, this study focuses on the factors that predict coping styles in men and women and heterosexual and non-heterosexual people in Lebanon. Heterosexual people reported higher religiosity and ethnic identification but lower psychological distress than non-heterosexual people. Women reported higher religiosity but lower identity resilience and engagement in the re-thinking/planning coping style than men. Religiosity was positively associated with identity resilience and ethnic identification but negatively associated with the social engagement coping style. Ethnic identification and identity resilience were positively associated with the social engagement and re-thinking/planning coping styles. Identity resilience and religiosity were negatively associated with psychological distress. The social engagement and re-thinking/planning coping styles were positively correlated. Results suggest that non-heterosexual people may be less likely to adopt adaptive coping styles because of their decreased religiosity and ethnic identification and that men and women have distinct pathways to adaptive coping strategies (through identity resilience and religiosity, respectively).
The available evidence demonstrates that lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people face challenges when accessing palliative care services, and receive suboptimal care at the end of life. This is mainly attributed to assumed heterosexuality, lack of knowledge and understanding of LGBT issues and specific healthcare needs, discrimination, homophobia, and transphobia. In Lebanon, legal and institutional support for LGBT individuals is minimal, and palliative care provision remains scarce and fragmented. This compounds the impact of social stigma and marginalisation, and results in unrecognised palliative and end of life care needs for the LGBT individual. This short commentary discusses the development of an LGBT palliative care workshop in Lebanon, which was the first initiative of its kind in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. It also explores how this initiative has led to further developments, and how these efforts can be replicated in other countries in the MENA region.
Cet article explore le rôle modérateur du soutien parental dans les relations entre la victimisation homophobe, l’homophobie intériorisée et la détresse psychologique chez des jeunes de minorités sexuelles (JMS), que l’on dit aussi lesbiennes, gais, bisexuels ou en questionnement. Il vise à 1) documenter la prévalence des différentes formes de victimisation homophobe vécue par les JMS, et ce, selon le genre et l’âge ; et 2) explorer l’effet modérateur du soutien parental dans la relation entre la victimisation homophobe, l’homophobie intériorisée et la détresse psychologique. Un échantillon de 228 JMS âgés de 14 à 22 ans, non exclusivement hétérosexuels, recrutés en milieu communautaire dans le cadre de l’enquête sur le Parcours amoureux des jeunes (PAJ) du Québec a été analysé. L’impact de la victimisation homophobe, du soutien parental, de l’homophobie intériorisée sur la détresse psychologique est exploré par un modèle de régression linéaire avec effets de modération et de médiation. Le rôle modérateur du soutien parental est confirmé dans la relation entre la victimisation homophobe et la détresse psychologique. Ces variables peuvent constituer des leviers pour prévenir les effets négatifs des préjudices homophobes sur la santé mentale des JMS.
This study describes the development and validation of the Homophobia Scale. The scale was developed to assess the cognitive, affective, and behavioral components of homophobia. The participants (n=321 for the field trials and n=122 for test–retest reliability) were college students from a large Midwestern university. Results yielded a 25-item questionnaire consisting of three factors: a factor that assesses mainly negative cognitions regarding homosexuality, a factor that assess primarily negative affect and avoidance of homosexual individuals, and a factor that assesses negative affect and aggression toward homosexual individuals. Concurrent validity was established using The Index of Homophobia (Hudson & Ricketts, 1980). The phases of scale development and implications of the results are discussed.
Despite changing attitudes toward homosexual relations in the United States, college-educated individuals remain less disapproving of homosexual sex than less-educated persons. Using recent General Social Survey data, this study considers three alternative explanations for the established association between schooling and support for same-sex relations. First, education may promote tolerance of homosexual sex by teaching support of nonconformity. Second, schooling may promote greater cognitive sophistication and complex reasoning, thus enabling individuals to better evaluate new ideas. Third, the observed relationship between education and tolerance may be the spurious result of affluence of the parental home. We find that the relation of education and attitudes is not a spurious one. Rather, the liberalizing effect of education on attitudes toward homosexual relations is due, in part, to education’s association with support for civil liberties, and in part, to schooling’s correlation with cognitive sophistication.
This paper addresses the debate concerning the influence of cultural and economic contexts on the adoption of modern values by individual members of society. We have applied for this purpose a multilevel analysis (HLM), using the World Value Survey (WVS) and European Value Survey (EVS) data bank for 36 of the countries included in the 2000 wave. The cultural and economic higher-level variables are represented by religious zones (Protestant, Catholic, Ex-Socialist Catholic and Islamic) and level of economic development (Real Gross Domestic Product per Capita). The individual-level variables include age, gender, schooling and religiousness (N=51792). The dependent variables consist of two measures: political liberal values (PLV) and social liberal values (SLV). The results of the HLM analysis indicate that although most of the variance in both measures derives from differences in individual characteristics across countries, there is also strong evidence for contextual effects of religious zones and economic development, when each factor is examined by itself. Yet because of multi-colinearity, we cannot estimate the effects of the two higher-level variables independently of each other. We end by discussing the theoretical and methodological implications of our findings.
"Core disgust" is a food related emotion that is rooted in evolution but is also a cultural product. Seven categories of disgust elicitors have been observed in an American sample. These include food, animals, body products, sexual de viance, body-envelope violations, poor hygiene, and contact with death. In addition, social concerns such as interpersonal contamination and socio- moral violations are also associated with disgust. Cross-cultural analyses of disgust and its elicitors using Israeli, Japanese, Greek and Hopi notions of disgust were undertaken. It was noted that disgust elicitors have expanded from food to the social order and have been found in many cultures. Expla nations for this expansion are provided in terms of embodied schemata, which refer to imaginative structures or patterns of experience that are based on bodily knowledge or sensation. A mechanism is suggested whereby disgust elicitors are viewed as a prototypically defined category involving many of the embodied schemata of disgust. It is argued that each culture draws upon these schemata and its social and moral life is based on them.
We investigate how the distribution of AIDS cases in the United States increased homophobia over time. Using pooled GSS surveys, 1973-1998, with state-reported AIDS cases, we estimate models for variation in homophobic attitudes as a function of the time-specific proportion of AIDS cases in a given state. AIDS incidence had a negative impact on civil rights attitudes during the period 1981-1998, but demonstrated an impact only on morality attitudes from 1986 to 1991.
Interest in and research on disgust has surged over the past few decades. The field, however, still lacks a coherent theoretical framework for understanding the evolved function or functions of disgust. Here we present such a framework, emphasizing 2 levels of analysis: that of evolved function and that of information processing. Although there is widespread agreement that disgust evolved to motivate the avoidance of contact with disease-causing organisms, there is no consensus about the functions disgust serves when evoked by acts unrelated to pathogen avoidance. Here we suggest that in addition to motivating pathogen avoidance, disgust evolved to regulate decisions in the domains of mate choice and morality. For each proposed evolved function, we posit distinct information processing systems that integrate function-relevant information and account for the trade-offs required of each disgust system. By refocusing the discussion of disgust on computational mechanisms, we recast prior theorizing on disgust into a framework that can generate new lines of empirical and theoretical inquiry. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
The goals of both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis are described and procedural guidelines for each approach are summarized, emphasizing the use of factor analysis in developing and refining clinical measures. For exploratory factor analysis, a rationale is presented for selecting between principal components analysis and common factor analysis depending on whether the research goal involves either identification of latent constructs or data reduction. Confirmatory factor analysis using structural equation modeling is described for use in validating the dimensional structure of a measure. Additionally, the uses of confirmatory factor analysis for assessing the invariance of measures across samples and for evaluating multitrait-multimethod data are also briefly described. Suggestions are offered for handling common problems with item-level data, and examples illustrating potential difficulties with confirming dimensional structures from initial exploratory analyses are reviewed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The main problem in many model-building situations is to choose from a large set of covariates those that should be included in the "best" model. A decision to keep a variable in the model might be based on the clinical or statistical significance. There are several variable selection algorithms in existence. Those methods are mechanical and as such carry some limitations. Hosmer and Lemeshow describe a purposeful selection of covariates within which an analyst makes a variable selection decision at each step of the modeling process.
In this paper we introduce an algorithm which automates that process. We conduct a simulation study to compare the performance of this algorithm with three well documented variable selection procedures in SAS PROC LOGISTIC: FORWARD, BACKWARD, and STEPWISE.
We show that the advantage of this approach is when the analyst is interested in risk factor modeling and not just prediction. In addition to significant covariates, this variable selection procedure has the capability of retaining important confounding variables, resulting potentially in a slightly richer model. Application of the macro is further illustrated with the Hosmer and Lemeshow Worchester Heart Attack Study (WHAS) data.
If an analyst is in need of an algorithm that will help guide the retention of significant covariates as well as confounding ones they should consider this macro as an alternative tool.
In the absence of prior knowledge about population relations, investigators frequently employ a strategy that uses the data to help them decide whether to adjust for a variable. The authors compared the performance of several such strategies for fitting multiplicative Poisson regression models to cohort data: 1) the "change-in-estimate" strategy, in which a variable is controlled if the adjusted and unadjusted estimates differ by some important amount; 2) the "significance-test-of-the-covariate" strategy, in which a variable is controlled if its coefficient is significantly different from zero at some predetermined significance level; 3) the "significance-test-of-the-difference" strategy, which tests the difference between the adjusted and unadjusted exposure coefficients; 4) the "equivalence-test-of-the-difference" strategy, which significance-tests the equivalence of the adjusted and unadjusted exposure coefficients; and 5) a hybrid strategy that takes a weighted average of adjusted and unadjusted estimates. Data were generated from 8,100 population structures at each of several sample sizes. The performance of the different strategies was evaluated by computing bias, mean squared error, and coverage rates of confidence intervals. At least one variation of each strategy that was examined performed acceptably. The change-in-estimate and equivalence-test-of-the-difference strategies performed best when the cut-point for deciding whether crude and adjusted estimates differed by an important amount was set to a low value (10%). The significance test strategies performed best when the alpha level was set to much higher than conventional levels (0.20).
Evidence suggests that social workers may be biased when dealing with gay and lesbian populations. The study discussed in this article attempted to measure the extent of homophobia and heterosexist bias and their correlates in a cohort of 187 social workers using the Index of Attitudes toward Homosexuality, the Attitudes toward Lesbians and Gay Men Scales, and a newly created scale to measure heterosexist bias. We found that 10 percent of respondents were homophobic and that a majority were heterosexist. Levels of homophobia and heterosexism were negatively correlated with amount of social contact with homosexual men and women. Religiosity was associated with higher levels of homophobia and heterosexism, and having been in psychotherapy was associated with more positive attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. Amount of education on topics related to homosexuality was not correlated with levels of homophobia and heterosexism.
This study assessed the prevalence of AIDS stigma and misinformation about HIV transmission in 1997 and 1999 and examined trends in stigma in the United States during the 1990s.
Telephone surveys with national probability samples of English-speaking adults were conducted in the period 1996 to 1997 (n = 1309) and in 1998 to 1999 (n = 669). Findings were compared with results from a similar 1991 survey.
Overt expressions of stigma declined throughout the 1990s, with support for its most extreme and coercive forms (e.g., quarantine) at very low levels by 1999. However, inaccurate beliefs about the risks posed by casual social contact increased, as did the belief that people with AIDS (PWAs) deserve their illness. In 1999, approximately one third of respondents expressed discomfort and negative feelings toward PWAs.
Although support for extremely punitive policies toward PWAs has declined, AIDS remains a stigmatized condition in the United States. The persistence of discomfort with PWAs, blame directed at PWAs for their condition, and misapprehensions about casual social contact are cause for continuing concern and should be addressed in HIV prevention and education programs.
This article presents the results of a study aimed at describing African American youths' attitudes toward peers with HIV/AIDS and identifying correlates of these attitudes based on the contact theory. Baseline data from a sample of African American, urban mothers and their youth (n = 197) participating in a family-based HIV prevention program were analyzed. In support of contact theory, preadolescents' close relationship to persons infected with HIV/AIDS was highly related to their attitudes. However, no relationship was found between maternal attitudes or communication variables and youth attitudes. The implications of youths' experience with persons with HIV/AIDS as part of prevention programming are discussed.
Many in academia believe that higher education leads to an increase in tolerance towards individuals who are different. There are some empirical findings to support this premise; however, the impact of higher education on acceptance of homosexuality has not been adequately explored. Gays and lesbians in society face many negative attitudes. Based upon the survey results of 364 students at a Midwestern university, juniors and seniors had statistically significant more positive attitudes towards gays and lesbians than did freshmen and sophomores. Even in multi-variate analysis, upper-level students had more positive views on many of the attitudinal measures.
This study sought to establish the psychometric properties of a Coping Strategies Inventory Short Form (CSISF) by examining coping skills in the Jackson Heart Study cohort. We used exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, Pearson's correlation, and Cronbach Alpha to examine reliability and validity in the CSI-SF that solicited responses from 5302 African American men and women between the ages of 35 and 84. One item was dropped from the 16-item CSI-SF, making it a 15-item survey. No significant effects were found for age and gender, strengthening the generalizability of the CSI-SF. The internal consistency reliability analysis revealed reliability between alpha = 0.58-0.72 for all of the scales, and all of the fit indices used to examine the CSI-SF provided support for its use as an adequate measure of coping. This study provides empirical support for utilizing this instrument in future efforts to understand the role of coping in moderating health outcomes.
The principal aim in this thematic essay is to identify and discuss three central foci that have influenced the direction of contemporary sociological scholarship on fatherhood issues in North America. These foci include commentaries on the meaning and changing nature of cultural images of fatherhood, efforts to conceptualize and study the social psychological dimensions of fatherhood, and empirical studies that examine resident and nonresident fathers' conduct as it pertains to their children. Discussion of the linkages between these foci is informed by symbolic interactionism and identity theory. The article concludes with suggested avenues for future theory development, research, and social policy relevant to fathers.
Religiosity has been shown to be related to negative attitudes toward homosexuals. We hypothesized that the dimension of ethical conservatism is the major intervening variable that links religiosity to homonegativity. Other variables hypothesized to predict homonegativity included respondents' sex, sexual preference, belief about the amount of choice in sexual orientation, and number of gay friends. A path model of these relationships was proposed and was tested on college students who responded to items measuring the variables in the model. Regression analyses supported the hypothesis that religiosity predicted ethical conservatism, which in turn predicted homonegativity. The model accounted for 50% of the variability in the homonegativity items. These findings indicate that homonegativism does not necessarily stem from irrational fear or repression of homosexual desires but that it can be related to a generally conservative position on questions of personal morality.
Five studies of university students and their parents were carried out to investigate the relationships among right-wing authoritarianism, various indices of religious orientation, and prejudice. Measures of religious fundamentalism, and religious quest, developed for this research, proved to be psychometrically sound, and were good discriminators between prejudiced and unprejudiced persons, across a variety of different measures of prejudice and authoritarian aggression. Scores on both Religious Fundamentalism and Religious Quest scales also were correlated strongly with right-wing authoritarianism and the Christian Orthodoxy scale, although orthodoxy itself tended not to be correlated with prejudice. Apparently, religious fundamentalism and nonquesting are linked with authoritarianism and prejudice toward a wide variety of minority groups. Possible explanations for these relationships are discussed.
This study examined the relationships among attachment, religious fundamentalism, and homophobia. In a sample of 198 undergraduates from a "Bible-Belt" community, secure attachment was associated with religious fundamentalism. The results indicate that religious fundamentalism and sex were the only significant predictors of homophobia. Consistent with previous research (Kite, 1994), males were significantly more homophobic than females. Contrary to the hypotheses, attachment was not predictive of homophobia and did not moderate the relationship between religious fundamentalism and homophobia.
Empirical research on the contact hypothesis has paid inadequate attention to the broader social and normative context in which contact occurs. Using data from the nationally representative Portraits of American Life Study, I test whether individuals' core networks moderate the effect of personal contact with gays and lesbians on same-sex marriage attitudes. OLS regression results demonstrate that, though contact is strongly associated with greater support for same-sex marriage, the effect is attenuated for individuals with a higher proportion of religious conservatives in their core network. This moderating effect holds even after controlling for respondents' religiosity and when the sample is limited to self-identified religious liberals and moderates. Future research on intergroup contact should be attentive to other influences within individuals' social contexts and examine how the outcomes of contact across a variety of social boundaries are moderated by these social influences.
focus on how four theoretical perspectives [evolutionary theory and behavioral adaptation; psychoanalytic concepts and personal growth; life cycle theories of human development, and case studies of the process of managing life crises and transitions] have contributed to current concepts and measures of coping / formulate a conceptual framework that focuses on the coping resources and processes that influence how people resolve and adapt to stressful life circumstances / use the framework to guide a review of recent developments in the assessment of coping and to examine research on the determinants and consequences of coping processes / consider how personal and social resources influence the selection of coping processes and how coping processes alter the outcomes of life stressors and affect adaptation (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Considers the proposition that to be "a man" in contemporary American society is to be homophobic, that is, to be hostile toward homosexual persons in general and gay men in particular. It is argued that homophobia is an integral component of heterosexual masculinity, to the extent that it serves the psychological function of expressing who one is not (i.e., homosexual) and thereby affirming who one is (heterosexual). Further, homophobia reduces the likelihood that heterosexual men will interact with gay men, thereby ruling out opportunities for the attitude change that often occurs through such contact. It is concluded that a long-term strategy for eradicating homophobia must focus on heterosexual masculinity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of this study was to test tenets of both minority stress and lesbian feminist/sexual identity development theories by examining the potential moderating and mediating roles of individual coping styles (i.e., problem-solving and avoidant coping) in the relationship between internalized heterosexism and lesbian and bisexual (sexual minority) women's psychological distress. Participants included 323 sexual minority women who completed an Internet survey. Results revealed that avoidant coping partially mediated the relationship between internalized heterosexism and psychological distress. No support was found for the mediating role of problem-solving coping or for the moderating roles of problem-solving and avoidant coping in the link between internalized heterosexism and psychological distress. Feminist strategies that may be useful for clinicians working with clients to reduce internalized heterosexism are provided.
This research involved an exploratory study in which a questionnaire was used to investigate the personal stigma and perceived community stigma regarding HIV/AIDS in a South African community. Student fieldworkers interviewed a convenient sample of 901 respondents from different races, gender and age groups, and found that respondents tended towards stigmatizing persons with HIV/AIDS. Yet, this degree of stigmatization was significantly less severe than the degree of stigmatization that respondents attributed to the community at large. Altogether 17% of the respondents had high stigmatizing attitudes, while 42% perceived the stigmatization by others in the community to be high. Race group, personal knowledge of someone with HIV, area of residence, gender and age group impacted on the respondents' personal tendency to stigmatize those with HIV/AIDS. The article discusses the difference between the level of personal stigma attached by the respondents and that perceived by them to be attached by the community. Attention is also paid to the possible implications of stigmatizing behaviour patterns and interventions on a community level. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The construct of homophobia and the psychometric properties of instruments purporting to measure homophobia are critically evaluated. The history of the term and its various definitions are briefly reviewed. We conclude that existing measures of homophobia have been inadequately psychometrically evaluated and therefore it is not clear whether currently this construct can be accurately measured. It is also concluded that the construct of homophobia, as it is usually used, makes an illegitimately pejorative evaluation of certain open and debatable value positions, much like the former disease construct of homosexuality. Finally, proposals for theory development and construct definition in the domain of reactions to homosexuals and homosexuality are provided.
White male and female predominantly suburban students in grades 7, 9, 11, and college were given questionnaires that assessed sex-role stereotyping, prejudice against gay males and lesbians, persons with the HIV or AIDS virus, and African Americans. On all measures at all ages, males were more prejudiced and sex-role stereotyped than females. Gay and lesbian prejudice declined with increasing age; race prejudice remained relatively stable during high school, but increased in college; whereas HIV/AIDS prejudice remained relatively flat with increasing age. No systematic age-related patterns of prejudice change were observed. Male and female sex-role stereotyping were positively and equally correlated with all four types of prejudice. Additionally, with the exception of gay and lesbian prejudice, intercorrelations among prejudice types were approximately the same. These findings support the view that a characteristic of intolerance for deviations from social norms underlies commonalities of stereotyping and prejudice in adolescence.
Reports on the school climate for gay and lesbian students in the United States suggest that negative attitudes toward gay and lesbian individuals are quite common in adolescence. Very little research, however, has investigated adolescents’ sexual prejudice from a developmental perspective. In this study, 10th- (N = 119) and 12th- (N = 145) grade adolescents and college-aged young adults (N = 86) completed a questionnaire assessing their beliefs and attitudes about homosexuality, their comfort with gay and lesbian students, and their judgments and reasoning regarding the treatment of gay or lesbian peers in school. Results indicate that middle adolescents (14–16) are more likely than older adolescents (16–18) and young adults (19–26) to exhibit sexual prejudice related to social interaction with gay and lesbian peers. Interestingly, however, age-related differences in beliefs about whether homosexuality was right or wrong were not found. These findings provide evidence for age-related differences in some aspects of sexual prejudice but not others and underscore the importance of using multiple measures in assessing the development of this type of prejudice.
This study explored how contact with gay and lesbian persons affects adolescents' attitudes toward them, and whether this association is mediated or moderated by one's acceptance of gender non-conformity. We analyzed survey responses from 456 Dutch adolescents aged 12-15 who reported having no same-sex attractions. Data were collected in 2008 at 8 schools in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Preliminary analyses showed that contact with lesbian/gay persons outside of school was positively associated with attitudes toward lesbians and gay men. Multilevel analyses showed that acceptance of gender non-conformity mediated rather than moderated the relationship between intergroup contact and sexual prejudice in males. The effect of intergroup contact on females' attitudes toward lesbian women was no longer significant in multilevel analyses. The findings suggest that attention to both intergroup contact and acceptance of gender non-conformity would enhance our understanding of attitudes toward homosexuality in adolescents.
African American (n = 70) university students were compared with White students (n = 140) on their affective (homophobia) and attitudinal (homonegativity) reactions to lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. The results initially suggested that African Americans had modestly higher homophobia and homonegativity scores than Whites. However, those ethnic differences vanished after controlling for frequency of church attendance, religious commitment, and socioeconomic status. For both ethnic groups, gender and religiosity variables significantly predicted homophobia and homonegativity. Men in both ethnic groups had significantly higher homophobia and homonegativity scores than their female counterparts. Lastly, additional regression analyses revealed that one aspect of African American culture--family practices--significantly predicted homophobia, but not homonegativity, above the predictive ability of religiosity. Implications of the results are discussed.
College undergraduates (211, female and male, mostly white) responded to a 7-point questionnaire with subscales on racial, sexual, and homosexual groups. Political orientation, religious membership and involvement, and parent's educational level were also obtained. All intercorrelations of the three scales were positive and significant ( p < .001) and ranged from .44 to .69. Females were significantly lower than males in sexism but not in racism or gayism. Sexism and gayism scores were negatively correlated with father's and mother's education. All three forms of prejudice were higher for those professing more religious involvement; other typical patterns of bias among the three major U. S. religions were found. Political orientation was also related to prejudice, with more bias found as one approaches the Conservative end of the spectrum.
Mickey, R. M. (Dept of Mathematics and Statistics, U. of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405) and S. Greenland. The impact of confounder selection criteria on effect estimation. Am J Epidemiol 1989;129:125–37.
Much controversy exists regarding proper methods for the selection of variables in confounder control. Many authors condemn any use of significance testing, some encourage such testing, and others propose a mixed approach. This paper presents the results of a Monte Carlo simulation of several confounder selection criteria, including change-in-estimate and collapsibility test criteria. The methods are compared with respect to their Impact on Inferences regarding the study factor's effect, as measured by test size and power, bias, mean-squared error, and confidence Interval coverage rates. In situations in which the best decision (of whether or not to adjust) is not always obvious, the change-in-estimate criterion tends to be superior, though significance testing methods can perform acceptably If their significance levels are set much higher than conventional levels (to values of 0.20 or more).
108 undergraduates completed a stress questionnaire in class 2 days before the midterm, 5 days after the midterm and 2 days before grades were announced, and 5 days after grades were announced. Results show that for Ss as a whole, there were significant changes in emotions and coping (including the use of social support) across the 3 stages. Some Ss experienced seemingly contradictory emotions and states of mind during every stage of the encounter; Ss experienced both threat emotions and challenge emotions, reflecting ambiguity regarding the multifaceted nature of the examination and its meanings (especially during the anticipatory stage). Ss used combinations of most of the available forms of problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping at every stage. Problem-focused coping was more prominent in the anticipatory stage and distancing more prominent during the waiting stage. An analysis of selected appraisal and coping values, taking GPAs into account, explained about 48% of variance in threat and challenge emotions at the anticipatory stage. Including grade, 57% of the variance in positive emotions at outcome and 61% of negative emotions at outcome were explained. (49 ref)
This paper reports a series of factor analyses of responses to attitude statements about lesbians and gay men. Using a common factor model with oblique rotation, a bipolar "Condemnation-Tolerance" factor was observed repeatedly in four separate samples of undergraduates. The factor accounts for 35-45% of the total common variance in responses, and is similar for male and female respondents and for questionnaires concerning both lesbians and gay men. A "Beliefs" factor accounts for another 5% of the total variance. It is argued that scales assessing attitudes toward lesbians and gay men should restrict their content to items loading highly on the Condemnation-Tolerance factor.
Studies of health care trainees and professionals have demonstrated that their level of empathy and caring is negatively affected by the knowledge that the person being treated is homosexual, in part because of stigma associated with HIV infection and AIDS. The survey discussed in this article examined the relationship between homophobia and the fear of AIDS within the context of several categorical questions. Gender differences in attitudes were also examined. Respondents who more liberally endorsed rights for gay men and lesbians were less homophobic and had less fear of AIDS. Suggestions are made for sensitizing social workers to the inhibitory effects of homophobia and fear of AIDS when working with HIV-infected clients or people in the gay community.
This study investigated concern about HIV infection, knowledge about HIV/AIDS, and mode of transmission on willingness to work with and sympathy expressed towards a coworker with AIDS. 120 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to one of 12 groups in a 3 x 4 between-subjects design. Subjects viewed one of three 12 min. videotapes, including one videotape designed to increase concern, one designed to increase information, and a control videotape of music. Participants then read one of four scenarios about training a new employee. The scenarios varied the mode of HIV transmission (unknown, heterosexual contact, homosexual contact, or blood transfusion). Analysis showed that the ratings of willingness to work with or sympathy toward the HIV-positive coworker made after the videotape were not higher than those of other groups; however, significantly greater sympathy was reported for coworkers with unknown means of transmission than for coworkers who had contracted the virus through homosexual activity and more sympathy was also shown for coworkers who had contracted AIDS through blood transfusion than for employees who became infected through any type of sexual activity. Findings are discussed in terms of the AIDS literature and suggestions for employers.
In this paper we chronicle the prevalence of and cultural prescription for homophobia in the United States. The endemic nature of homophobia as it has been studied by behavioral scientists is reviewed. We then suggest that as social institutions reflecting cultural values, schools, colleges, and universities sanction an environment that neglects the value of gay students, staff, and faculty. Institutional homophobia dismisses the legitimacy of these individuals, thereby minimizing their contributions to learning. Addressed specifically are suggestions for training individuals who work with students to recognize, address, and challenge homophobia. We conclude that while the weight of American culture sanctions homophobia, training educators and personnel about the nuances of institutional homophobia may provide a fairer environment for gay students and colleagues. An appendix of resources describing effective programs for educational and training use is provided.
The authors studied the development of gay and lesbian prejudice in white, suburban adolescents in grades 7, 9, and 11. Results parallel several major findings with adults: males were more prejudiced than females; this difference was greater towards gay males than lesbians; and same-sex prejudice was greater than opposite-sex prejudice. For males and females prejudice increased between grades 7 and 9, but from grades 9 to 11 it decreased for females and increased for males. These differences were explained by the increased vulnerability of males to defensive reactions in response to the prospect of intimate relationships. None of the personality measures were significantly correlated with prejudice.
Two anonymous questionnaires assessing attitudes toward gay issues were administered to adults living in the Shreveport/Bossier City, Louisiana area. In both, demographic data were obtained regarding gender, education, religion, age and marital status. In the second questionnaire, family groups were given the questionnaire. In the first survey, the results generally supported previous findings that religiosity, gender, and education at or below the high school level appeared to be associated with negative attitudes toward gay and lesbian issues. The variable most frequently associated with positive attitudes toward gay and lesbian issues was whether or not the individual had at least one gay friend, relative, or acquaintance. In the second study, the questionnaire was analyzed in terms of the entire group of subjects, family groups, and family positions. This second questionnaire indicated that similarities are most likely to exist among mothers and daughters, and same sex siblings. In regard to family members, wives/mothers and daughters had more positive attitudes toward homosexuality than sons, fathers, grandparents, other relatives, and in-laws.
This study examined the relationship of sexism, having traditional and conservative values, and contact with homosexual individuals to attitudes toward homosexuality. Two hundred seven male and female students from Middle East Technical University completed Hudson and Rickett's Homophobia scale, Glick and Fiske's Ambivalent Sexism Inventory and questions about: (1) their sexual preferences, (2) whether they described themselves as traditional and conservative, and (3) whether they knew a homosexual or not. Sexist attitudes, being more traditional and conservative, and not knowing any homosexual individuals all predicted more negative attitudes toward homosexuality. The correlation between hostile sexism and anti-homosexual attitudes was higher than the correlation between benevolent sexism and anti-homosexual attitudes. In addition, male, as compared to female, respondents were both more sexist and held more negative attitudes toward homosexuality.
Recent work on attitudes toward homosexuals promotes the view that males typically have more negative attitudes than females; and African Americans have more negative attitudes than their white counterparts. However, among African Americans, women are thought to have the greatest negative attitudes because they perceive themselves as competing for a limited pool of black male partners. This study uses the National Black Politics Study to examine African American gender differences in attitudes toward homosexual men. Multivariate findings show that of the variables analyzed: (1) Among African American females, age, income, education, and urban residence are statistically significant; and (2) among African American males, frequency of religious attendance was the only statistically significant variable. It is, therefore, argued that black masculinity explains the gendered differences and that negative attitudes within the African American community toward gay men contribute to debilitating both the physical and mental health of the entire black community.
Using data from a sample of college students from several campuses throughout the United States, this research examines whether ethnic differences (African Americans versus European Americans) in attitudes toward gays and lesbians are a function of religious attendance. Multiple regressions were run separately for attitudes towards lesbians and attitudes toward gay men. When predicting attitudes toward lesbians, ethnic differences were present in the absence of religious attitudes; however, when religious attitudes were entered into the model, ethnic differences disappeared. In predicting attitudes toward gay men, ethnic differences were never present, while religious attitudes were always statistically significant. We conclude that differences in attitudes toward homosexuals in general, and gay men specifically, are not necessarily a function of ethnicity but possibly of religious attendance and the effect of the "Black church." We end with a discussion of the link between ethnicity, religion, HIV/AIDS, and heterosexism in the African American community.
This study examined (a) the role of avoidance coping in prospectively generating both chronic and acute life stressors and (b) the stress-generating role of avoidance coping as a prospective link to future depressive symptoms. Participants were 1,211 late-middle-aged individuals (500 women and 711 men) assessed 3 times over a 10-year period. As predicted, baseline avoidance coping was prospectively associated with both more chronic and more acute life stressors 4 years later. Furthermore, as predicted, these intervening life stressors linked baseline avoidance coping and depressive symptoms 10 years later, controlling for the influence of initial depressive symptoms. These findings broaden knowledge about the stress-generation process and elucidate a key mechanism through which avoidance coping is linked to depressive symptoms.
The writings of Judith Butler are now canonised in the fields of feminist and queer theory, yet her contribution to politics and her role in the field of political theory remain uncertain. I argue, perhaps uncontroversially, that Butler's is a politics of subversion; I also contend, perhaps more contentiously, that Butler's understanding of subversion only takes clear shape in light of her implicit theory of heteronormativity. Butler's work calls for the subversion of heteronormativity; in so doing her writings both illuminate the general problem of normativity for politics and offer a robust response to that problem. Butler resists the tendency to treat norms as merely agreed-upon standards, and she rebuts those easy dismissals of theorists who would take seriously the power of norms thought in terms of normativity and normalisation. Butler's contribution to political theory emerges in the form of her painstaking unfolding of subversion. This unfolding produces an account of the politics of norms that is needed desperately by both political theory and politics. Thus, I conclude that political theory cannot afford to ignore either the theory of heteronormativity or the politics of its subversion.
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