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Abstract and Figures

Red Lists are very valuable tools in nature conservation at global, continental and (sub-) national scales. In an attempt to prioritise conservation actions for European butterflies, we compiled a database with species lists and Red Lists of all European countries, including the Macaronesian archipelagos (Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands). In total, we compiled national species lists for 42 countries and national Red Lists for 34 of these. The most species-rich countries in Europe are Italy, Russia and France with more than 250 species each. Endemic species are mainly found on the Macaronesian archipelagos and on the Mediterranean islands. By attributing numerical values proportionate to the threat statuses in the different national Red List categories, we calculated a mean Red List value for every country (cRLV) and a weighted Red List value for every species (wsRLV) using the square root of the country’s area as a weighting factor. Countries with the highest cRLV were industrialised (NW) European countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium, the Czech Republic and Denmark, whereas large Mediterranean countries such as Spain and Italy had the lowest cRLV. Species for which a Red List assessment was available in at least two European countries and with a relatively high wsRLV (≥ 50) are Colias myrmidone, Pseudochazara orestes, Tomares nogelii, Colias chrysotheme and Coenonympha oedippus. We compared these wsRLVs with the species statuses on the European Red List to identify possible mismatches. We discuss how this complementary method can help to prioritise butterfly conservation on the continental and/or the (sub-)national scale.
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Journal of Insect Conservation (2019) 23:301–330
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-019-00127-z
ORIGINAL PAPER
Integrating national Red Lists forprioritising conservation actions
forEuropean butterflies
DirkMaes1,2 · RudiVerovnik2,3· MartinWiemers2,4 · DimitriBrosens5,6 · StoyanBeshkov7· SimonaBonelli8 ·
JaroslawBuszko9· LisetteCantú‑Salazar10· Louis‑FrancisCassar11 · SueCollins2· VladDincă12 · MilanDjuric13·
GoranDušej14· HallvardElven15· FilipFraneta16· PatriciaGarcia‑Pereira17 · YuriiGeryak18· PhilippeGoart19·
ÁdámGór20· UlrichHiermann21· HelmutHöttinger22· PeterHuemer23 · PredragJakšić24· EddieJohn25·
HenrikKalivoda26· VassilikiKati27 · PaulKirkland2,28· BenjaminKomac29· ÁdámKőrösi30,31 · AnatolijKulak32 ·
MikkoKuussaari33 · LionelL’Hoste10· SuvadLelo34· XavierMestdagh10· NikolaMicevski35· IvaMihoci36·
SergiuMihut37· YerayMonasterio‑León38 · DmitryV.Morgun39· MiguelL.Munguira2,40 · TomásMurray41 ·
PerStadelNielsen42· ErlingÓlafsson43 · ErkiÕunap44· LazarosN.Pamperis45· AloisPavlíčko46·
LarsB.Pettersson2,47 · SerhiyPopov48· MilošPopović24 · JuhaPöyry33 · MikePrentice2,49· LienReyserhove5 ·
NilsRyrholm50· MartinaŠašić2,36 · NikolaySavenkov51· JosefSettele2,4,52 · MarcinSielezniew53 ·
SergeySinev54 · ConstantiStefanescu55 · GiedriusŠvitra56· ToomasTammaru44 · AnuTiitsaar44·
ElliTzirkalli25,27 · OlgaTzortzakaki57 · ChrisA.M.vanSwaay2,58 · ArneLykkeViborg42· IrmaWynho2,58 ·
KonstantinaZografou59 · MartinS.Warren2
Received: 11 July 2018 / Accepted: 7 January 2019 / Published online: 22 January 2019
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
Abstract
Red Lists are very valuable tools in nature conservation at global, continental and (sub-) national scales. In an attempt to pri-
oritise conservation actions for European butterflies, we compiled a database with species lists and Red Lists of all European
countries, including the Macaronesian archipelagos (Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands). In total, we compiled national
species lists for 42 countries and national Red Lists for 34 of these. The most species-rich countries in Europe are Italy, Rus-
sia and France with more than 250 species each. Endemic species are mainly found on the Macaronesian archipelagos and
on the Mediterranean islands. By attributing numerical values proportionate to the threat statuses in the different national
Red List categories, we calculated a mean Red List value for every country (cRLV) and a weighted Red List value for every
species (wsRLV) using the square root of the country’s area as a weighting factor. Countries with the highest cRLV were
industrialised (NW) European countries such as the Netherlands, Belgium, the Czech Republic and Denmark, whereas large
Mediterranean countries such as Spain and Italy had the lowest cRLV. Species for which a Red List assessment was available
in at least two European countries and with a relatively high wsRLV (≥ 50) are Colias myrmidone, Pseudochazara orestes,
Tomares nogelii, Colias chrysotheme and Coenonympha oedippus. We compared these wsRLVs with the species statuses on
the European Red List to identify possible mismatches. We discuss how this complementary method can help to prioritise
butterfly conservation on the continental and/or the (sub-)national scale.
Keywords Policy· Management· Threatened species· Habitats directive· IUCN· Biogeography· Lepidoptera
Introduction
Red Lists provide information on the extinction risk of spe-
cies in a given region (IUCN 2013) and have become well-
established tools in nature conservation (e.g. Keller and
Bollmann 2004; Butchart etal. 2005; Rodrigues etal. 2006;
Fitzpatrick etal. 2007). Regional IUCN criteria (Gärdenfors
etal. 2001; IUCN 2012) are increasingly used at the (sub-)
* Dirk Maes
dirk.maes@inbo.be
Extended author information available on the last page of the article
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... Butterflies are among the most popular invertebrates and are, therefore, often used as flagships in nature conservation (Preston et al. 2021). Despite ample attention in nature management and policies, declines of butterfly numbers or the extinction of local emblematic species have been reported from many European countries (Maes et al. 2019b;Warren et al. 2021). Especially species of oligotrophic and/or wet biotopes such as nutrient-poor semi-natural grasslands, heathlands and/or marshes show the strongest declines (van Swaay et al. 2011). ...
... The Alcon Blue butterfly Phengaris alcon is one of the flagship species of wet heathlands in NW Europe (Maes and Van Dyck 2005), but is facing strong and fast declines (Maes et al. 2019b). As a larva, the Alcon Blue is an obligate social parasite of red ant colonies (Myrmica spp.) and the species is confined to wet heathland and nutrient-poor grasslands where host ants and its unique host plant, Gentiana pneumonanthe, co-occur (Bink 1992). ...
... Between 1999 and 2013 (corresponding with a relatively stable number of occupied grid cells; Fig. 3), the climate was on average rainier and populations and a very low estimated number of individuals (i.e., less than 300; Maes et al. 2021). The species is threatened in other NW European countries or regions (the Netherlands -van Swaay 2019; Germany -Reinhardt and Bolz 2011; North Rhine Westphalia -Schumacher and Vorbrüggen 2021; Denmark -Helsing 2019), but also in many other European countries (Maes et al. 2019b). In Europe as a whole, P. alcon was assessed as being of Least Concern (van Swaay et al. 2010), but it was classified as a Species of European Conservation Concern according to van Swaay et al. (2011). ...
Article
Full-text available
In the NW-European region of Flanders (northern Belgium), wet heathlands harbour several threatened species among which the emblematic Alcon Blue butterfly Phengaris alcon is rapidly declining. Since 1990, the number of occupied grid cells in Flanders has decreased from 61 to only six in 2023, a decline of 90%. Due to the loss of many populations, the mean distance between populations tripled from 9 km in the period 1950–1990 to 27 km now. Site-wide egg counts in one of the strongholds of the Alcon Blue in Flanders revealed a strong increase after some initial intensive care conservation measures in the 2000s, but since 2013 a steep decline of 99% has been observed. The standardised egg counts in the remaining six Flemish populations (i.e., monitoring within the framework of the Natura2000 reporting) showed a yearly decrease of 18% since 2016. Despite increased conservation attention and targeted management since the end of the 1990s, the current situation of P. alcon in Belgium is more precarious than ever. Causes of this rapid decline are manifold and they are likely to be amplified by extreme weather conditions caused by climate change. More efficient intensive care measures and more intense cooperation across national borders are now quickly required to regionally preserve this habitat specialist with a unique eco-evolutionary profile. Implications for insect conservation By analysing the causes of the decline of the threatened Alcon Blue butterfly in Flanders, we suggest management and policy measures in an attempt to conserve this and other threatened heathland species in a highly anthropogenic region.
... Although there are well-established guidelines for conducting extinction risk assessments, differences between national red list assessments persist, highlighting gaps in conservation in individual countries and at different levels. Despite increasing efforts to follow IUCN recommendations, some countries still apply their own criteria to create red lists (Maes et al., 2019). The need for expansion of taxonomic, spatial, and temporal coverage through new and repeated assessments has been recognised (Bachman et al., 2019). ...
... Europe's national red lists have already been the subject of research to assess the extinction risk of different groups of organisms at the continental scale, such as threatened plants across Europe in relation with their distribution ranges (Holz et al., 2022), orchids across Europe (Kull et al., 2016), and European butterflies (Maes et al., 2019). Also, European national red lists were used for estimating the Red List Index (RLI) for monitoring trends in the overall extinction risk of a set of taxa overtime (e.g., Finland -Juslén et al., 2013;Spain -Saiz et al., 2015); to identify primary threats for native and also endemic flora (Italy - Orsenigo et al., 2021Orsenigo et al., , 2018; and in predictive modelling at ecosystem scale e.g., to identify main factors shaping plant species assemblages and community diversity in riparian ecosystems (Slovakia -Slezák et al., 2022). ...
... Only regularly updated red lists can provide valuable warning and monitoring tools for detecting emerging conservation issues (Rodrigues et al., 2006). Also, despite the increasing efforts by IUCN to stimulate countries to follow their recommendations (e.g., the publication of freely available Guidelines), some countries still apply their own categories and criteria to create red lists, which is not the case only in plants but in other taxonomic groups as well (Maes et al., 2019). At the geographical level, we found that many countries from Eastern and Southern Europe and the from the Eastern Mediterranean have a very low proportion of the total flora included in the assessments. ...
Article
Full-text available
The diversity of vascular plant taxa in Europe is threatened. National red lists are valuable biodiversity conservation tools that provide us with information on the proximity of a taxon to extinction. However, there are still differences in the methods and implementation of these assessments across European countries, indicating gaps in conservation efforts at national and regional levels. To address these disparities, we conducted a study in which we compiled data from the most recent national red lists of vascular plants in European countries, including some countries from the eastern part of the Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot. Our results confirm concerns that the conservation status of European vascular flora is not fully mapped. We also found that this knowledge is not evenly distributed across European regions. There were differences in the availability of red lists, the regularity of updates, and the implementation of assessment methods. Countries that assessed their entire flora had a higher proportion of threatened taxa than countries that assessed only a portion of the flora. This highlights the risk of overlooking the conservation status of less known taxa when assessments are limited to specific taxa. Financial capacity was found to be a critical factor influencing the extent of these shortcomings. Our study has shown that countries that assess their entire flora have, on average, higher national spending on environmental protection within their overall economies. This information is critical for developing effective biodiversity conservation strategies across Europe and for addressing the threats faced by vascular plants in the region.
... In this study, we offer an in-depth examination and comparison of movement patterns in three declining and locally red listed butterfly species (Maes et al. 2019): Marsh Fritillary (Euphydryas aurinia, Rottemburg, 1775; Nymphalidae), Apollo (Parnassius apollo, Linneaus, 1758; Papilionidae), and Large Blue (Maculinea/Phengaris arion Linneaus, 1758; Lycaenidae). Our study area in the northern part of the island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea is known for its extensive suitable habitats, which support some of the world's highest population densities for these species, at least in favourable years Sunde et al. 2024). ...
... They are protected within the European Union (EU) under the Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC). Parnassius apollo is near threatened in Europe, P. arion is endangered, and E. aurinia is red-listed in several European countries (Maes et al. 2019). Notably, they can be locally abundant in areas of Gotland, enabling in-depth population and movement analysis (Franzen et al. 2022;Franzén et al. 2022Franzén et al. , 2024Johansson et al. 2020;Sunde et al. 2024). ...
Article
Full-text available
Context Conservation of endangered species necessitates an in-depth understanding of their ecological requirements. Particularly in landscape ecology, the behavioural tendencies of threatened butterfly species in Gotland, a biodiversity-rich island in the Baltic Sea, become crucial. Objectives The primary aim of this study was to elucidate the movement patterns of three threatened butterfly species—Euphydryas aurinia, Parnassius apollo, and Phengaris arion—in Gotland and to identify the influence of specific land characteristics on these patterns. Methods Our study, conducted from 2017 to 2020 across 60 km² in Gotland, involved detailed capture-mark-recapture (CMR) efforts of 29,584 captures including 16,223 unique butterflies. We investigate the departure and arrival events of butterflies, specifically focusing on the associations between movements when individuals leave or enter a hectare grid different from their previously recorded location and key landscape features: open vegetated land, ground moisture, and forest cover. We model landscape features to examine the interplay between these and butterfly movement patterns, providing insights into preferred landscape features and conservation strategies. Results Among the 4821 arrivals and 5083 departures documented, the species exhibited differential responses to the evaluated habitat features. Both E. aurinia and P. apollo displayed a positive density-dependent dispersal, while P. arion’s movements were not significantly associated with any of the examined habitat features. Landscape properties like open vegetated land and ground moisture index statistically influenced the likelihood of arrival and departure. Conclusions The study accentuates the relationship between land cover and the behavioural tendencies of the subject butterfly species. It has broader implications for the targeted habitat management strategies that would benefit threatened butterfly populations in Gotland.
... However, it was assessed regionally as Vulnerable in the first Red Data Book of European butterflies (van Swaay and Warren 1999), and as Near Threatened in the European red list of butterflies (van Swaay et al. 2010). Maes et al. (2019) ranked it as 36th out of 496 European butterfly species according to a weighted Red List value calculated for each species and classified as regionally. It is a large, single-generation species with a wide, but disperse area, occurring in Europe mainly in the 500-2500 m above sea level mountain zone, inhabiting lowland areas only in the northern part of its range (Scandinavia, East European Plain and Siberia) (Bryk 1935;Glassl 2005;Möhn 2005). ...
Article
Full-text available
For effective conservation management of endangered taxa, it is important to define operational units for conservation. In the absence of detailed genetic analyses, morphology-based taxonomy is often used as a surrogate. The Apollo butterfly, Parnassius apollo, is one of the most endangered butterfly species in Europe (considered as a flagship species) with 26 subspecies rank taxa described from the Carpatho-Pannonian region (Central Europe), often based on old, one-by-one descriptions. We applied landmark-based geometric morphometrics on wing shape to determine the number of morphologically distinguishable groups in the region, based on 949 males and 477 females from 20 Carpatho-Pannonian putative subspecies (both extant and potentially extinct). We found a single division between the Eastern Carpathian populations (described as two subspecies: ssp. transsylvanicus and ssp. rosenius) and the rest of the populations (including our outgroup from the Swiss Alps). Since P. apollo was not observed in the Eastern Carpathians in the last two decades, and the currently known extant populations in the Carpatho-Pannonian region are all located in the Northern Carpathians, our results support a single conservation unit in the region. We suggest that (i) extensive monitoring is needed to reveal whether the unique Eastern Carpathian populations have really gone extinct and (ii) more taxonomical/phylogenetic studies on Central European P. apollo are needed for establishing the taxonomy of the species and efficient conservation strategies. We emphasize that modern integrative taxonomy is not only important for clarifying taxonomical issues, but also for providing basis for sound conservation management.
... As a consequence, C. myrmidone is now classified as endangered (EN) in Europe and critically endangered (CR) in the European Union (Van Swaay et al., 2010). The weighted Red List value index in Europe puts it among the top five most endangered species (Maes et al., 2019). The butterfly is also listed in the Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive, which makes it a species of conservation concern in the EU. ...
Article
Clear-cutting is believed to have a negative impact on forest biodiversity, but numerous studies have also shown its positive effects, especially in temperate and boreal regions. This phenomenon is mainly related to the creation of early successional habitats that serve as temporary meadows. Among the species that benefit the most are those associated with semi-natural grasslands, i.e. biotopes that have been disappearing from the landscape due to agricultural intensification. A good example is the Danube Clouded Yellow Colias myrmidone, one of the most endangered butterflies in Europe. Its last lowland metapopulation in the EU exists in the Knyszyn Forest (north-eastern Poland), but the species occurrence is limited to the eastern parts of this large forest complex. All currently known habitats are forest clear-cuts located mainly on former agricultural land, i.e. mostly extensively used pastures that were afforested in the 20th century. Chamaecytisus ruthenicus, the only local larval food plant of C. myrmidone, is currently found almost exclusively in first-generation forests. Logging allows the host plants to flourish, and clear-cuts are colonized by the butterfly. In 2022, intensive mark-release-recapture studies were carried out in the focal metapopulation. The estimated metapopulation size was 4643 adults, indicating a six-fold increase compared to previous studies conducted in 2017. This was plausibly mainly due to the increase in the area of potential habitats, as butterfly densities were very similar in both seasons. The improved connectivity between habitat patches resulted in a very high proportion of dispersing individuals successfully reaching other patches, which is in contrast to the dispersal mortality of ca. 50% observed five years earlier. A relatively high mobility was also observed in the case of the much smaller spring generation. To our knowledge, this is the first study to document a reversal of selection against dispersal and it demonstrates that such changes can occur relatively quickly, i.e. within a few generations. In order to ensure the long-term persistence of the viable C. myrmi-done metapopulation and mitigate the negative effects of climate change, a network of stable forest-steppe-like habitats in combination with the creation of clear-cuts in forest stands with presence of C. ruthenicus would be optimal. To achieve this, we recommend leaving some selected clear-cuts without replanting to restore grasslands (through grazing and removal of excess trees, shrubs and invasive plants), while the suitability of ephemeral habitats could be improved through appropriate silvicultural measures.
... This is supported by the evidence that butterfly species with a higher population diversification disappeared first from islands (Dapporto et al., 2017). The species that display multiple lineages across Europe are also threatened in other European countries (Maes et al., 2019). ...
Article
Full-text available
Aim The distribution of within-species lineages has been affected by Quaternary climate changes, and population differentiation has been influenced by species life history traits. We investigated whether the distribution of individual mitochondrial genetic lineages reflects the constituent species' traits. Using the functionally diverse group of butterflies, we examined which lineages are present in Central Europe, an important suture zone. Location Czech Republic and Western Palearctic. Taxon A total of 140 butterfly species. Methods We sequenced DNA barcodes (cytochrome c oxidase 1) (959 sequences) of the entire Czech Republic butterfly fauna and used Barcoding of Life Data System to visualise the species' biogeographic patterns across Europe. We categorised the distribution patterns of lineages inhabiting the Czech Republic, and used multivariate statistics to interpret these categories by the butterflies' habitats, life history traits and threat levels. Results Open habitat dwellers with specialist traits belonged to Eastern, Southern and temperate lineages. Habitat generalists and woodland dwellers belonged to the Western lineage, formed several lineages or displayed low genetic diversity; they often developed on woody plants, were large-winged and had long flight periods. The most threatened species were the specialists of Southern, Eastern and temperate lineages. Main Conclusions The distribution of lineages in Central Europe reflects the history of Quaternary ecosystems: during cold periods of the Pleistocene, the diverse open habitats prevailed and species could expand westwards. Such species also suffer the most under the current anthropogenic habitat alteration. On the other hand, the mobile generalists and woodland dwellers expanded to Central Europe during the Holocene. Our approach of linking the distribution of lineages with species traits can be transferred to other study systems, and we show that DNA barcoding of under-sampled areas represents a powerful tool for discovering the driving forces of biogeography.
... Urban green spaces in fact may suffer from very different threats and pressures than their natural counterparts, and may conversely be subjected to management practices that actually foster species' persistence, including rare or endangered taxa. In the case of butterflies, most endangered species are those dependent upon semi-natural grassland habitats and ecotones (Maes et al. 2019), so that usual practices undertaken in urban green spaces, such as partial mowing and low-intensity agricultural activities (e.g., grazing and traditional wood crops), may represent essential factors fostering the maintenance of these key habitats (Moranz et al. 2012). Moreover, the involvement of citizens in the creation of suitable habitat patches (e.g., by planting host plants) may furtherly foster the conservation of endangered butterflies, at the same time decreasing the potential risk of illegal collection (Descimon 1996;Sands 2008). ...
Article
Full-text available
Cities are expanding at fast rates across the world, representing one of the main drivers of biodiversity loss due to habitat replacement. Nonetheless, urban and peri-urban areas often feature green spaces that may offer opportunities to wildlife and even represent safe havens for endangered species. Nonetheless, the key drivers that shape wildlife responses to urban landscapes, and in turn their ability to persist within cities, are far from being fully understood. Here we focus on an ecologically specialized butterfly, the endemic Italian festoon Zerynthia cassandra, as a model to assess how endangered species may survive in highly modified urban landscapes. The relatively low mobility and high host plant specialization make Z. cassandra an excellent target for studies in urban ecology, as they make the species able to exploit small suitable patches while at the same time potentially sensitive to habitat fragmentation and loss due to urbanization and land reclamation. We thus first document the relatively widespread occurrence of potentially suitable sites within two highly modified landscapes of central and southern Italy, with 25 and 35% of sites actually occupied by Z. cassandra. By modeling the probability of butterfly occurrence as a function of environmental characteristics, we found that Z. cassandra is strongly influenced by functional connectivity among suitable sites in urban landscapes, as well as by the abundance of Aristolochia host plants, and by the availability of profitable land cover classes in the immediate surroundings of potential oviposition sites. Our results indicate not only that networks of urban and peri-urban green spaces may host populations of protected and endangered species, but that management should also focus on the urban matrix in order to provide connecting corridors, as key assets to guarantee species persistence in cities.
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Habitat loss and fragmentation have caused declines in the abundance and distribution of butterflies, particularly habitat specialists. The Chequered Skipper, Carterocephalus palaemon, has been extinct in England since 1976 after declining from the 1940s predominantly due to changes in woodland management including afforestation and the decline in traditional coppice management. To enable C. palaemon to flourish again, this species was reintroduced from Belgium to England in 2018 with the aim of establishing a resident breeding population. Here, we report on the recent reintroduction, outlining the reintroduction method used, the establishment status of the species in England, the clinical health of reintroduced individuals, and post-release monitoring results. Furthermore, we assess the habitat suitability of sites around the original release site to determine which were similar to the current re-location site and could be used for future reintroductions, and to aid the targeting of further management to increase habitat suitability. Since 2018, 128 Chequered Skipper butterflies have been reintroduced from Belgium to Rockingham Forest in England. Health examinations demonstrated that individuals were healthy, and this in part resulted in the population establishing at the first release site and the area of occupancy increasing each year to 2022. However, the reintroduced population has yet to naturally colonise other areas within Rockingham Forest and therefore is not yet a functioning metapopulation. Despite the project still being in its infancy, we are able to report on a successful five years. Implications for insect conservation: Rigorous scientific research has provided the evidence to support reintroductions, and will continue to be used to ensure the ecology and population dynamics of this species is sufficiently understood so that Chequered Skipper populations can thrive again in England.
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Aim The distribution of within-species lineages has been affected by Quaternary climate changes, and population differentiation has been influenced by species life histories. We investigated whether the distribution of individual mitochondrial genetic lineages reflects the constituent species’ traits. Using the functionally diverse group of butterflies, we examined which lineages are present in Central Europe, an important suture zone. Location Europe Taxon A total of 140 butterfly species. Methods We sequenced barcodes (cytochrome c oxidase 1) of the entire Czech Republic butterfly fauna (∼ 1000 sequences) and used database data to visualize the species’ biogeographic patterns across Europe. We categorised the distribution patterns of lineages inhabiting the Czech Republic, and used multivariate statistics to interpret these categories by the butterflies’ habitats, life histories, and threat levels. Results Open habitat dwellers with specialist traits belonged to Eastern, Southern, and temperate lineages. Habitat generalists and woodland dwellers belonged to the Western lineage, formed several lineages, or displayed low genetic diversity; they often developed on woody plants, were large-winged, and had long flight periods. The most threatened species were the specialists of Southern, Eastern, and temperate lineages. Main conclusions The distribution of lineages in Central Europe reflects the history of Quaternary ecosystems: during cold periods of the Pleistocene, the diverse open habitats prevailed, and species could expand westwards. Such species also suffer the most under the current anthropogenic habitat alteration. On the other hand, the mobile generalists and woodland dwellers expanded to Central Europe during the Holocene. Our approach of linking the distribution of lineages with species traits can be transferred to other study systems, and we show that barcoding of under-sampled areas represents a powerful tool for discovering the driving forces of biogeography.
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Cacyreus marshalli (Butler, 1898) is the only alien butterfly species in Italy, introduced from Southern Africa via the trade of ornamental Pelargonium plants (family Geraniaceae). In 2008, Quacchia and colleagues demonstrated that if Pelargonium plants are not available, females can lay eggs on Geranium spp., developing fertile offspring. C. marshalli is a thermophilous species, but in recent years some adults have been observed flying far from villages and at high altitudes (up to 2400 m a.s.l.) in the Orco valley (Gran Paradiso National Park, Aosta Valley). Due to the potential threat to native Geranium-consuming lycaenids and to evaluate the risk of naturalisation, we investigated: (i) dispersal abilities of gravid females, outside the National Park to avoid accidental establishment of the invasive species; (ii) pelargonium distribution and abundance; (iii) oviposition behaviour and preimaginal distribution; (iv) citizen care practices with pelargoniums. Pelargoniums were counted in the Orco Valley (5455 plants) and eggs and larvae were counted on 348 pelargoniums chosen on the basis of isolation and altitude. Flight experiments suggested that females were able to overcome barriers and fly at least 550 m looking for host plants. Eggs and larvae were unexpectedly abundant, but models showed that there was a temperature limit which prevented upward expansion of C. marshalli. Citizens were given a questionnaire to complete to investigate their propensity to replace pelargonium with other ornamental plants. We discuss the possibility of eradicating C. marshalli in the protected area in the light of our results.
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