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Reflecting on Eliud Kipchoge’s Marathon World Record: An Update to Our Model of Cooperative Drafting and Its Potential for a Sub-2-Hour Performance
... A combined exertionrecovery/discharge-recharge model of W′ will be worthwhile in estimating the time-to-exhaustion of endurance efforts and optimizing performance. The potential of optimizing performance to accomplish a 2-h marathon has been illustrated by Nike's Breaking2 project [89] which has inspired modeling studies by Hoogkamer and colleagues [90][91][92] based on the two-parameter CP model with exponential recovery similar to Eq. 19, biomechanical improvements, shoe design improvements, and drafting strategy. Furthermore, the successful completion of a sub 2-h marathon by Eliud Kipchoge as a part of the INEOS 1:59 challenge in Vienna in October 2019 provides encouraging signs for investigative studies focusing on optimization of performance in other endurance sports. ...
... Performance optimization The recovery model in conjunction with the two-parameter model enables optimization of time-trial performance as illustrated in [95,100] and illustrated in [91,92]. ...
The ability to predict the systematic decrease of power during physical exertion gives valuable insights into health, performance, and injury. This review surveys the research of power-based models of fatigue and recovery within the area of human performance. Upon a thorough review of available literature, it is observed that the two-parameter critical power model is most popular due to its simplicity. This two-parameter model is a hyperbolic relationship between power and time with critical power as the power-asymptote and the curvature constant denoted by W'. Critical power (CP) is a theoretical power output that can be sustained indefinitely by an individual, and the curvature constant (W') represents the amount of work that can be done above CP. Different methods and models have been validated to determine CP and W', most of which are algebraic manipulations of the two-parameter model. The models yield different CP and W' estimates for the same data depending on the regression fit and rounding off approximations. These estimates, at the subject level, have an inherent day-to-day variability called intra-individual variability (IIV) associated with them, which is not captured by any of the existing methods. This calls for a need for new methods to arrive at the IIV associated with CP and W'. Furthermore, existing models focus on the expenditure of W' for efforts above CP and do not model its recovery in the sub-CP domain. Thus, there is a need for methods and models that account for (i) the IIV to measure the effectiveness of individual training prescriptions and (ii) the recovery of W' to aid human performance optimization.
... While having the largest possible radius is still a valid recommendation, in races measuring 5,000 m and longer, athletes can maintain a lower velocity compared to the scenario described above (6.6 m/s being the average velocity for Bekele's 5,000 m world record), and would therefore experience even lower values for t 180 • . In addition, t 180 • becomes trivial in terms of percentage of the total race time especially in races like the half marathon or the marathon, while other factors, like change in elevation (Giovanelli et al., 2016;Hoogkamer, Taboga & Kram, 2014), surface type ( Kerdok et al., 2002), drafting (Hoogkamer, Snyder & Arellano, 2019) etc., have a much greater effect on running energetics and therefore on the overall time (Hoogkamer et al., 2016). For example, Hoogkamer, Kram & Arellano (2017) estimated that the maximum allowable downhill elevation drop (42 m) in a marathon could save 28 s, and a legal tailwind could save ∼3 min. ...
... All other indoor and outdoor records were run by the same athlete, but in different years, or by different athletes. Pacing and drafting play important roles when trying to run a world record time (Hoogkamer, Snyder & Arellano, 2019); it is likely more difficult for athletes on indoor tracks to negotiate the smaller curve radiuses while following or overtaking other competitors, compared to outdoor tracks. ...
Background
Although straight ahead running appears to be faster, distance running races are predominately contested on tracks or roads that involve curves. How much faster could world records be run on straight courses?
Methods
Here,we propose a model to explain the slower times observed for races involving curves compared to straight running. For a given running velocity, on a curve, the average axial leg force (${\overline{F}}_{a}$) of a runner is increased due to the need to exert centripetal force. The increased ${\overline{F}}_{a}$ presumably requires a greater rate of metabolic energy expenditure than straight running at the same velocity. We assumed that distance runners maintain a constant metabolic rate and thus slow down on curves accordingly. We combined published equations to estimate the change in the rate of gross metabolic energy expenditure as a function of ${\overline{F}}_{a}$, where ${\overline{F}}_{a}$ depends on curve radius and velocity, with an equation for the gross rate of oxygen uptake as a function of velocity. We compared performances between straight courses and courses with different curve radii and geometries.
Results
The differences between our model predictions and the actual indoor world records, are between 0.45% in 3,000 m and 1.78% in the 1,500 m for males, and 0.59% in the 5,000 m and 1.76% in the 3,000 m for females. We estimate that a 2:01:39 marathon on a 400 m track, corresponds to 2:01:32 on a straight path and to 2:02:00 on a 200 m track.
Conclusion
Our model predicts that compared to straight racecourses, the increased time due to curves, is notable for smaller curve radii and for faster velocities. But, for larger radii and slower speeds, the time increase is negligible and the general perception of the magnitude of the effects of curves on road racing performance is not supported by our calculations.
... The first variable to consider, performance expectation (PE), is the degree of perceived usefulness by a potential user, i.e., it is the intensity with which a person believes that the new product will improve his/her expected utility. In elite/subelite athletes VFT shoes allow improving performance (Dyer, 2020; Guinness et al., 2020) and this fact does not can be only explained by a hypothetical placebo effect (Muniz-Pardos, 2021) or the significant drafting effect in Breaking2 and Ineos 1.59 challenges demonstrated in Hoogkamer et al. (2017Hoogkamer et al. ( , 2019a. As far as popular runners are concerned, analysis of data from Strava by Quealy y Katz (2018) suggests that also, in average, their performance may be improved by using VFT. ...
Objectives: The Vaporfly tech by Nike (VFT) for road running shoes has supposed a disruption in distance running shoes. Academic research suggests that VFT improves performance, at least, in elite and sub-elite athletes. This paper assesses empirically factors influencing the acceptance of disruptive competition technologies, focusing on the perceptions about the VFT shoes by amateur athletes. Material and methods: We analyse a survey over 252 Spanish amateur athletes. Our research uses Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), including ethical awareness of athlete that is measured by means of their judgement on moral equity (ME), and athlete income. Results: The proposed model explains almost half of the intention to use (IU) disruptive technologies by athletes in all regressions. Significant influential factors on IU are Easiness to Use (EU), Performance Expectancy (PE), perception on ME and Income level of the athlete. Surprisingly, Social Influence (SI) has a weak influence on the IU. Structural equation model fitted by means of partial least squares leads to similar results than Poisson regression. Discussion: This paper applies a theoretical framework that combines findings in consumer behaviour (UTAUT model) and moral equity dimension of a multiple ethical scale to explain intention to use VFT. Of course, proposed methodology can be used to evaluate a disruptive tech within the context of any other sport. Conclusions: These findings have important implications in the sport industry. As we expected and also has shown by reviewed literature linked to sport tech, conventional UTAUT has been revealed useful theoretical framework to explain the acceptance of disruptive sport competitive techs. But, in addition, ethical aspects also should be considered in their development.
... A pesar de la ya mencionada popularidad de la carrera de maratón, lo que realmente ha despertado el interés de la sociedad y de la comunidad científica por este tipo de pruebas ha sido la gran mejora de la marca que han conseguido los corredores de élite en los últimos años Hoy en día el récord oficial de esta prueba es de 2:01:39 logrado en 2018 por el plusmarquista mundial Eliud Kipchoge en la maratón de Berlín (Hoogkamer et al., 2019). Un año más tarde, en Viena, el mismo Kipchoge asombró al mundo entero logrando derribar la barrera de las 2 horas, estableciendo un nuevo récord mundial de 1:59:40. ...
A review about the which are the most important physiological determinants of athletic performance in elite marathon runners.
... Changing technologies, changing genes, and a changing mindset may ultimately help explaining why the athletes are getting stronger, faster, bolder, and better than ever. As an example, focus on the recent feature by the Kenyan marathon runner Eliud Kipchoge, who made history in athletics last year by finishing for the first time, the total distance of a marathon under 2 h (Hoogkamer et al., 2019). ...
Talent identification and development have become increasingly relevant in sports
performance (Sarmento, Anguera, Pereira, Araújo, 2018), especially in the last 20 years.
A significant body of scientific research discusses longitudinal and nonlinear talent
identification and development processes, the qualities that underpin elite performance in
sport, and how coaches could facilitate talented athletes' development through the sports
system. Yet it can be argued that the continued interest in talent identification and development reflects the persistently low predictive value of applied and theoretical talent
identification models). Finding, recruiting and retaining talent is a global challenge, and it is especially relevant for sports clubs and national federations that often see potential assets escape due to selfsystem inefficiencies. In point of fact, original research selected for this topic confirmed that talent development programs should make conscious decisions about their selection strategies as it can affect their success.
... A range of training, environmental and biomechanical factors are known to affect running economy [10] and the recent breaking of the two-hour marathon barrier has renewed interest in economy as a determinant of endurance performance [11]. Indeed, testimonials [12] and studies related to new designs of running shoes [13] and the design of pacemaker formations to minimise air resistance for a targeted runner [14,15] have contributed to the achievement of this feat via the enhancement of running economy. ...
Given the importance of exercise economy to endurance performance, we implemented two strategies purported to reduce the oxygen cost of exercise within a 4 week training camp in 21 elite male race walkers. Fourteen athletes undertook a crossover investigation with beetroot juice (BRJ) or placebo (PLA) [2 d preload, 2 h pre-exercise + 35 min during exercise] during a 26 km race walking at speeds simulating competitive events. Separately, 19 athletes undertook a parallel group investigation of a multi-pronged strategy (MAX; n = 9) involving chronic (2 w high carbohydrate [CHO] diet + gut training) and acute (CHO loading + 90 g/h CHO during exercise) strategies to promote endogenous and exogenous CHO availability, compared with strategies reflecting lower ranges of current guidelines (CON; n = 10). There were no differences between BRJ and PLA trials for rates of CHO (p = 0.203) or fat (p = 0.818) oxidation or oxygen consumption (p = 0.090). Compared with CON, MAX was associated with higher rates of CHO oxidation during exercise, with increased exogenous CHO use (CON; peak = ~0.45 g/min; MAX: peak = ~1.45 g/min, p < 0.001). High rates of exogenous CHO use were achieved prior to gut training, without further improvement, suggesting that elite athletes already optimise intestinal CHO absorption via habitual practices. No differences in exercise economy were detected despite small differences in substrate use. Future studies should investigate the impact of these strategies on sub-elite athletes’ economy as well as the performance effects in elite groups.
... This type of design would suit a single manufacturer series, such as FIA W Series, where driver performance has greater influence on the overall outcome. If the past limitations on sample size in scientific study in motorsport continue, it's important to recognize that understanding how to achieve truly exceptional performance can be realized only through researching the performance of truly exceptional individuals (e.g., Hoogkamer et al., 2019 Table 3. Parameter estimates for the fixed and random effects of the seat insert on NMF of left sternocleidomastoid (LSCM), right sternocleidomastoid (RSCM), left cervical erector spinae (LCES) and right cervical erector spinae (RCES) with respect to group (Improved vs. No Improvement) ...
To attain peak performance, a racing driver needs to be stable in their seat. A stable driving position is thought to increase sensitivity to visual and vestibular information thereby enabling more skillful vehicle control. Optimizing seat fit to enhance stability could profoundly improve steering behavior of the driver and thus their performance. Here we report how using an electromyography (EMG)-based methodology for optimizing seat fit improved the performance of amateur women racing drivers. We measured the neck, shoulder, and trunk muscle activities of four women racing at amateur level as well as the angle of their neck and lower back with respect to vertical and their performance in terms of lap time. The seat insert decreased the neck and lower back angles of three of the four drivers. The lap times of these three drivers improved. Improved lap times were associated with changes in neck muscle activity consistent with a decrease in forward head position and reduced neck lateral flexion (head tilt). Improved lap times were also associated with changes in shoulder and trunk muscle activities consistent with adopting a right arm dominant steering action. Using electromyography to guide optimization of seat fit can have profound effects on neuromuscular processes underlying steering behavior of the driver, particularly the activity of neck muscles used to orient the head. These effects can translate to improved performance.
... This narrative review addresses social media claims that the K-LCHF is 'the future of elite endurance sport' , with the focus on three issues: (1) Do maximal rates of fat oxidation achieved by K-LCHF transfer to performance benefits in endurance sport?; (2) What is the apparent time course of 'keto-adaptation'? and (3) Could strategies that periodise K-LCHF with high CHO availability provide alternative models for performance benefits? These themes extend previous summaries (Burke, 2015;McSwiney et al. 2019;Shaw et al. 2020) and address enthusiastic hypotheses and testimonials regarding K-LCHF in sport, at a time when there is a spotlight on performance barriers such as the 2 h marathon Hoogkamer et al. 2019) and interest in the benefits of training with low carbohydrate availability . This summary was assembled from a systematic review of publication databases, while cross-checking reference lists and accessing newly published/in press studies from the author's own laboratory. ...
The ability of ketogenic low-carbohydrate (CHO) high-fat (K-LCHF) diets to enhance muscle fat oxidation has led to claims that it is the 'future of elite endurance sport'. There is robust evidence that substantial increases in fat oxidation occur, even in elite athletes, within 3-4 weeks and possibly 5-10 days of adherence to a K-LCHF diet. Retooling of the muscle can double exercise fat use to ∼1.5 g min-1 , with the intensity of maximal rates of oxidation shifting from ∼45% to ∼70% of maximal aerobic capacity. Reciprocal reductions in CHO oxidation during exercise are clear, but current evidence to support the hypothesis of the normalization of muscle glycogen content with longer-term adaptation is weak. Importantly, keto-adaptation may impair the muscle's ability to use glycogen for oxidative fates, compromising the use of a more economical energy source when the oxygen supply becomes limiting and, thus, the performance of higher-intensity exercise (>80% maximal aerobic capacity). Even with moderate intensity exercise, individual responsiveness to K-LCHF is varied, with extremes at both ends of the performance spectrum. Periodisation of K-LCHF with high CHO availability might offer opportunities to restore capacity for higher-intensity exercise, but investigations of various models have failed to find a benefit over dietary approaches based on current sports nutrition guidelines. Endurance athletes who are contemplating the use of K-LCHF should undertake an audit of event characteristics and personal experiences to balance the risk of impaired performance of higher-intensity exercise with the likelihood of an unavoidable depletion of carbohydrate stores.
Advancements in running shoe technology over the last 5 years have sparked controversy in athletics as linked with clear running economy and performance enhancements. Early debates mainly surrounded ‘super shoes’ in long-distance running, but more recently, the controversy has filtered through to sprint and middle-distance running with the emergence of ‘super spikes’. This Current Concepts paper provides a brief overview on the controversial topic of super shoes and super spikes. The defining features of technologically advanced shoes are a stiff plate embedded within the midsole, curved plate and midsole geometry, and lightweight, resilient, high-energy returning foam that – in combination – enhance running performance. Since the launch of the first commercially available super shoe, all world records from the 5 km to the marathon have been broken by athletes wearing super shoes or super spikes, with a similar trend observed in middle-distance running. The improvements in super shoes are around 4% for running economy and 2% for performance, and speculatively around 1% to 1.5% for super spikes. These enhancements are believed multifactorial in nature and difficult to parse, although involve longitudinal bending stiffness, the ‘teeter-totter effect’, the high-energy return properties of the midsole material, enhanced stack height and lightweight characteristic of shoes.
The development of modern sports is impossible without the use of innovative scientific and technical achievements and engineering developments. The states, in which the presented approach is successfully implemented, take leading positions in international competitions. This thesis is based on the relationship between the quality indicators of athletes and the use by them of progressive tools and equipment in the training, as well as the most advanced clothing and footwear. At first glance, outfit in running sports can be considered as an insignificant factor that does not contribute to the competition results. Field-specific manufacturers use various engineering and technological resources available and contribute to the effective activities of the sports consumers. There are certain discussions in professional running about an innovative topic — “technological doping”. Professionals involved in ensuring compliance with the rules and equal opportunities for winning in running competitions need special competences in information and digital technologies. Research with the use of specialized databases within the framework of intellectual property provides an opportunity to study innovative technical solutions introduced by manufacturers of sportswear and footwear
Background
Running economy represents a complex interplay of physiological and biomechanical factors that are able to adapt chronically through training, or acutely through other interventions such as changes in footwear. The Nike Vaporfly (NVF) shoe was designed for marathon running on the roads and has been shown to improve running economy by ~ 4% compared with other marathon shoes, however, during track racing, distance runners traditionally wear a much lighter shoe with an embedded spike plate around the forefoot.
Objective
The aim of this study was to determine if, and to what extent, the NVF shoes improve running economy compared with established track spikes (Nike Zoom Matumbo 3 [NZM]) and marathon racing shoes (Adidas Adizero Adios 3 [ADI]).
Methods
Twenty-four highly-trained runners (12 male, 12 female) ran 4 × 5 min trials on a treadmill while wearing each of the four shoe conditions: NVF, NZM, ADI, and the NVF matched in weight to the ADI shoe (NVF +), during three separate visits—visit 1: familiarization; visit 2: 14 and 18 km·h⁻¹ for men, 14 and 16 km·h⁻¹ for women; visit 3: 16 km·h⁻¹ for men, 15 km·h⁻¹ for women, plus a maximal rate of oxygen uptake (VO2max) test for both sexes. We measured the rates of oxygen uptake (VO2), carbon dioxide production and biomechanical measures while running at each velocity and shoe condition.
Results
The NVF shoe improved running economy by 2.6 ± 1.3% compared with the NZM, 4.2 ± 1.2% compared with ADI, and 2.9 ± 1.3% when matched in weight of the ADI shoe. Among the 24 subjects, the difference in running economy over the four velocities between the NVF and NZM shoes ranged from + 0.50 to − 5.34%, and − 1.72 to − 7.15% for NVF versus ADI. Correlations between changes in running economy and changes in biomechanical variables were either trivial or small, but unclear.
Conclusion
The NVF enhanced running economy compared with track spikes and marathon shoes, and should be considered a viable shoe option for track and road racing.
Background
During a race, competing cyclists often cooperate by alternating between leading and drafting positions. This approach allows them to maximize velocity by using the energy saved while drafting, a technique to reduce the overall drag by exploiting the leader’s slipstream. We have argued that a similar cooperative drafting approach could benefit elite marathon runners in their quest for the sub-2-hour marathon.
Objective
Our aim was to model the effects of various cooperative drafting scenarios on marathon performance by applying the critical velocity concept for intermittent high-intensity running.
Methods
We used the physiological characteristics of the world’s most elite long-distance runners and mathematically simulated the depletion and recovery of their distance capacity when running above and below their critical velocity throughout a marathon.
Results
Our simulations showed that with four of the most elite runners in the world, a 2:00:48 (h:min:s) marathon is possible, a whopping 2 min faster than the current world record. We also explored the possibility of a sub-2-hour marathon using multiple runners with the physiological characteristics of Eliud Kipchoge, arguably the best marathon runner of our time. We found that a team of eight Kipchoge-like runners could break the sub-2-hour marathon barrier.
Conclusion
In the context of cooperative drafting, we show that the best team strategy for improving marathon performance time can be optimized using a mathematical model that is based on the physiological characteristics of each athlete.
Background
Reducing the energetic cost of running seems the most feasible path to a sub-2-hour marathon. Footwear mass, cushioning, and bending stiffness each affect the energetic cost of running. Recently, prototype running shoes were developed that combine a new highly compliant and resilient midsole material with a stiff embedded plate. Objective
The aim of this study was to determine if, and to what extent, these newly developed running shoes reduce the energetic cost of running compared with established marathon racing shoes. Methods18 high-caliber athletes ran six 5-min trials (three shoes × two replicates) in prototype shoes (NP), and two established marathon shoes (NS and AB) during three separate sessions: 14, 16, and 18 km/h. We measured submaximal oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide production during minutes 3–5 and averaged energetic cost (W/kg) for the two trials in each shoe model. ResultsCompared with the established racing shoes, the new shoes reduced the energetic cost of running in all 18 subjects tested. Averaged across all three velocities, the energetic cost for running in the NP shoes (16.45 ± 0.89 W/kg; mean ± SD) was 4.16 and 4.01% lower than in the NS and AB shoes, when shoe mass was matched (17.16 ± 0.92 and 17.14 ± 0.97 W/kg, respectively, both p < 0.001). The observed percent changes were independent of running velocity (14–18 km/h). Conclusion
The prototype shoes lowered the energetic cost of running by 4% on average. We predict that with these shoes, top athletes could run substantially faster and achieve the first sub-2-hour marathon.
The curvilinear relationship between power output and the time for which it can be sustained is a fundamental and well-known feature of high-intensity exercise performance. This relationship ‘levels off’ at a ‘critical power’ (CP) that separates power outputs that can be sustained with stable values of, for example, muscle phosphocreatine, blood lactate, and pulmonary oxygen uptake (\( \dot{V}{\text{O}}_{2} \)), from power outputs where these variables change continuously with time until their respective minimum and maximum values are reached and exercise intolerance occurs. The amount of work that can be done during exercise above CP (the so-called W′) is constant but may be utilized at different rates depending on the proximity of the exercise power output to CP. Traditionally, this two-parameter CP model has been employed to provide insights into physiological responses, fatigue mechanisms, and performance capacity during continuous constant power output exercise in discrete exercise intensity domains. However, many team sports (e.g., basketball, football, hockey, rugby) involve frequent changes in exercise intensity and, even in endurance sports (e.g., cycling, running), intensity may vary considerably with environmental/course conditions and pacing strategy. In recent years, the appeal of the CP concept has been broadened through its application to intermittent high-intensity exercise. With the assumptions that W′ is utilized during work intervals above CP and reconstituted during recovery intervals below CP, it can be shown that performance during intermittent exercise is related to four factors: the intensity and duration of the work intervals and the intensity and duration of the recovery intervals. However, while the utilization of W′ may be assumed to be linear, studies indicate that the reconstitution of W′ may be curvilinear with kinetics that are highly variable between individuals. This has led to the development of a new CP model for intermittent exercise in which the balance of W′ remaining (\( W_{\text{BAL}}^{\prime } \)) may be calculated with greater accuracy. Field trials of athletes performing stochastic exercise indicate that this \( W_{\text{BAL}}^{\prime } \) model can accurately predict the time at which W′ tends to zero and exhaustion is imminent. The \( W_{\text{BAL}}^{\prime } \) model potentially has important applications in the real-time monitoring of athlete fatigue progression in endurance and team sports, which may inform tactics and influence pacing strategy.
A sub-2-hour marathon requires an average velocity (5.86 m/s) that is 2.5% faster than the current world record of 02:02:57 (5.72 m/s) and could be accomplished with a 2.7% reduction in the metabolic cost of running. Although supporting body weight comprises the majority of the metabolic cost of running, targeting the costs of forward propulsion and leg swing are the most promising strategies for reducing the metabolic cost of running and thus improving marathon running performance. Here, we calculate how much time could be saved by taking advantage of unconventional drafting strategies, a consistent tailwind, a downhill course, and specific running shoe design features while staying within the current International Association of Athletic Federations regulations for record purposes. Specifically, running in shoes that are 100 g lighter along with second-half scenarios of four runners alternately leading and drafting, or a tailwind of 6.0 m/s, combined with a 42-m elevation drop could result in a time well below the 2-hour marathon barrier.