Content uploaded by Giovanni Damiani
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Giovanni Damiani on Jan 26, 2019
Content may be subject to copyright.
Available via license: CC BY 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
nutrients
Review
Fasting and Its Impact on Skin Anatomy, Physiology,
and Physiopathology: A Comprehensive Review of
the Literature
Nicola Luigi Bragazzi 1, *,† , Maha Sellami 2 ,† , Iman Salem 3, Rosalynn Conic 3, Mark Kimak 3,
Paolo Daniele Maria Pigatto 4and Giovanni Damiani 3,4,5,*
1Postgraduate School of Public Health, Department of Health Sciences (DISSAL), Via Antonio Pastore 1,
University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy
2Sport Science Program, College of Arts and Sciences (QU-CAS), University of Qatar, Doha 2713, Qatar;
maha.sellami@gmail.com
3Department of Dermatology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA;
ims31@case.edu (I.S.); ruzica.conic@gmail.com (R.C.); mar.kimak@gmail.com (M.K.)
4
Clinical Dermatology, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Galeazzi, Milan, Italy; Department of Biomedical, Surgical
and Dental Sciences, University of Milan, 20161 Milan, Italy; paolopigatto@valeo.it
5Young Dermatologists Italian Network (YDIN), Centro Studi GISED, 24121 Bergamo, Italy
*Correspondence: robertobragazzi@gmail.com (N.L.B.); dr.giovanni.damiani@gmail.com (G.D.);
Tel.: +39-010-353-8508 (N.L.B.); +39-026-621-444 (G.D.)
† Contributed equally as first authors.
Received: 7 December 2018; Accepted: 18 January 2019; Published: 23 January 2019
Abstract:
Skin serves as the first protective line and barrier of the body. Like many other organs, skin
can be affected by several disorders in response to external factors such as pathogens, ultraviolet
light, and pollution, as well as endogenous alterations related to aging and/or oxidative stress
disturbance. Researchers have reported new insights into how skin cells are altered in response
to caloric restriction diets in mammals. One of the most well-known caloric restriction diets is the
Ramadan intermittent fasting, which is a radical change in the diet plan of practitioners for the period
of one lunar month. Ramadan fasting represents the fourth of the five pillars of the Islamic creed.
Even though infirm individuals are waived to take part in this religious duty, patients with various
health problems, including those with different skin disorders, might choose to share this event with
peers and family members. No standardized protocols or guidelines exist, however, to advise their
physicians on the proper management of their patients’ condition during fasting. With an increasing
Muslim population living in Western countries, this topic has started to draw substantial attention,
not only of Middle-Eastern physicians, but also of clinicians in the West. For this purpose, we carried
out a comprehensive overview on the topic. Our main findings are that: (1) there is a strong need
for evidence-based suggestions and guidance. Literature on the impact of the Ramadan fasting,
as well as of other kinds of fasting, on skin diseases is scarce and of poor quality, as well as the
information available from the Internet; (2) patients willing to fast should be advised about the
importance of taking proper treatments or consider alternative options including administration of
trans-dermal/topical drugs, as they are permitted during daylight hours. Further, non-compliance
has important, clinical and economic implications for an effective patient management.
Keywords:
compliance and adherence to treatment; Ramadan or intermittent fasting; caloric
restriction; skin disorders; chronotherapy and chronomedicine
Nutrients 2019,11, 249; doi:10.3390/nu11020249 www.mdpi.com/journal/nutrients
Nutrients 2019,11, 249 2 of 15
1. The Effects of Dieting on Health
Skin disorders are commonly widespread skin conditions affecting both children and adults and
may induce severe disability [
1
–
3
]. All skin conditions combined represent the fourth leading cause
of non-fatal disability worldwide, especially in resource-poor regions [
4
]. In 2013, skin disorders
were estimated to account for 1.79% of the total global burden of disease (GBD) calculated in
disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) among 306 diseases and injuries [
1
,
2
]. These estimations
are likely to differ among countries depending on the different healthcare systems and lifestyles
adopted [
5
]. It is generally assumed that skin problems result from the interplay between various
factors, including the biological make-up of the individual (genetic components, internal diseases,
immunological susceptibility) and environmental factors (infections, stress, lifestyles, diet or exposure
to ultraviolet (UV) light) [6] (Figure 1).
Nutrients 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16
Skin disorders are commonly widespread skin conditions affecting both children and adults
and may induce severe disability [2–4]. All skin conditions combined represent the fourth leading
cause of non-fatal disability worldwide, especially in resource-poor regions [5]. In 2013, skin
disorders were estimated to account for 1.79% of the total global burden of disease (GBD) calculated
in disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) among 306 diseases and injuries [2,3]. These estimations are
likely to differ among countries depending on the different healthcare systems and lifestyles
adopted [6]. It is generally assumed that skin problems result from the interplay between various
factors, including the biological make-up of the individual (genetic components, internal diseases,
immunological susceptibility) and environmental factors (infections, stress, lifestyles, diet or
exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light) [7] (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Factors affecting the skin. Abbreviations: UV (ultraviolet).
In recent decades, a huge body of research has investigated the impact of dieting on skin
anatomy, physiology and physiopathology. As stated by Katta and Desai [8], the role of dietary
manipulation as a potential non-pharmacological option for the treatment and management of skin
diseases has been overlooked for a long time. Dieting can, instead, have various effects affecting
health outcomes (as in the case of psoriasis) [9], modifying the prognosis (for example, in patients
with acne) [10] or preventing or partially mitigating/counteracting the insurgence and the severity of
the disorder (such as skin cancer and skin aging) [11].
Different dieting strategies/patterns and fasting protocols exist, based on (i) the degree of
restriction of calorie intake (low-calorie, or very low-calorie dieting, when the daily food energy
consumption is less than 800 kilocalories/day), (ii) the amount of hours of fasting (time-restricted
feeding, intermittent or circadian fasting, alternate-day versus daily fasting), and (iii) the food or
foods excluded (including low-fat, low-carbohydrate dieting, vegetarian or semi-vegetarian dieting)
[12,13].
Emergent evidences seem to suggest that calorie restriction can protect against various diseases,
including cancer, diabetes and heart disease. A calorie-restricted diet has been demonstrated to exert
several beneficial effects, such as increasing lifespan, counteracting aging, modulating immune cell
Figure 1. Factors affecting the skin. Abbreviations: UV (ultraviolet).
In recent decades, a huge body of research has investigated the impact of dieting on skin anatomy,
physiology and physiopathology. As stated by Katta and Desai [
7
], the role of dietary manipulation as
a potential non-pharmacological option for the treatment and management of skin diseases has been
overlooked for a long time. Dieting can, instead, have various effects affecting health outcomes (as in
the case of psoriasis) [
8
], modifying the prognosis (for example, in patients with acne) [
9
] or preventing
or partially mitigating/counteracting the insurgence and the severity of the disorder (such as skin
cancer and skin aging) [10].
Different dieting strategies/patterns and fasting protocols exist, based on (i) the degree of
restriction of calorie intake (low-calorie, or very low-calorie dieting, when the daily food energy
consumption is less than 800 kilocalories/day), (ii) the amount of hours of fasting (time-restricted
feeding, intermittent or circadian fasting, alternate-day versus daily fasting), and (iii) the food or foods
excluded (including low-fat, low-carbohydrate dieting, vegetarian or semi-vegetarian dieting) [
11
,
12
].
Emergent evidences seem to suggest that calorie restriction can protect against various diseases,
including cancer, diabetes and heart disease. A calorie-restricted diet has been demonstrated to exert
Nutrients 2019,11, 249 3 of 15
several beneficial effects, such as increasing lifespan, counteracting aging, modulating immune cell
profile activity and reducing insulin resistance as well as preventing some stages of the carcinogenesis
process [13].
Caloric restricted diets can also result in increasing the number of stem cells, which is a factor that
plays a major role in tissue homeostasis and growth [14].
Dieting can also depend on personal dietary choices or on religious beliefs, such as the Adventist
diet or the Ramadan fasting. While high-quality, large-scale epidemiological surveys, such as
the “Adventist health study 1” (AHS-1) and the “Adventist health study 2” (AHS-2) [
15
], have
investigated the impact of the Adventist diet on several health outcomes, the Ramadan fasting has
been relatively understudied.
The month of Ramadan is the ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar (al-Hijra), which has
great significance and value among Muslims, as it represents the month of the descent of the Noble
Book (al-Qu’ran). The Ramadan fasting (as-sawm) is the fourth pillar of the Islamic faith (arkan al-Islam),
together with the faith declaration or profession (ash-shahada) being the first pillar, the five daily ritual
prayers (as-salah) as the second pillar, charity (az-zakat) (third pillar), and, finally, the pilgrimage to
Mecca (al-hajj) for those who can afford it. The Ramadan fasting is not limited to abstinence from food
and drinking, but also from smoking, systemic medication and sexual intercourse [16].
The Ramadan fasting is not, however, a continuous or prolonged fasting, but, rather, includes
alternate fasting and feasting (re-feeding) periods [
17
], with a pre-dawn meal referred to as suhoor, and
an after-sunset meal, called iftar. Since the Islamic calendar is a lunar one which is typically 11 days
less than the Gregorian or solar calendar (354 and 365 days respectively), the duration of the Ramadan
fasting can vary from 29 to 30 days, and the timing is 11 days earlier each year, therefore it can coincide
with any season, which means that the fasting hours can sometimes exceed 18 hours, especially at
higher latitudes [17,18].
Some Muslims such as pre-pubertal and pubertal children, menstruating women, pregnant and
breast-feeding women, the elderly, sick people, and long distance travelers are waived from this
religious duty [
19
]. However, they could choose to fast in order to share the spirituality of this month
with their friends, peers and family members [20].
Some clinical implications of Ramadan fasting are well noted. Given the stress of fluid deprivation
and subsequent electrolyte changes, kidney physiology is often significantly impacted. This is
especially true among those with chronic kidney disease (CKD), predisposing them to acute tubular
injury. Additionally, dehydration is a major precipitating factor for renal stone development [21–23].
Data on the effects of Ramadan fasting on skin disorders, however, is less well known and
no standardized guidelines exist for advising optimal management methods and options. For this
purpose, we have carried out this review to demonstrate possible clinical implications of the Ramadan
fasting in terms of skin anatomy, physiology and physiopathology, warranting further investigation.
2. Anatomy and Physiology of the Skin
Skin is the largest organ of the body, covering an impressive surface area of approximately 2 m
2
and accounting for about 20% of total adult body weight. Being situated at the interface between the
human body and environment, it is an important barrier, with both passive and active roles against
chemical, physical and microbial insults [24].
Skin is composed of an upper layer (the epidermis), and a lower layer (the dermis) separated
by a basement membrane. The epidermis is formed of 5 layers: the outermost layer is the stratum
corneum, the stratum lucidum (present only in some specific parts of the human body, such as the
fingertips, palms, and soles of the feet), the stratum granulosum, the stratum spinosum, and the stratum
basale (the inner most layer that contains epidermal stem cells) [24].
The stratum corneum is particularly thick, consisting of dead cells (corneocytes) surrounded by
lipid drafts representing the “formidable” physical barrier [24].
Nutrients 2019,11, 249 4 of 15
Dermis is divided according to the thickness of its collagen content into an upper stratum papillare
and lower stratum reticulare, containing thin and thick collagen fibers, respectively [25].
Hypodermis or subcutaneous tissue is a layer of loose connective tissue and elastin that provides
insulation from cold temperature, shock adsorbent capability, and a nutrient and energy storage
reservoir [
26
]. The hypodermis is thickest in the buttocks, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet [
27
].
As we age, the hypodermis begins to atrophy, contributing to the thin wrinkled appearance of the
aged skin [27].
Furthermore, skin harbors some innate and adaptive immune cells composing the skin immune
system such as natural killers (NKs), mast cells, macrophages, highly specialized antigen presenting
cells (APCs), epidermal dendritic cells (EDCs, also referred to as Langerhans cells), dermal dendritic
cells (DCs, also known as interstitial or migratory DCs),
αβ
T cells,
γδ
T cells, and B cells [
28
,
29
],
among others.
As such, the unique position and structure of the skin qualify it to perform different and
peculiar functions including acting as a physical barrier, immune response, sensation (perception of
pain, temperature, touch, and pressure), endocrine (vitamin D synthesis), neuro-endocrine (tightly
networked to central stress axes), and homeostatic (expelling uric acid, ammonia, urea, and excess
water) [29].
The skin has a natural self-healing ability [
30
]. When an aggression breaks or compromises the
continuity of the cutaneous barrier, a healing process takes place in order to restore its integrity and
preserve its function in about a week in the case of mild wounds.
Scarring is a natural phenomenon but many factors can affect speed and quality, such as age and
general condition of the individual, the cause of the injury, its depth or its location [30].
3. Epidemiology of Skin-Related Disorders in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region
Skin diseases are considered among the most common clinical problems diagnosed in primary
care settings in tropical areas and settings belonging to the Middle East and North Africa (MENA)
region [
31
]. It should be noted that in these areas special fasting regimens, such as the Ramadan fasting,
are adopted.
While several studies have investigated the prevalence and the economic burden of dermatoses
among Arabs and Muslims living in the Middle East [
32
], little is known about the epidemiology of
dermatological conditions among Arab Americans.
In an interesting survey performed by Essawi et al. [
33
] in Michigan, the five most commonly
self-reported skin conditions were eczema, acne, superficial fungal infections, melasma, and warts.
The most concerning skin problem, however, was skin discoloration, uneven tone, and hirsutism.
There were significant associations between socioeconomic status, time spent in the USA, and seeking
medical advice.
4. Effects of Fasting on Skin Homeostasis
Different models of fasting have been studied in both animals and humans in an attempt to
understand the effect of fasting on skin structure and function, including modified alternate-day
fasting regimens [
34
], periodic diet mimicking fasting [
35
], short-term fasting [
36
], feed restriction [
37
],
caloric or calorie or energy restriction or energy balance [
38
], or prolonged fasting [
39
], among others.
4.1. Fasting and Skin Structural and Functional Adaptation
It is plausible to assume that the skin, as the fundamental protective barrier against water and heat
loss, microbial insults and mechanical injuries, plays a crucial role in the adaptation to limited caloric
intake. In 2017, Forni et al. studied the skin’s adaptive structural and functional effects of mice exposed
to long-term caloric restriction for 6 months. Authors reported statistically significant differences in
the metabolic profile between the epidermis and dermis, with a more prominent oxidative metabolic
profile in the dermis compared to the epidermis. This profile was associated with a marked increase in
Nutrients 2019,11, 249 5 of 15
epidermal quiescent stem cells. In addition, there was an increase in inter-follicular stem cells which
were believed to be responsible for maintaining fur and increasing the growth rates and retention of
hair. Furthermore, there was an underdevelopment of the dermal adipocyte reservoir, an expansion of
dermal vasculature, and an increase of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). All the previous
changes enabled the skin to maintain thermal homeostasis under conditions of restricted energy
intake [40].
As previously mentioned, one of the main functions of the stratum corneum is to provide a
permeability barrier to protect against excess water loss. Extracellular lipids formed primarily of
ceramids, cholesterol, and fatty acids are the fundamental components of this barrier. The synthesis of
cholesterol necessary for barrier formation takes place in the epidermis [41,42].
Wu-Pong and colleagues studied the effect of changes in plasma cholesterol levels on the synthesis
of epidermal and dermal cholesterol and, subsequently, restoration of barrier function in hairless mice.
Results have revealed a significant decrease in the cholesterologenesis in both layers with fasting
resulting in a compromised barrier function which was not corrected by topical lipid application [
41
].
In a study evaluating the impact of caloric restriction on the side effects associated with topical
retinoid treatment, there was a significant reduction in retinoid-induced skin irritation without
interfering with the beneficial effects of the medication. The resultant mitigation of adverse events
associated with fasting was attributed to two factors: the positive effect of caloric restriction on local
antioxidant levels, and its inhibitory effect on the transcription of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)
genes involved in tissue destruction [42].
4.2. Fasting and Wound Healing
In an experimental mouse model, short-term fasting for 4 consecutive days repeated every 2
weeks for 2 months, followed by the induction of a cutaneous wound, was associated with an increase
in wound healing compared to the control group. According to the authors, caloric restriction enhanced
wound healing through the increase in macrophage activity. The production of transforming growth
factor alpha (TGF-
α
) by macrophage during the re-epithelization phase of wound healing promotes
keratinocyte proliferation. Additionally, macrophages also secrete VEGF, a potent angiogenic and
fibrogenic factor necessary for granulation tissue formation [43].
Another study conducted by Hunt et al. in 2012, however, reported slower wound healing in
a sample of 22 7-month-old Fischer-344 rats, 8 of which were maintained on a caloric restricted diet
after wounding, compared to 5 controls which were fed ad libitum. This effect was corrected to a
healing rate comparable with that of the control group when the caloric restricted rats were re-fed ad
libitum for 2 days before wounding, in addition to maintaining a normal diet after wounding. This
was explained by up-regulated expression of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) binding protein 3
(IGFBP-3) and increased synthesis of type I collagen, resulting in enhancing the contractile capacity of
the wound [
44
]. In other studies, a one-time fast for 72 hours with access to water only resulted in a
decrease in cutaneous collagen formation.
In 2000, Miltyk and Palka postulated a fasting-associated decrease in pyrroline-5-carboxylate
(P5C), a proline precursor molecule, to be responsible for the suppression of the IGF-1-dependent
stimulation of collagen synthesis [45].
Another study conducted by Cechowska-Pasko et al. in 2003 attributed this effect instead to the
decreased availability of IGF-1 for binding to its receptors, as a result of fasting-induced up-regulation
in the levels of the phosphoisoform of IGF-I binding protein type 1 (IGFBP-1), known for its high
binding affinity to IGF-1 [
46
]. In 2004, another hypothesis was adopted by the same research group.
They proposed the decline in prolidase activity, an enzyme responsible for proline salvage from
imidodipeptides for re-use in collagen synthesis, as an explanation for the negative effects of fasting
on collagen biosynthesis. They reported that inhibition of prolidase activity could be attributed to a
fasting-associated reduction in pyruvate kinase (PK) enzyme activity resulting in the accumulation of
a strong prolidase inhibitor factor (PIF), namely the phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) [47].
Nutrients 2019,11, 249 6 of 15
Figure 2pictorially shows the hypothesized mechanism of fasting effect on wound healing.
Nutrients 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16
Figure 2 pictorially shows the hypothesized mechanism of fasting effect on wound healing.
Figure 2. The hypothesized mechanisms of the biphasic effect of intermittent fasting on wound
healing. Abbreviations: IGFBP-1 (insulin-like growth factor binding protein 1); IGFBP-3 (insulin-like
growth factor binding protein 3); P5C (pyrroline-5-carboxylate); PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate); PIF
(prolidase inhibitor factor); PK (pyruvate kinase); TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor alpha); VEGF
(vascular endothelial growth factor).
4.3. Fasting and the Immune System
Some studies investigated the effects of prolonged fasting for a minimum of 3 days followed by
re-feeding and have shown a favorable outcome on the immune system. The decreased level of
circulating IGF-1 and protein kinase A (PKA) signaling induced by prolonged fasting resulted in
modulation of long-term hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) promoting self-renewal, lineage
regeneration and proliferation, especially of NKs, and stress resistance, an effect believed to be
protective against the toxic effect of chemotherapy on HSCs in humans. Additionally, it was proven
that short-term starvation can enhance the phagocytic activity of macrophages promoting the
process of wound healing and providing protection against some granulomatous infections [49].
4.4. Fasting and Skin Growth Regulation
IGF-1 as a mitogen is known for its pro-growth effects which include suppression of apoptosis,
increased angiogenesis, and stimulation of cell proliferation. IGFs are produced in most cells, with
IGFBPs that modulate their actions, and act locally on a paracrine or autocrine mode. IGF stimulates
proliferation (especially IGF-1) and cell differentiation. Because of their homology structure with
insulin, IGFs can, under determined pharmacological doses, act on the insulin receptor. In
particular, IGF-1 can lower blood sugar, inhibit the processes of lipolysis and of catabolism of
proteins. The mitogenesis downstream signaling cascade of IGF-1 involves the activation of
mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathways
[50–52]. In 2007, Xie et al. studied the effect of 20% dietary caloric restriction for 5 days a week
extended through 10 weeks with and without exercise on the development of skin tumors in
“SENsitivity to CARcinogenesis” (SENCAR) mice, known for their sensitivity to
12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced skin cancer. The research group recorded a
decrease of Ras-MAPK and PI3K-Akt pathways, in addition to down-regulation of the expression of
31 and 34 genes related to MAPK and PI3K pathways, respectively. This was explained by a
significant reduction of IGF-1 levels associated with dietary restriction, suggesting a potential
anti-carcinogenic role [53].
Figure 2.
The hypothesized mechanisms of the biphasic effect of intermittent fasting on wound
healing. Abbreviations: IGFBP-1 (insulin-like growth factor binding protein 1); IGFBP-3 (insulin-like
growth factor binding protein 3); P5C (pyrroline-5-carboxylate); PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate); PIF
(prolidase inhibitor factor); PK (pyruvate kinase); TNF-
α
(tumor necrosis factor alpha); VEGF (vascular
endothelial growth factor).
4.3. Fasting and the Immune System
Some studies investigated the effects of prolonged fasting for a minimum of 3 days followed
by re-feeding and have shown a favorable outcome on the immune system. The decreased level
of circulating IGF-1 and protein kinase A (PKA) signaling induced by prolonged fasting resulted in
modulation of long-term hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) promoting self-renewal, lineage regeneration
and proliferation, especially of NKs, and stress resistance, an effect believed to be protective against
the toxic effect of chemotherapy on HSCs in humans. Additionally, it was proven that short-term
starvation can enhance the phagocytic activity of macrophages promoting the process of wound
healing and providing protection against some granulomatous infections [48].
4.4. Fasting and Skin Growth Regulation
IGF-1 as a mitogen is known for its pro-growth effects which include suppression of apoptosis,
increased angiogenesis, and stimulation of cell proliferation. IGFs are produced in most cells, with
IGFBPs that modulate their actions, and act locally on a paracrine or autocrine mode. IGF stimulates
proliferation (especially IGF-1) and cell differentiation. Because of their homology structure with
insulin, IGFs can, under determined pharmacological doses, act on the insulin receptor. In particular,
IGF-1 can lower blood sugar, inhibit the processes of lipolysis and of catabolism of proteins. The
mitogenesis downstream signaling cascade of IGF-1 involves the activation of mitogen-activated
protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathways [
49
–
51
]. In 2007, Xie et
al. studied the effect of 20% dietary caloric restriction for 5 days a week extended through 10 weeks
with and without exercise on the development of skin tumors in “SENsitivity to CARcinogenesis”
(SENCAR) mice, known for their sensitivity to 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced
skin cancer. The research group recorded a decrease of Ras-MAPK and PI3K-Akt pathways, in
addition to down-regulation of the expression of 31 and 34 genes related to MAPK and PI3K pathways,
respectively. This was explained by a significant reduction of IGF-1 levels associated with dietary
restriction, suggesting a potential anti-carcinogenic role [52].
Nutrients 2019,11, 249 7 of 15
4.5. Fasting and Skin Aging
Skin aging is a complex, multi-factorial process characterized by decreased collagen level (in
particular, collagen type 1, which lowers the ratio of collagen type 3/collagen type 1, and collagen
type 7), loss of fibrillin-positive biostructures and broken elastin.
As previously stated, caloric restriction without deficiency of essential nutrients has been linked
to enhancement of lifespan and decreased aging [
53
]. The non-enzymatic glycation and oxidation
processes can affect various body proteins including, but not limited to, plasma proteins, hemoglobin,
and skin collagen. The accumulation of glycoxidation products such as carboxymethyl lysine (CML)
and pentosidine in cutaneous collagen promotes skin aging. A classic study conducted by Cefalu et
al. in 1995 evaluated the effect of a long-term 60% caloric restriction program on the levels of CML
and pentosidine in rodent skin. Authors found that chronic caloric restriction decreased the glycation
rate of skin proteins, resulting in the reduction of age-related accumulation of these metabolites in
cutaneous collagen [
54
]. On the other hand, the effect of telomere attrition on restricting cell replication
capacity and subsequently its substantial role in aging is well established, even though its role in
fasting remains controversial. Although telomere length (TL) is inversely related to body mass index
(BMI), telomere dynamics did not seem to be affected by caloric restriction [55].
Figure 3pictorially shows the hypothesized mechanism of fasting on skin aging.
Nutrients 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16
4.5. Fasting and Skin Aging
Skin aging is a complex, multi-factorial process characterized by decreased collagen level (in
particular, collagen type 1, which lowers the ratio of collagen type 3/collagen type 1, and collagen
type 7), loss of fibrillin-positive biostructures and broken elastin.
As previously stated, caloric restriction without deficiency of essential nutrients has been linked
to enhancement of lifespan and decreased aging [54]. The non-enzymatic glycation and oxidation
processes can affect various body proteins including, but not limited to, plasma proteins,
hemoglobin, and skin collagen. The accumulation of glycoxidation products such as carboxymethyl
lysine (CML) and pentosidine in cutaneous collagen promotes skin aging. A classic study conducted
by Cefalu et al. in 1995 evaluated the effect of a long-term 60% caloric restriction program on the
levels of CML and pentosidine in rodent skin. Authors found that chronic caloric restriction
decreased the glycation rate of skin proteins, resulting in the reduction of age-related accumulation
of these metabolites in cutaneous collagen [55]. On the other hand, the effect of telomere attrition on
restricting cell replication capacity and subsequently its substantial role in aging is well established,
even though its role in fasting remains controversial. Although telomere length (TL) is inversely
related to body mass index (BMI), telomere dynamics did not seem to be affected by caloric
restriction [56].
Figure 3 pictorially shows the hypothesized mechanism of fasting on skin aging.
Figure 3. The anti-aging effect of fasting. Abbreviations: CML (carboxymethyl lysine).
4.6. Fasting and Skin Effects: A Summary
Taking together all the previously mentioned mechanisms, it can be concluded that caloric
restriction/fasting has an important impact on skin. Figure 4 reports the main effects on skin
anatomy, homeostasis dynamics, and physiology, whereas Table 1 synthesizes animal models and
experiments of different fasting regimens showing the major effects of caloric restriction on skin.
Figure 3. The anti-aging effect of fasting. Abbreviations: CML (carboxymethyl lysine).
4.6. Fasting and Skin Effects: A Summary
Taking together all the previously mentioned mechanisms, it can be concluded that caloric
restriction/fasting has an important impact on skin. Figure 4reports the main effects on skin anatomy,
homeostasis dynamics, and physiology, whereas Table 1synthesizes animal models and experiments
of different fasting regimens showing the major effects of caloric restriction on skin.
Nutrients 2019,11, 249 8 of 15
Nutrients 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16
Figure 4. The major effects of fasting on skin anatomy, homeostasis dynamics and physiology.
Abbreviations: CML (carboxymethyl lysine); HSCs (hematopoietic stem cells); IGF-1 (insulin-like
growth factor 1); NKs (natural killers); P5C (pyrroline-5-carboxylate); SCs (stem cells); VEGF
(vascular endothelial growth factor).
Table 1. Summary of animal models and experiments showing different effects of various fasting
models on skin homeostasis dynamics.
Animal
model Fasting Regimen Results Explanation References
Swiss
Mice
Long term caloric
restriction to 60%
for 6 months
Maintained/preserved
thermal homeostasis
Maintenance of fur
due to increase of
HFSC pool
Expansion of dermal
vasculature due to
increased levels of
VEGF
Forni et al., 2017
[39]
Hairless
Mice Caloric restriction
Compromised stratum
corneum permeability
barrier
Decreased synthesis of
epidermal cholesterol
Wu-Pong et al.,
1994 [42]
UM-HET3
Mice
Caloric restriction
to 70% for 3–18
months
Decreased
retinoid-induced skin
irritation without
interfering with treatment
efficacy
Increased local
antioxidant levels
Inhibitory effect on
transcription of MMP
genes involved in
tissue destruction
Varani et al., 2008
[43]
Suri Mice
Short-term fast for
4 day/2weeks for 2
months
Enhancement of wound
healing
Increased MQ
production and
release of TNF-α and
VEGF
Hayati et al., 2011
[44]
Fisher-344
Rats
40% calorie
restricted diet
begun 48 h before
wounding and
continued during
healing
Delayed wound healing Decreased collagen
synthesis
Hunt et al., 2012
[45]
Rats
One time 72-hour
fast with access to
water only
Delayed wound healing
Decreased level of the
proline precursor,
P5C, resulting in
Miltyk and Palka,
2000 [46]
Figure 4.
The major effects of fasting on skin anatomy, homeostasis dynamics and physiology.
Abbreviations: CML (carboxymethyl lysine); HSCs (hematopoietic stem cells); IGF-1 (insulin-like
growth factor 1); NKs (natural killers); P5C (pyrroline-5-carboxylate); SCs (stem cells); VEGF (vascular
endothelial growth factor).
Table 1.
Summary of animal models and experiments showing different effects of various fasting
models on skin homeostasis dynamics.
Animal Model Fasting Regimen Results Explanation References
Swiss Mice Long term caloric restriction to
60% for 6 months
Maintained/preserved
thermal homeostasis
Maintenance of fur due to increase
of HFSC pool
Expansion of dermal vasculature
due to increased levels of VEGF
Forni et al., 2017 [38]
Hairless Mice Caloric restriction Compromised stratum
corneum permeability barrier
Decreased synthesis of epidermal
cholesterol Wu-Pong et al., 1994 [41]
UM-HET3 Mice Caloric restriction to 70% for
3–18 months
Decreased retinoid-induced
skin irritation without
interfering with treatment
efficacy
Increased local antioxidant levels
Inhibitory effect on transcription of
MMP genes involved in tissue
destruction
Varani et al., 2008 [42]
Suri Mice Short-term fast for 4
day/2weeks for 2 months
Enhancement of
wound healing
Increased MQ production and
release of TNF-αand VEGF Hayati et al., 2011 [43]
Fisher-344 Rats
40% calorie restricted diet begun
48 hours before wounding and
continued during healing
Delayed wound healing Decreased collagen synthesis Hunt et al., 2012 [44]
Rats One time 72-hour fast with
access to water only Delayed wound healing
Decreased level of the proline
precursor, P5C, resulting in
suppression of IGF-1 dependent
stimulation of collagen synthesis
Miltyk and Palka, 2000 [45]
Rats One time 72-hour fast with
access to water only Delayed wound healing
Decreased availability of IGF-1 due
to up-regulation of IGFBP-1 that has
high affinity to IGF-1
Cechowska-Pasko et al., 2003 [46]
Rats One time 72-hour fast with
access to water only Delayed wound healing
Decreased prolidase activity leading
to decreased proline salvage and
reduction of collagen synthesis
Cechowska-Pasko et al., 2004 [47]
Mice 2-day water-only fast before
chemotherapy
Protective effect against
toxic effects of
chemotherapy on HSCs
Decreased levels of IGF-1 and PKA,
resulting in modulation of HSC,
promoting self-renewal, lineage
regeneration and proliferation
Cheng et al., 2014 [48]
SENCAR Mice 20% calorie restricted diet for 5
days/week for 10 weeks Anti-carcinogenic role
Decrease in mitogenesis
downstream signaling cascade of
IGF-1 (PI3K-AKT and Ras-MAPK)
Xie et al., 2007 [52]
Rodent Long term 60%
caloric restriction Decreased aging
Decreased concentration of
glycoxidation products (CML and
pentosidine) in cutaneous collagen
Cefalu et al., 1995 [54]
Abbreviations: CML (carboxymethyl lysine); HFSC (hair follicle stem cells); HSC (hematopoietic stem cells); IGF-1:
insulin-like growth factor 1; IGFBP-1 (insulin-like growth factor binding protein 1); MAPK (mitogen activated
protein kinase); MMP (matrix metalloproteinase); MQ (macrophages); P5C (pyrroline-5-carboxylate); PI3K-AKT
(phosphoinositide3-kinase-protein kinase B); PKA (protein kinase A); TNF-
α
(tumor necrosis factor alpha); VEGF
(vascular endothelial growth factor).
Nutrients 2019,11, 249 9 of 15
5. Fasting and Autoimmune/Inflammatory Dermatoses
In addition to its significant role in the course of many metabolic and gastrointestinal disorders
such as diabetes and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) [
56
,
57
], dietary restriction can also influence
the progression of skin diseases [58], such as atopic eczema, psoriasis, and acne [59].
Lithell et al. reported an improvement of two chronic inflammatory dermatoses, atopic dermatitis
and pustulosis palmaris et plantaris, with intermittent fasting for two weeks. The results were associated
with a low concentration of unsaturated iron and lactoferrin, known for their anti-apoptotic effects on
neutrophils [60,61].
Other studies also indicated the amelioration of psoriatic lesions following caloric restriction.
This was imputed to the modulator effects of fasting on the immune system such as a decrease
in the activity of pro-inflammatory clusters of differentiation 4 (CD4) positive T helper (Th) cells
and an increase in anti-inflammatory cytokines secretions like IL-4, resulting in dampening of
inflammation [62].
Another study performed by Smith et al. in 2008 has shown the beneficial impact of caloric
restriction on acne vulgaris lesions. This was explained by decreased sebum production, which thereby
counterbalances one of the main factors in the pathogenesis of acne vulgaris [
63
]. Sebaceous glands
are small oil-producing glands present in the skin of mammals and produce sebum. Excess sebum
results in surface oiliness and blocked pores, providing nourishment to bacteria that live on the skin
(in particular, Propionibacterium acnes or P. acnes) and contributes to acne flare-ups. Some emergent
studies seem to support the idea that diet and acne may be, at least in part, connected. Some studies
found a strong relationship between a fasting type diet and acne in human adults and young subjects.
In fact, during the period of caloric restriction, sebum level was found to be reduced by 40%, which
influenced the degree of acne severity [
64
,
65
]. However, these results were observed during severe
caloric restriction (<100 calories per day) with a reversed increase following normal diet.
Prurigo pigmentosa (PP), first described by Nagashima et al. in 1971, is defined as a rare
inflammatory skin disorder, characterized by itchy, reticulated, and erythematous plaques or papules.
A possible role of the ketoacidotic status associated with fasting and dietary restriction has been
implicated in the pathogenesis of the disease.
Hijazi and collaborators identified 4 cases of PP with the help of the dermatopathology database;
3 out of these patients reported the coincidence of their skin condition with fasting [66].
6. Fasting and Skin Cancer
The impact of fasting regimen on skin cancer has been investigated by some studies. For instance,
Corazzari et al. explored the effect of the combination of antiblastics (such as cisplatin) with calorie
restriction protocols (nutrient deprivation) in models of wild type and mutated BRAFV600E melanoma
cell lines. Fasting was found to increase the sensitivity of tumor cell lines to cisplatin-induced
cells, and also of those cell lines particularly resistant to any pharmacological treatment. From a
mechanistic standpoint, cell death (but not autophagy) accounted for this effect: more in detail,
apoptosis was fostered by the reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and expression of the
Activating transcription factor 4 also known as ATF4 in the absence of endoplasmic reticulum-stress.
Moreover, authors found that exposure to 2-deoxy-D-glucose further increased this effect in a model
of SK Mel 28 cell lines [67].
In another study, fasting was found to modulate the IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R)/epithelial growth
factor (EGF) receptor (EGFR) and the Akt/mTOR pathways, which are dysregulated in obesity and
may lead to skin cancer [68].
7. Ramadan, Chronotherapy and Skin
Every cell of the body is involved in a state of adaptation in order to maximize its function and cope
with challenges associated with the circadian rhythm. Not surprisingly, skin has cycles of physiological
Nutrients 2019,11, 249 10 of 15
and functional changes highly influenced by the internal master clock [
69
–
71
]. The circadian rhythm is
mastered by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus stimulated by light entering the
retina; however, due to the unique position of the skin and its exposure to the external environment,
it is plausible to consider the skin as a peripheral clock receiving various stimuli such as humidity,
UV, pollutants, and changes in temperature. Other peripheral clocks include muscles, fat and liver,
among others.
Accordingly, many physiological properties of the skin, including trans-epidermal water
loss (TEWL), hydration, capillary blood flow, temperature, sebum production, and keratinocyte
proliferation, undergo periodicity during the day [
69
–
71
]. This, indeed, supports the use of a
“chronotherapeutic approach” in the systemic administration as well as the topical application of certain
medications to maximize the therapeutic effects and minimizing the adverse reactions. For example,
the barrier function of the skin is more compromised at night with an increase in TEWL, cutaneous
blood flow, adaptive immune activity, release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and histamine, while
the secretion of corticosteroid typically decreases, which can explain the reported circadian rhythm
of some dermatoses, in particular inflammatory and itchy diseases. Therefore, the typical timing for
treatments like emollients, anti-inflammatory drugs including corticosteroids, and anti-histamines is
typically in the evening [71–81].
Similarly, since the proliferation of epidermal stem cells is higher during sleep hours, the ideal
timing for immuno-modulators such as retinoids, azathioprine, methotrexate, and Apremilast is the
evening to optimize their anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative effects and minimize their side
effects as seen in decreasing the gastrointestinal and hematological adverse reactions in a mouse model
with a night dose of mycophenlate mofetil. Biological therapy is best administrated in the evening to
counterbalance the night surge of pro-inflammatory cytokines [82,83].
Changes in the sleep-wake cycle was reported with intermittent fasting during the holy month
of Ramadan, particularly in the first two weeks. A study by BaHammam and colleagues in 2010 has
investigated the alterations in circadian rhythms among six healthy Muslim men with flexible working
hours through the month, using sensor devices. Interestingly, all the subjects reported a shift of their
sleep cycle, so that they were mainly sleeping during the day and working and eating during the night.
This was, indeed, accompanied by a delay in the acrophase of their cutaneous temperature, as well as
their energy expenditure [84].
Accordingly, this change in the circadian rhythm should be taken into consideration when
prescribing medications to the patients; however, a problem of potential non-compliance could be
encountered since, for cultural habits and beliefs, the oral administration of these medications during
the day will be considered as a break in the fasting. Furthermore, the problem of non-adherence
is not only limited to systemic drugs, but some Muslims even avoid the use of topical medications
during the Ramadan fasting. A prospective survey, investigating the development of dermatological
disorders during the Ramadan fasting, was carried out by Patel and co-authors at one of the tertiary
hospitals in the UK. The study included 35 men and 40 women. The authors reported the eruption
of cutaneous disorders such as eczema in 13 individuals, psoriasis, acne vulgaris and psoriasis in
8 patients, in addition to vitiligo, rosacea, urticaria and hair loss. Interestingly, more than one third
of the participants denied the use of any topical treatment during fasting, which they considered
breaching of their fast. This quite widespread belief was not limited to specific age group, gender,
socioeconomic status, or educational level [85].
8. Future Prospects
Dietary interventions/manipulations represent a promising approach for treating, managing
and, at least partially, preventing skin disorders. Despite such important practical implications,
this topic has been neglected in the existing scholarly literature, when it deserves further research.
High-quality randomized controlled trials (RCTs) should be conducted to systematically explore
and compare different fasting protocols, including the use of vegetables and fruits for caloric and
Nutrients 2019,11, 249 11 of 15
metabolic manipulations. For instance, consumption of foods rich in polyphenols protects against UV
and exerts photoprotective effects, counteracting or mitigating UV-induced skin inflammatory status,
proliferation, DNA damage and dysregulation of several cellular networks and pathways, including
immune responses [86].
9. Conclusions
Despite the fact that the month of Ramadan represents a living laboratory in which different
working hypotheses (anti-aging, anti-carcinogenesic, and pro-wound healing effects of fasting) can be
tested
in vivo
, its importance for clinical investigations that could have broad, significant translational
implications has been overlooked.
In particular, the following knowledge gaps can be listed:
(1) There is a strong need for evidence-based suggestions and guidelines. Literature on the impact
of the Ramadan fasting as well as of other fasting regimens on skin diseases is scarce and of poor
quality, as well as information available from the Internet. Instead, chronotherapy and chronomedicine
should be taken into account and further explored;
(2) Few studies have been conducted, recruiting small convenience samples, with high
non-responder rates;
(3) The impact of the Ramadan fasting on skin health could be compared with the effect of other
kinds of fasting, including periodic diet, calorie restriction, dietary restriction, dietary manipulation,
intermittent, short-term, and prolonged fasting.
However, despite the dearth of studies on the topic, based also on our clinical experience, the
following recommendations can be made:
(1) No serious risks for health have been so far reported and, therefore, patients willing to fast
should be advised about the importance of continuing their treatment and that administration of
trans-dermal/topical drugs is licit during the Ramadan fasting;
(2) Non-compliance and non-adherence can have important clinical and economic implications
for patient management; therefore, patient education and empowerment play a major role;
(3) Physicians should be instructed in recognizing rare dermatological disorders associated with
fasting, such as PP;
(4) Further larger, high-quality studies are still needed in order to fill in the above-mentioned
knowledge gaps.
Funding:
This research received no external funding. RC is supported by the 5 T32 AR 7569- 22 National Institute
of Health T32 grant; RC and GD are supported by the P50 AR 070590 01A1 National Institute of Arthritis and
Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1.
Hay, R.J.; Johns, N.E.; Williams, H.C.; Bolliger, I.W.; Dellavalle, R.P.; Margolis, D.J.; Marks, R.; Naldi, L.;
Weinstock, M.A.; Wulf, S.K.; et al. The global burden of skin disease in 2010: An analysis of the prevalence
and impact of skin conditions. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2014,134, 1527–1534. [CrossRef]
2.
Hollestein, L.M.; Nijsten, T. An insight into the global burden of skin diseases. J. Investig. Dermatol.
2014,134, 1499–1501. [CrossRef]
3.
Vos, T.; Flaxman, A.D.; Naghavi, M.; Lozano, R.; Michaud, C.; Ezzati, M.; Shibuya, K.; Salomon, J.A.;
Abdalla, S.; Aboyans, V.; et al. Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries
1990–2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet
2012
,380, 2163–2196.
[CrossRef]
4. Seth, D.; Cheldize, K.; Brown, D.; Freeman, E.F. Global Burden of Skin Disease: Inequities and Innovations.
Curr. Dermatol. Rep. 2017,6, 204–210. [CrossRef]
5.
Lewis, V.; Finlay, A.Y. 10 years experience of the Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI). J. Investig. Dermatol.
Symp. Proc. 2004,9, 169–180. [CrossRef]
Nutrients 2019,11, 249 12 of 15
6.
Cecchi, L.; D’Amato, G.; Annesi-Maesano, I. External exposome and allergic respiratory and skin diseases.
J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2018,141, 846–857. [CrossRef]
7.
Katta, R.; Desai, S.P. Diet and dermatology: The role of dietary intervention in skin disease. J. Clin.
Aesthet. Dermatol. 2014,7, 46–51.
8.
Barrea, L.; Nappi, F.; Di Somma, C.; Savanelli, M.C.; Falco, A.; Balato, A.; Balato, N.; Savastano, S.
Environmental Risk Factors in Psoriasis: The Point of View of the Nutritionist. Int. J. Environ. Res.
Public Health 2016,13, 743. [CrossRef]
9.
Claudel, J.P.; Auffret, N.; Leccia, M.T.; Poli, F.; Dréno, B. Acne and nutrition: Hypotheses, myths and facts.
J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 2018,32, 1631–1637. [CrossRef]
10.
Saha, K.; Hornyak, T.J.; Eckert, R.L. Epigenetic cancer prevention mechanisms in skin cancer. AAPS J.
2013,15, 1064–1071. [CrossRef]
11.
Alhamdan, B.A.; Garcia-Alvarez, A.; Alzahrnai, A.H.; Karanxha, J.; Stretchberry, D.R.; Contrera, K.J.;
Utria, A.F.; Cheskin, L.J. Alternate-day versus daily energy restriction diets: Which is more effective for
weight loss? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes. Sci. Pract.
2016
,2, 293–302. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12.
Johnstone, A. Fasting for weight loss: An effective strategy or latest dieting trend? Int. J. Obes. (Lond.)
2015,39, 727–733. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13.
Longo, V.D.; Mattson, M.P. Fasting: Molecular mechanisms and clinical applications. Cell MeTable
2014,19, 181–192. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14.
Sailaja, B.S.; He, X.C.; Li, L. Stem Cells Matter in Response to Fasting. Cell Rep.
2015
,13, 2325–2326. [CrossRef]
15.
Segovia-Siapco, G.; Sabaté, J. Health and sustainability outcomes of vegetarian dietary patterns: A revisit of
the EPIC-Oxford and the Adventist Health Study-2 cohorts. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr.
2018
, in press. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
16.
Qoran, Surat 2 “Al-Baqarah”, ayyat (verse) 183. Available online: https://quran.com/2/183 (accessed on
1 December 2018).
17.
Berbari, A.E.; Daouk, N.A.; Mallat, S.G.; Jurjus, A.R. Ramadan Fasting in Health and Disease; Berbari, A.E.,
Mancia, G., Eds.; Special Issues in Hypertension; Springer: Milan, Italy, 2012.
18.
Günaydin, G.P.; Dogan, N.O.; Çevik, Y.; Korkmaz, H.; Savrun, A.; Çıkrıkçı, G. Evaluation of Patients with
Renal Colic that Present to an Emergency Department During the Month of Ramadan. J. Acad. Emerg. Med.
2013,12, 24–26.
19.
Qoran, Surat 2 “Al-Baqarah”, ayyat (verses) 185–186. Available online: https://quran.com/2/185-186
(accessed on 1 December 2018).
20.
Al Wakeel, J.; Mitwalli, A.H.; Alsuwaida, A.; Al Ghonaim, M.; Usama, S.; Hayat, A.; Shah, I.H.
Recommendations for fasting in Ramadan for patients on peritoneal dialysis. Perit. Dial. Int.
2013
,33, 86–91.
[CrossRef]
21.
Emami-Naini, A.; Roomizadeh, P.; Baradaran, A.; Abedini, A.; Abtahi, M. Ramadan fasting and patients
with renal diseases: A mini review of the literature. J. Res. Med. Sci. 2013,18, 711–716.
22.
Bragazzi, N.L. Ramadan fasting and chronic kidney disease: Does estimated glomerular filtration rate change
after and before Ramadan? Insights from a mini meta-analysis. Int. J. Nephrol. Renovasc. Dis.
2015
,8, 53–57.
[CrossRef]
23.
Bragazzi, N.L. Ramadan fasting and chronic kidney disease: A systematic review. J. Res. Med. Sci.
2014,19, 665–676.
24.
Oláh, A.; Szöll˝osi, A.G.; Bíró, T. The channel physiology of the skin. Rev. Physiol. Biochem. Pharmacol.
2012,163, 65–131.
25.
Nie, J.; Fu, X.; Han, W. Microenvironment-dependent homeostasis and differentiation of epidermal basal
undifferentiated keratinocytes and their clinical applications in skin repair. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol.
2013,27, 531–535. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
26.
Tareen, S.H.K.; Kutmon, M.; Adriaens, M.E.; Mariman, E.C.M.; de Kok, T.M.; Arts, I.C.W.; Evelo, C.T.
Exploring the cellular network of metabolic flexibility in the adipose tissue. Genes Nutr.
2018
,13, 17.
[CrossRef]
27.
Pasparakis, M.; Haase, I.; Nestle, F.O. Mechanisms regulating skin immunity and inflammation. Nat. Rev.
Immunol. 2014,14, 289–301. [CrossRef]
28.
Sil, P.; Wong, S.W.; Martinez, J. More Than Skin Deep: Autophagy Is Vital for Skin Barrier Function.
Front. Immunol. 2018,9, 1376. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Nutrients 2019,11, 249 13 of 15
29.
Wierzbicka, J.M.; ˙
Zmijewski, M.A.; Piotrowska, A.; Nedoszytko, B.; Lange, M.; Tuckey, R.C.; Slominski, A.T.
Bioactive forms of vitamin D selectively stimulate the skin analog of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal
axis in human epidermal keratinocytes. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 2016,437, 312–322. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
30.
Gonzalez, A.C.; Costa, T.F.; Andrade, Z.A.; Medrado, A.R. Wound healing—A literature review.
An. Bras. Dermatol. 2016,91, 614–620. [CrossRef]
31.
Al-Zoman, A.Y.; Al-Asmari, A.K. Pattern of skin diseases at Riyadh Military Hospital. Egyp. Dermatol. Online
J. 2008,4, 4.
32.
El-Essawi, D.; Musial, J.L.; Hammad, A.; Lim, H.W. A survey of skin disease and skin-related issues in Arab
Americans. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2007,56, 933–938. [CrossRef]
33.
Varady, K.A.; Roohk, D.J.; McEvoy-Hein, B.K.; Gaylinn, B.D.; Thorner, M.O.; Hellerstein, M.K. Modified
alternate-day fasting regimens reduce cell proliferation rates to a similar extent as daily calorie restriction in
mice. FASEB J. 2008,22, 2090–2096. [CrossRef]
34.
Brandhorst, S.; Choi, I.Y.; Wei, M.; Cheng, C.W.; Sedrakyan, S.; Navarrete, G.; Dubeau, L.; Yap, L.P.; Park, R.;
Vinciguerra, M.; et al. A Periodic Diet that Mimics Fasting Promotes Multi-System Regeneration, Enhanced
Cognitive Performance, and Healthspan. Cell MeTable 2015,22, 86–99. [CrossRef]
35.
Nieto, R.; Palmer, R.M.; Fernández-Fígares, I.; Pérez, L.; Prieto, C. Effect of dietary protein quality, feed
restriction and short-term fasting on protein synthesis and turnover in tissues of the growing chicken.
Br. J. Nutr. 1994,72, 499–507. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
36.
Tomiyama, A.J. Beyond interventions: Caloric restriction as a scientific model. Psychosom. Med.
2012,74, 665–666. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
37.
Alverez, L.C.; Peters, D.J.; Murad, H.; Wright, E.T.; McGhee, G.; Drenick, E.J. Changes in the epidermis
during prolonged fasting. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1975,28, 866–871. [CrossRef]
38.
Forni, M.F.; Peloggia, J.; Braga, T.T.; Chinchilla, J.E.O.; Shinohara, J.; Navas, C.A.; Camara, N.O.S.;
Kowaltowski, A.J. Caloric Restriction Promotes Structural and Metabolic Changes in the Skin. Cell Rep.
2017,20, 2678–2692. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
39.
Giannetti, A.; Rabbiosi, G. Aspects of carbohydrate metabolism in rat skin in various experimental conditions.
II. Changes induced by fasting. Boll. Soc. Ital. Biol. Sper. 1967,43, 337–338. [PubMed]
40. MacDonald, I. Dietary carbohydrates and skin lipids. Br. J. Dermatol. 1967,79, 119–121.
41.
Wu-Pong, S.; Elias, P.M.; Feingold, K.R. Influence of altered serum cholesterol levels and fasting on cutaneous
cholesterol synthesis. J. Investig. Dermatol. 1994,102, 799–802. [CrossRef]
42.
Varani, J.; Bhagavathula, N.; Aslam, M.N.; Fay, K.; Warner, R.L.; Hanosh, A.; Barron, A.G.; Miller, R.A.
Inhibition of retinoic acid-induced skin irritation in calorie-restricted mice. Arch. Dermatol. Res.
2008,300, 27–35. [CrossRef]
43.
Hayati, F.; Maleki, M.; Pourmohammad, M.; Sardari, K.; Mohri, M.; Afkhami, A. Influence of Short-term,
Repeated Fasting on the Skin Wound Healing of Female Mice. Wounds 2011,23, 38–43.
44.
Hunt, N.D.; Li, G.D.; Zhu, M.; Miller, M.; Levette, A.; Chachich, M.E.; Spangler, E.L.; Allard, J.S.; Hyun, D.H.;
Ingram, D.K.; et al. Effect of calorie restriction and refeeding on skin wound healing in the rat. Age (Dordr.)
2012,34, 1453–1458. [CrossRef]
45.
Miltyk, W.; Palka, J.A. Potential role of pyrroline 5-carboxylate in regulation of collagen biosynthesis in
cultured human skin fibroblasts. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A Mol. Integr. Physiol.
2000
,125, 265–271. [CrossRef]
46.
Cechowska-Pasko, M.; Pałka, J. Expression of IGF-binding protein-1 phosphoisoforms in fasted rat skin and
its role in regulation of collagen biosynthesis. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B Biochem. Mol. Biol.
2003
,134, 703–711.
[CrossRef]
47.
Cechowska-Pasko, M.; Palka, J.; Ba ´nkowski, E. Fasting-induced inhibition of collagen biosynthesis in rat skin.
A possible role for phosphoenolpyruvate in this process. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 2004,265, 203–208. [CrossRef]
48.
Cheng, C.W.; Adams, G.B.; Perin, L.; Wei, M.; Zhou, X.; Lam, B.S.; Da Sacco, S.; Mirisola, M.; Quinn, D.I.;
Dorff, T.B.; et al. Prolonged fasting reduces IGF-1/PKA to promote hematopoietic-stem-cell-based
regeneration and reverse immunosuppression. Cell Stem Cell 2014,14, 810–823. [CrossRef]
49.
Bragazzi, N.L.; Briki, W.; Khabbache, H.; Rammouz, I.; Chamari, K.; Demaj, T.; Re, T.S.; Zouhir, M. Ramadan
Fasting and Patients with Cancer: State-of-the-Art and Future Prospects. Front. Oncol.
2016
,6, 27. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
Nutrients 2019,11, 249 14 of 15
50.
Birt, D.F.; Pelling, J.C.; White, L.T.; Dimitroff, K.; Barnett, T. Influence of diet and calorie restriction
on the initiation and promotion of skin carcinogenesis in the SENCAR mouse model. Cancer Res.
1991,51, 1851–1854.
51.
Lu, J.; Xie, L.; Sylvester, J.; Wang, J.; Bai, J.; Baybutt, R.; Wang, W. Different gene expression of skin
tissues between mice with weight controlled by either calorie restriction or physical exercise. Exp. Biol.
Med. (Maywood) 2007,232, 473–480.
52.
Xie, L.; Jiang, Y.; Ouyang, P.; Chen, J.; Doan, H.; Herndon, B.; Sylvester, J.E.; Zhang, K.; Molteni, A.;
Reichle, M.; et al. Effects of dietary calorie restriction or exercise on the PI3K and Ras signaling pathways in
the skin of mice. J. Biol. Chem. 2007,282, 28025–28035. [CrossRef]
53.
Bhattacharyya, T.K.; Merz, M.; Thomas, J.R. Modulation of cutaneous aging with calorie restriction in Fischer
344 rats: A histological study. Arch. Facial Plast. Surg. 2005,7, 12–16. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
54.
Cefalu, W.T.; Bell-Farrow, A.D.; Wang, Z.Q.; Sonntag, W.E.; Fu, M.X.; Baynes, J.W.; Thorpe, S.R.
Caloric restriction decreases age-dependent accumulation of the glycoxidation products, N
epsilon-(carboxymethyl)lysine and pentosidine, in rat skin collagen. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med.
Sci. 1995,50, B337–B341. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
55.
Smith, D.L., Jr.; Mattison, J.A.; Desmond, R.A.; Gardner, J.P.; Kimura, M.; Roth, G.S.; Ingram, D.K.;
Allison, D.B.; Aviv, A. Telomere dynamics in rhesus monkeys: No apparent effect of caloric restriction.
J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 2011,66, 1163–1168. [CrossRef]
56.
Peterka, E.S.; Fusaro, R.M. Cutaneous carbohydrate studies. IV. The skin glucose content of fasting diabetics
with and without infection. J. Investig. Dermatol. 1966,46, 459–463. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
57.
Peterka, E.S.; Fusaro, R.M. Cutaneous carbohydrate studies. III. Comparison of the fasting glucose content
of the skin of the back, arm, abdomen and thigh. J. Investig. Dermatol. 1966,47, 410–411. [CrossRef]
58.
Longo, V.D.; Fontana, L. Calorie restriction and cancer prevention: Metabolic and molecular mechanisms.
Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 2010,31, 89–98. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
59.
Bronsnick, T.; Murzaku, E.C.; Rao, B.K. Diet in dermatology: Part I. Atopic dermatitis, acne, and
nonmelanoma skin cancer. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2014,71, 1039.e1–1039.e12. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
60.
Lithell, H.; Bruce, A.; Gustafsson, I.B.; Höglund, N.J.; Karlström, B.; Ljunghall, K.; Sjölin, K.; Venge, P.;
Werner, I.; Vessby, B. A fasting and vegetarian diet treatment trial on chronic inflammatory disorders. Acta
Derm.Venereol. 1983,63, 397–403.
61.
Francis, N.; Wong, S.H.; Hampson, P.; Wang, K.; Young, S.P.; Deigner, H.P.; Salmon, M.; Scheel-Toellner, D.;
Lord, J.M. Lactoferrin inhibits neutrophil apoptosis via blockade of proximal apoptotic signaling events.
Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)-Mol.Cell Res. 2011,1813, 1822–1826. [CrossRef]
62.
Wolters, M. Diet and psoriasis: Experimental data and clinical evidence. Br. J. Dermatol.
2005
,153, 706–714.
[CrossRef]
63.
Smith, R.N.; Braue, A.; Varigos, G.A.; Mann, N.J. The effect of a low glycemic load diet on acne vulgaris and
the fatty acid composition of skin surface triglycerides. J. Dermatol. Sci. 2008,50, 41–52. [CrossRef]
64.
Downing, D.T.; Strauss, J.S.; Pochi, P.E. Changes in skin surface lipid composition induced by severe caloric
restriction in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1972,25, 365–367. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
65.
Pochi, P.E.; Downing, D.T.; Strauss, J.S. Sebaceous gland response in man to prolonged total caloric
deprivation. J. Investig. Dermatol. 1970,55, 303–309. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
66.
Hijazi, M.; Kehdy, J.; Kibbi, A.G.; Ghosn, S. Prurigo pigmentosa: A clinicopathologic study of 4 cases from
the middle East. Am. J. Dermatopathol. 2014,36, 800–806. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
67.
Antunes, F.; Corazzari, M.; Pereira, G.; Fimia, G.M.; Piacentini, M.; Smaili, S. Fasting boosts sensitivity of
human skin melanoma to cisplatin-induced cell death. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.
2017
,485, 16–22.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
68.
Moore, T.; Beltran, L.; Carbajal, S.; Hursting, S.D.; DiGiovanni, J. Energy balance modulates mouse skin tumor
promotion through altered IGF-1R and EGFR crosstalk. Cancer Prev. Res.
2012
,5, 1236–1246. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
69.
Paschos, G.K.; FitzGerald, G.A. Circadian Clocks and Metabolism: Implications for Microbiome and Aging.
Trends Genet. 2017,33, 760–769. [CrossRef]
70.
Matsui, M.S.; Pelle, E.; Dong, K.; Pernodet, N. Biological Rhythms in the Skin. Int. J. Mol. Sci.
2016
,17, 801.
[CrossRef]
Nutrients 2019,11, 249 15 of 15
71.
Le Fur, I.; Reinberg, A.; Lopez, S.; Morizot, F.; Mechkouri, M.; Tschachler, E. Analysis of circadian and
ultradian rhythms of skin surface properties of face and forearm of healthy women. J. Investig. Dermatol.
2001,117, 718–724. [CrossRef]
72.
Adawi, M.; Watad, A.; Brown, S.; Aazza, K.; Aazza, H.; Zouhir, M.; Sharif, K.; Ghanayem, K.; Farah, R.;
Mahagna, H.; et al. Ramadan fasting exerts immunomodulatory effects: insights from a systematic review.
Front. Immunol. 2017,8, 1144. [CrossRef]
73.
Yosipovitch, G.; Xiong, G.L.; Haus, E.; Sackett-Lundeen, L.; Ashkenazi, I.; Maibach, H.I. Time-dependent
variations of the skin barrier function in humans: Transepidermal water loss, stratum corneum hydration,
skin surface pH, and skin temperature. J. Investig. Dermatol. 1998,110, 20–23. [CrossRef]
74.
Yosipovitch, G.; Sackett-Lundeen, L.; Goon, A.; Yiong Huak, C.; Leok Goh, C.; Haus, E. Circadian and
ultradian (12 h) variations of skin blood flow and barrier function in non-irritated and irritated skin-effect of
topical corticosteroids. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2004,122, 824–829. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
75.
Dimitrov, S.; Lange, T.; Nohroudi, K.; Born, J. Number and function of circulating human antigen presenting
cells regulated by sleep. Sleep 2007,30, 401–411. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
76.
Chang, Y.S.; Chiang, B.L. Mechanism of sleep disturbance in children with atopic dermatitis and the role of
the circadian rhythm and melatonin. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016,17, 462. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
77.
Stephenson, L.A.; Wenger, C.B.; O’Donovan, B.H.; Nadel, E.R. Circadian rhythm in sweating and cutaneous
blood flow. Am. J. Physiol. 1984,246, R321–R324. [CrossRef]
78.
Haeck, I.M.; Timmer-de Mik, L.; Lentjes, E.G.; Buskens, E.; Hijnen, D.J.; Guikers, C.; Bruijnzeel-Koomen, C.A.;
de Bruin-Weller, M.S. Low basal serum cortisol in patients with severe atopic dermatitis: Potent topical
corticosteroids wrongfully accused. Br. J. Dermatol. 2007,156, 979–985. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
79.
Matsuda, K.; Katsunuma, T.; Iikura, Y.; Kato, H.; Saito, H.; Akasawa, A. Adrenocortical function in patients
with severe atopic dermatitis. Ann. Allerg. Asthma Immunol. 2000,85, 35–39. [CrossRef]
80.
Mochizuki, T.; Yamatodani, A.; Okakura, K.; Horii, A.; Inagaki, N.; Wada, H. Circadian rhythm of histamine
release from the hypothalamus of freely moving rats. Physiol. Behav. 1992,51, 391–394. [CrossRef]
81.
Nakamura, Y.; Ishimaru, K.; Shibata, S.; Nakao, A. Regulation of plasma histamine levels by the mast cell
clock and its modulation by stress. Sci. Rep. 2017,7, 39934. [CrossRef]
82.
Janich, P.; Toufighi, K.; Solanas, G.; Luis, N.M.; Minkwitz, S.; Serrano, L.; Lehner, B.; Benitah, S.A. Human
epidermal stem cell function is regulated by circadian oscillations. Cell Stem. Cell.
2013
,13, 745–753.
[CrossRef]
83.
Dridi, I.; Grissa, I.; Ezzi, L.; Chakroun, S.; Ben-Cherif, W.; Haouas, Z.; Aouam, K.; Ben-Attia, M.; Reinberg, A.;
Boughattas, N.A. Circadian variation of cytotoxicity and genotoxicity induced by an immunosuppressive
agent “Mycophenolate Mofetil” in rats. Chronobiol. Int. 2016,33, 1208–1221. [CrossRef]
84.
BaHammam, A.; Alrajeh, M.; Albabtain, M.; Bahammam, S.; Sharif, M. Circadian pattern of sleep, energy
expenditure, and body temperature of young healthy men during the intermittent fasting of Ramadan.
Appetite 2010,54, 426–429. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
85.
Patel, T.; Magdum, A.; Ghura, V. Does fasting during Ramadan affect the use of topical dermatological
treatment by Muslim patients in the UK? Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 2012,37, 718–721. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
86.
Afaq, F.; Katiyar, S.K. Polyphenols: Skin photoprotection and inhibition of photocarcinogenesis. Mini Rev.
Med. Chem. 2011,11, 1200–1215. [PubMed]
©
2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
