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Changing leisure boat antifouling practices in the Baltic Sea Results from the BONUS CHANGE project
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... Several options exists to reduce current Cu emissions from AFP in vulnerable areas, especially in inland waters. Mechanical measures have been shown to be highly efficient in low-fouling pressure areas (Strand et al., 2018) and include brush washing, hull covers, boatlifts as well as ultrasound systems. Further, AFP containing less Cu have shown full antifouling performance Strand et al., 2018), thus providing an option for potentially less Cu release into the water bodies together with calling to paint less and providing practical guidelines on the water protective handling of AFP Setzer et al., 2019). ...
... Mechanical measures have been shown to be highly efficient in low-fouling pressure areas (Strand et al., 2018) and include brush washing, hull covers, boatlifts as well as ultrasound systems. Further, AFP containing less Cu have shown full antifouling performance Strand et al., 2018), thus providing an option for potentially less Cu release into the water bodies together with calling to paint less and providing practical guidelines on the water protective handling of AFP Setzer et al., 2019). In marinas, designated areas for boat washing with wastewater treatment and waste collection facilities provide options to reduce Cu emissions from maintenance work. ...
... In marinas, designated areas for boat washing with wastewater treatment and waste collection facilities provide options to reduce Cu emissions from maintenance work. Such measures were estimated to result in a potential reduction of Cu loads of 57 %-79 % in coastal marinas (Strand et al., 2018). However, necessary infrastructure is not always available in marinas. ...
Copper-containing antifouling paints (AFP) are widely used for leisure boat maintenance. Cu emitted from AFP into German surface water bodies has been suggested to be a significant source of heavy metal pollution, threatening water quality. We developed two scenarios to model Cu emissions from AFP applied on leisure boats on national scale, which allow identifying regional hotspots. The top-down approach (scenario A) was based on a previous study on national AFP consumption, while in the bottom-up approach (scenario B), median and interquartile range of Cu release rates depending on salinity conditions were considered for emission estimation. Both scenarios clearly highlighted the locally high emission pressure on inland waters in popular watersport regions, identifying these as requiring intense protection. Scenario B generally predicted lower Cu emissions (sea: 11.05–25.53 t a⁻¹, inland: 14.15–34.59 t a⁻¹) than scenario A (sea: 22.53 t a⁻¹, inland: 47.97 t a⁻¹). To evaluate their relevance, scenario results were compared to emissions modelled with MoRE (Modelling of Regionalized Emissions), which is used as reporting tool on substance emissions by Germany. According to scenarios A and B, the emission from AFP accounted for 13 % and 4–9% of the total Cu emissions into inland waters in 2016, respectively. Scenario results were similar or higher than other emission pathways such as industrial direct dischargers. Thus, we consider Cu emissions from AFP as a significant pathway to be included in the MoRE emission inventory. We recommend scenario B for implementation as it allows a more flexible adaptation for future modelling.
How zinc oxide influences copper release has been tested and the lowest release rate of copper from various combinations of copper and zinc in a paint matrix evaluated, whilst still deterring macrofouling, including barnacles and bryozoans. Copper (I) oxide was added to a generic AF paint in 0, 8.5, 11.7 or 16.3 wt% copper oxide in combination with 0, 10 or 20 wt% zinc oxide and applied on PMMA panels. The results show that zinc influences the release rate of copper. When 10 and 20 wt% zinc was added, the total amount of copper released significantly increased by on average 32 and 47% respectively. All treatments that included copper were successful in deterring macrofouling, including the treatment with the lowest average Cu release rate, ie 4.68 μg cm⁻² day⁻¹.
Contaminants are important stressors in the aquatic environment and may exert selective pressures on organisms. We hypothesized that snails originating from a metal-contaminated habitat (B) would have increased tolerance to harbour contaminants (e.g. metals from antifouling paints), compared to snails originating from a relatively clean habitat (A). We assessed tolerance to metals in terms of survival and histopathological alterations after 2, 4 and 8 weeks of in situ exposure in three Baltic Sea boat harbours and three reference sites. We also hypothesized that any potential tolerance to contaminants would be associated with differences in genetic diversity between the two snail populations (evaluated as mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, COI). The results show that snails from population A survived to a higher extent compared to population B, possibly indicating either a lack of adaptation to metals in snails B or impaired health condition due to contaminant pre-exposure or a higher resilience of snails A. Moreover, the genetic diversity of COI was low within each population and did not differ between populations. In general, 83% of all the types of histopathological alterations (e.g. lysis and necrosis of gonads and digestive gland or granulocytoma and phagocytosis in the storage tissue, among others) had a higher probability of occurrence among harbour-exposed snails compared to reference-exposed snails, regardless of snail population origin. The only significant difference in histological effects between the two populations was in the frequency of parasite infestations and shell fouling, both being larger for population A than B. Interestingly, the rate of parasite infestations was higher for males than females from population A, whereas no sexual dichotomy was observed for population B. Our results show that exposure to harbour contaminants causes both lethal and sublethal toxicity to snails, and the association between many of the toxic responses and metals substantiates that antifouling substances contribute to the observed effects, although there is a large proportion of variation in our data that remains unexplained.
The application of a field portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (FPXRF) to measure Cu, Zn, and Pb in soil and sediments at recreational boatyards by Lake Mälaren in Sweden was investigated. Confirmatory chemical analysis on freeze-dried samples shows that, ex situ, the FPXRF produces definitive level data for Cu and Zn and quantitative screening data for Pb, according to USEPA criteria for data quality. Good agreement was also found between the ex situ measurements and the in situ screening. At each of the two studied boatyards, >40 in situ soil measurements were carried out. Statistical differences in soil concentration based on land use were consequently found: the areas used for boat storage and maintenance were significantly higher in Cu and Zn than the areas used for car parking and transportation. The metal pollution in the boat storage areas is therefore shown to be directly linked to hull maintenance activities during which metal-containing antifouling paint particles are shed, end up on the ground, and consequently pollute the soil. In the boat storage areas, the Cu and Zn concentrations often exceeded the national guideline values for soil. In this study, they were also shown to increase with increasing age of the boatyard operation. Pb soil concentrations were only elevated at a few measurement points, reflecting the phasing out of Pb compounds from antifouling products over the past 2 decades. In the surface sediments, concentrations of Cu and Zn were 2-3 times higher compared to deeper levels. No decrease in metal concentration with time was found in the sediments, indicating that boat owners are not complying with the ban of biocide-containing paints in freshwater introduced over 20 years ago.
Benthic contaminants affect micro and macrofouling communities on nearby hard substrata. • Enriched sediments reduced diversity and network connectivity of biofilms. • Enriched sediment increased barnacle and ascidian recruitment on nearby hard substrata. • Adverse effects of metals were mitigated by high enrichment for some taxa. • Contaminated sediments could select for tolerant bacteria and macrofoulers. Coastal systems are increasingly impacted by human activities. While the direct effects of individual contaminants have been investigated, the potential for multiple contaminants to impact adjacent hard substrate habitats is poorly understood. Sediment-bound contaminants pose a risk to water column organisms through resuspen-sion and the fluxing of dissolved nutrients and metals. This study experimentally manipulated contaminated coastal sediments in mesocosms with additions of a common fertiliser to investigate the impact on both bacterial biofilms and macrofouling communities on nearby hard substrates. Field mesocosms were deployed sub-tidally for two weeks in a fully crossed design with two levels of metal contamination (ambient or high) and three levels of organic enrichment (ambient, low and high). Developing biofilm and macrofaunal communities were collected on acetate settlement sheets above the mesocosm sediments and censused with a combination of high-throughput sequencing (biofilm) and microscopy (macrofauna). Organic enrichment of sediments induced compositional shifts in biofilm communities, reducing their diversity, evenness and richness. Furthermore, co-occurrence networks built from microbial assemblages exposed to contaminated sediments displayed reduced connectivity compared to controls, suggesting a more stochastic assembly dynamic, where microbial interactions are reduced. Macrofouling community composition shifted in response to increased enrichment with separate and interactive effects of metals also observed for individual taxa. Specifically, antagonistic stressor interactions were observed for colonial ascidians and j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s e v i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / s c i t o t e n v arborescent bryozoans; metal contamination decreased abundances of these taxa, except under high enrichment conditions. Together these micro-and macrofaunal responses indicate selection for depauperate, but contaminant-tolerant, communities and a potential breakdown in biotic connectivity through multiple stressor impacts across habitat boundaries.
The impact of organotin compounds in the environment is assessed, based on a critical survey of the published literature. After a brief introduction, the properties and characteristics of organotin compounds are outlined, with notes on methods of manufacture, patterns of use and chemical properties. A section deals with analytical methods used to determine low levels of organotins in aqueous systems, in soils and sediments, in air samples and in biological materials, The next section examines sources of entry of organotin compounds into the environment via the principal areas of use, namely, PVC stabilisation, wood preservation, agricultural pesticides and marine antifouling coatings; possible effects of the introduction of organotin molluscicides are examined briefly. An important section is concerned with environmental interactions which are linked closely with the possible long-term hazards posed by these compounds. Relevant to this section are the aqueous chemistry of organotins, environmental methylation and mechanisms of degradation (particularly by UV irradiation and biological cleavage). The toxicology of organotin compounds is considered in some detail and results are summarised for animal studies and for reported effects in humans; the mode of toxicological action, metabolic pathways and results of carcinogenicity testing are also described in this section. Preventive measures are described in the next section and include methods of waste disposal. The final section look sat future trends, bearing in mind the growing industrial use of organotin compounds (currently 35,000 tonnes/year).
Written by an internationally recognized group of editors and contributors, Handbook of Elemental Speciation, Volume 2 provides a comprehensive, cross-disciplinary presentation of the analytical techniques involved in speciation. Comprehensive coverage of key elements and compounds in situ Addresses the analysis and impact of these elements and compounds, e.g. arsenic, lead, copper, iron, halogens, etc., in food, the environment, clinical and occupational health Detailed methodology and data are reported, as well as regulatory limits Includes general introduction on the impact in these key areas.
Everyday life is defined and characterised by the rise, transformation and fall of social practices. Using terminology that is both accessible and sophisticated, this essential book guides the reader through a multi-level analysis of this dynamic. In working through core propositions about social practices and how they change the book is clear and accessible; real world examples, including the history of car driving, the emergence of frozen food, and the fate of hula hooping, bring abstract concepts to life and firmly ground them in empirical case-studies and new research. Demonstrating the relevance of social theory for public policy problems, the authors show that the everyday is the basis of social transformation addressing questions such as:how do practices emerge, exist and die?what are the elements from which practices are made?how do practices recruit practitioners?how are elements, practices and the links between them generated, renewed and reproduced? Precise, relevant and persuasive this book will inspire students and researchers from across the social sciences.
Most stenoglossan gastropods are gonochoristic (i.e. the sexes are separate). During the last two decades, the phenomenon of ‘imposex,’ the development of male sex organs on the female, has become increasingly prevalent, to the extent that >40 species worldwide are now known to exhibit the syndrome. Initial evidence linking imposex to the presence of the leachates of marine antifouling paints containing tributyltin (TBT) as a biocide was provided by studies of the American mudsnail Ilyanassa obsoleta, but no deleterious effect on its reproductive biology was detected. However, recent investigations of imposex in the European dogwhelk (Nucella lapillus) have demonstrated that in this species the effects of TBT can be profound, since breeding can be inhibited causing populations to decline and eventually disappear. This chapter summarizes the evidence that TBT pollution is responsible for the disappearance of N. lapillus in areas close to centers of boating activity.
Organotin compounds are widely used in almost all sectors of industry. Antifouling paints, which were applied to ship hulls to protect from fouling organisms, are the main source of TBT and TPhT derivatives loaded into the sea. The global ban on the use of these compounds in antifouling systems was introduced by the IMO in 2001. However, the ban did not solve the problem of the use of alternatives to TBT in the ship industry. Moreover, the issue of storing the organotins-containing dredged spoils at sea still remains unresolved. The pollution load deposited in port sediments may become an additional threat to the organisms that dwell in a given water basin. In such cases, it is necessary to establish appropriate norms for the quality classification of dredged spoils. Unfortunately, detailed guidelines concerning the disposal of dredged spoils are still lacking.