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Australian post-separation parenting on the smartphone: What’s ‘App-ening?
Abstract
In recent years Australia has seen increasing use of digital technology including smartphones and with that, increasing development and availability of online family law resources including digital applications (‘apps’). However, the extent to which online resources are being used – and are considered useful – by those experiencing relationship separation has not so far been the focus of Australian empirical research. After first briefly examining digital developments in Australia more broadly, we draw on recent data from 35 separated parents across four states to explore use and utility of family law resources available on smartphones from a ‘consumer’ perspective, focusing on apps. Our analysis suggests a gap between what is available, and what is known about and used by separating parents.
... The ubiquity of smartphones has been accompanied by a proliferation of applications ('apps'), including apps to help separated parents manage their communication and coparenting arrangements. This is a large and dynamic market: in 2019 over 40 postseparation parenting apps were available in Australia (Smyth and Fehlberg 2019). 1 These apps typically offer multiple tools to support parenting after separation: a messaging function, a calendar with shared access between parents, an expense tracker, and the ability to store and download information. Family law professionals are increasingly being asked by clients about whether an app could help with communication and parenting arrangements. ...
... A limited number of empirical studies, most from North America, have explored digitally mediated communication among separated or divorced parents, and very few of these specifically refer to post-separation parenting apps (but see Payne et al. 2022, Smyth et al. in press). Some of the risks and benefits of digital communication for separated parents have been identified in the literature (Ganong et al. 2012, Dworkin et al. 2016, Markham et al. 2017, Quehl 2017, Smyth and Fehlberg 2019, Smyth et al. 2020, though not documented in any systematic way. ...
... Whereas synchronous communication methods (e.g. conversation by phone or in person) set an expectation of immediate response, asynchronous digital communication enables the user to choose if and when to read a message, and on what device (Markham et al. 2017, Smyth andFehlberg 2019). It allows for time to lapse between message receipt and reply, giving recipients the chance to temper emotions and to construct thoughtful responses. ...
Mobile phones have become an essential part of modern family life. Their proliferation has been accompanied by a diverse range of apps, including apps for separated parents. Family law professionals are increasingly being asked about post-separation parenting apps by clients. Yet the empirical evidence about their potential benefits and risks is sparse. The present study draws on qualitative data from an online survey of 344 family law professionals in Australia and New Zealand about their attitudes to co-parenting apps. Three broad potential benefits of co-parenting app functions were identified: accountability, convenience and containment. Drawing on a realist evaluation framework, we find that the same app functions were identified as posing a variety of potential risks, including technology-facilitated abuse, depending on context. We argue that family law professionals need a good understanding of the potential benefits and risks of co-parenting apps, along with the contextual factors that can determine outcomes.
... Further, excessive ongoing communication can be used to try to control or harass former spouses (Hardesty et al., 2017). Less frequent communication utilizing a few ICTs may indicate that former spouses have become disengaged from one another, perhaps having adopted parallel or uninvolved coparenting relationships that emphasize individual rather than coordinated parenting (Ahrons, 2007;Markham et al., 2017;Smyth & Fehlberg, 2019;Smyth et al., 2020). However, researchers have also found that frequency of communication between former spouses decreases over time, and decreases in communication frequency can be an indicator that former spouses have successfully established new family system roles and routines (Ahrons, 2007;Maccoby et al., 1990). ...
... Researchers have begun exploring how ICTs, along with face-to-face communication, are used within post-divorce family systems. Across several studies researchers have found that text messaging and email are the most common ICTs used by divorced coparents (Dworkin et al., 2016;Smyth & Fehlberg, 2019;Smyth et al., 2020). It also appears ICTs are used by both divorced parents with cooperative and conflictual coparenting relationships (Smyth & Fehlberg, 2019). ...
... Across several studies researchers have found that text messaging and email are the most common ICTs used by divorced coparents (Dworkin et al., 2016;Smyth & Fehlberg, 2019;Smyth et al., 2020). It also appears ICTs are used by both divorced parents with cooperative and conflictual coparenting relationships (Smyth & Fehlberg, 2019). However, divorced parents who have particularly contentious relationships and thus weaker coparenting ties may use multiple ICTs out of necessity (e.g., to prevent one parent from withholding information or to increase the quality of information) rather than a function of closeness between coparents (Smyth et al., 2020). ...
Divorced parents are increasingly expected to carry out shared physical custody of minor children by maintaining ongoing communication with their ex-spouse. Digital and cellular technologies have created new mediums for divorced parents to carry out communication (e.g., texting, email, and social media). In this study, we identified a typology of divorced parents’ use of five communication mediums with their former spouse using latent class analysis. We also examined how parent, post-divorce relationship, and family characteristics were associated with class membership. The four classes we identified were multi-method communicators who extensively used all communication mediums; phone-facilitated communicators who had moderate usage of face-to-face communication, with higher frequency of talking on the phone or texting; text and email communicators who used minimal synchronous communication, relying on texting or emailing; and limited communication texters who had low use of all communication mediums, but when they did communicate, did so via text. Divorced coparents have widely incorporated communication technologies into their post-divorce coparenting relationships. Understanding how new communication technologies are associated with individual, relational, and family adjustment to divorce can help inform research, policy, and practice.
... A mapping exercise of 43 smartphone divorce apps finds that many of these apps (e.g., Appclose; Coparently; Cozi; Our Family Wizard; Shared Care; 2houses) comprised integrated collaborative digital systems that included a range of functions for helping parents to communicate in a businesslike manner over parenting time schedules and changes, sharing documents and tracking child support expenses (Smyth & Fehlberg, 2019). The mapping study suggests that a knowledge gap appears to exist between "what is available, and what is known about and used by separating parents" (Smyth & Fehlberg, 2019, p. 53). ...
... In recent years there has been an increase in the use of digital technology, including smartphones and digital applications ('apps') for ex-partners to communicate. In Australia, as elsewhere, the extent to which separated parents utilize apps is not well documented (Smyth & Fehlberg, 2019). Only one of the 68 separated parents in the sample (row 17) reports using an app as the primary form of communication with a former partner, moving from e-mail to an app. ...
... If the use of apps was not present among participants prior to separation, it is unlikely to be adopted at a time of low relational connectedness (Barakji et al., 2019). Second, in Australia, those most in need of digital technologies (such as smartphone apps) appear to be the least likely to make use of these technologies (Smyth & Fehlberg, 2019). One or both parents are often unwilling to use apps in the context of high-conflict due to a lack of trust. ...
Much of the work on media multiplexity theory (MMT) is based on unestablished relationships, in which more channels are presumed to be indicative of higher relational closeness. But a different set of relational dynamics may be at play in preexisting acrimonious partnerships. In this article, we investigate the use of different modes of communication by high-conflict separated parents (media multiplexity), and map changes in modes of communication (modality switching). Qualitative data from 68 separated parents in Australia who reported chronic parental acrimony suggest that a considerable amount of modality switching occurred post-separation. Consistent with MMT, multiplexity was evident but the degree of multiplexity was not as clearly related with the degree of closeness in the co-parental relationship as would be otherwise predicted by MMT. Recent insights into more pernicious forms of family dynamics set an important challenge for communication theories to better account for ex-couple motivational complexities.
... In recent years a bewildering array of smartphone applications ("apps") has emerged to support separated parents' communication and post-separation parenting arrangements (Smyth & Fehlberg, 2019). Post-separation parenting apps vary in cost and features and typically comprise a messaging tool, shared calendar, expense tracker, a means to share photos and information about children, and the ability to export records for legal purposes. ...
In recent years a bewildering array of smartphone applications (“apps”) has emerged to support separated parents' communication. Post‐separation parenting apps vary in cost and features; they typically comprise a messaging tool, shared calendar, expense tracker and a means to export records for legal purposes. A key challenge for separated parents and family law practitioners alike is knowing which apps or app feature(s) can work well for different family contexts, needs and budgets. The present study sought to evaluate nine popular post‐separation parenting apps and their features using small‐ n Human–Computer Interaction methods. Mediators role‐played high conflict ex‐couples while completing a set of five common post‐separation communication or organizational tasks. A cross‐case analysis of ratings was conducted. We found that (a) many of the mediators changed their apparent enthusiasm for co‐parenting apps once they had used the apps themselves; (b) all nine apps were rated somewhere between “Poor” to Fair’; and (c) features of some of the best‐known apps were not rated as highly as some of the features of more recent, lesser‐known apps.
... Sourdin et al. (2020) examine the use of apps in justice domains. Smyth and Fehlberg (2019) and Smyth et al. (2020) focus upon apps in Australian Family Law. ...
In this article, we review the use of Artificial Intelligence to provide intelligent dispute resolution support. In the early years there was little systematic development of such systems. Rather a number of ad hoc systems were developed. The focus of these systems was upon the technology being utilised, rather than user needs. Following a review of historic systems, we focus upon what are the important components of intelligent Online Dispute Resolution systems. Arising from this review, we develop an initial model for constructing user centric intelligent Online Dispute Resolution systems. Such a model integrates Case management, Triaging, Advisory tools, Communication tools, Decision Support Tools and Drafting software. No single dispute is likely to require all six processes to resolve the issue at stake. However, the development of such a hybrid ODR system would be very significant important starting point for expanding into a world where Artificial Intelligence is gainfully used.
... The use of digital communication technology by separated families during COVID-19 offers important insights for communication and conflict specialists (Smyth, Ainscough, & Payne, 2020). There is also little systematic outcome data on the benefits (or otherwise) of using digital technology (e.g., smartphone divorce apps) by separated parents (Smyth & Fehlberg, 2019). And because technologically-mediated communication provides new opportunities for those who use violence to continue the cycle of abuse from afar, urgent research is needed on technologically-facilitated abuse (Markwick, Bickerdike, Wilson-Evered, & Zeleznikow, 2019). ...
Around the globe, many families are experiencing significant anxieties linked to COVID-19. These include health concerns and economic pressures, both of which are frequently taking place against a backdrop of various levels of social isolation. In addition, many parents have been juggling home schooling requirements in the face of radically different work arrangements including the loss of employment altogether. Unsurprisingly, additional challenges and stresses are emerging for separated families, family law professionals, and family courts. In this article - written at a point-in-time in a rapidly evolving COVID-19 context - we reflect on key challenges for separated families in Australia, and some of the emerging professional responses.
Post-separation parenting apps are designed for separated parents to use as a dedicated space for child-related communication and organisation. Their enhanced record-keeping features often lead to recommendations for their use within the context of family law and they are likely to appeal to victim/survivors of family violence. However, concerns have also been raised about their potential misuse by perpetrating parents. Using responses to an online survey about post-separation parenting apps, this study explores the tension between the harms and benefits of app use under these circumstances. Data were examined from 33 mothers who reported experiencing family violence via parenting apps. Comparative methods were used to contrast those who endorsed beneficial outcomes from app use with those whose outcomes were detrimental (net-benefit case group [n = 24] vs net-detriment case group [n = 9], respectively). Overall, mothers in the net-benefit case group reported a shorter time since separation (M = 3 years) and fewer experiences of app misuse by the other parent. For these mothers, apps worked to minimise harmful perpetrator conduct by deterring and/or capturing abusive behaviours and affording containment and boundary setting around interactions. By contrast, those in the net-detriment case group were separated longer (M = 6.9 years) and reported a higher incidence of app misuse and fear. These participants experienced a range of app-facilitated harms centred on perpetrators’ false narratives and manipulation. These results suggests that while post-separation parenting apps may be useful harm-minimisation tools for many victim/survivors of post-separation family violence, they are not a panacea for parenting communication in all such contexts – particularly where there is entrenched coercive control.
There are many concerns that arise in the context of Judge AI where there is a complete replacement of judges and, to a far lesser extent, in the development of supportive Judge AI. These concerns are linked to micro as well as macro issues. For example, on an individual level, Judge AI might reduce cost and time factors but could also foster inaccurate and biased decision making or disadvantage vulnerable members of the community. At a macro level, the issues are more complex. Indeed, some early thinkers in the AI area considered that, of all groups within society, judges should not be replaced by AI. This concern is partly linked to the notion that AI might eventually take over the world and that human beings might be superseded by forms of AI. While Judge AI is in early developmental phases however, what considerations need to be made in building expert Judge AI systems and how can decision-making processes be algorithmically programmed for machine learning to accurately model areas of the law? The author grapples with these questions as well as ethical concerns regarding the automation of judging including the extent to which human judges should be retained and the legal areas suitable and unsuitable to Judge AI involvement. In addition, an ethical framework and accompanying principles for the use of Judge AI in the legal system is contemplated for the maintenance of the values and wellbeing of each jurisdiction which may incorporate Judge AI in their legal system.
This paper connects two trends in contemporary legal scholarship that do not often intersect, namely commentary on the increasingly diverse nature of family law advice and support services, and calls for a refresh of the regulatory environment in which legal services in general are provided. Focusing on the law and landscape in England and Wales, we argue that regulatory challenges are particularly acute in the field of family law, where the range and reach of services provided by non-lawyers is extraordinary. We illustrate how particular aspects of debates over regulating and diversifying legal services apply to the family law context, noting that such concerns as there are have not always been well targeted. Finally, we identify a sub-set of innovative ‘extra-legal’ services that set private family law even further apart from other sub-fields of law when it comes to regulatory and professional challenge. These services clearly sit inside the landscape of family dispute resolution but equally clearly fall outside the boundaries of what is usually considered ‘legal’. This, we suggest, highlights the need for a concerted effort to define the contours of family law and family legal services so that a holistic approach might be taken to understanding and managing the standards and effectiveness of different service and support types.
Background:
Advancements in mobile phone technology have led to the development of smartphones with the capability to run apps. The availability of a plethora of health- and fitness-related smartphone apps has the potential, both on a clinical and public health level, to facilitate healthy behavior change and weight management. However, current top-rated apps in this area have not been extensively evaluated in terms of scientific quality and behavioral theory evidence base.
Objective:
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the quality of the most popular dietary weight-loss smartphone apps on the commercial market using comprehensive quality assessment criteria, and to quantify the behavior change techniques (BCTs) incorporated.
Methods:
The top 200-rated Health & Fitness category apps from the free and paid sections of Google Play and iTunes App Store in Australia (n=800) were screened in August 2014. To be included in further analysis, an app had to focus on weight management, include a facility to record diet intake (self-monitoring), and be in English. One researcher downloaded and used the eligible apps thoroughly for 5 days and assessed the apps against quality assessment criteria which included the following domains: accountability, scientific coverage and content accuracy of information relevant to weight management, technology-enhanced features, usability, and incorporation of BCTs. For inter-rater reliability purposes, a second assessor provided ratings on 30% of the apps. The accuracy of app energy intake calculations was further investigated by comparison with results from a 3-day weighed food record (WFR).
Results:
Across the eligible apps reviewed (n=28), only 1 app (4%) received full marks for accountability. Overall, apps included an average of 5.1 (SD 2.3) out of 14 technology-enhanced features, and received a mean score of 13.5 (SD 3.7) out of 20 for usability. The majority of apps provided estimated energy requirements (24/28, 86%) and used a food database to calculate energy intake (21/28, 75%). When compared against the WFR, the mean absolute energy difference of apps which featured energy intake calculations (23/28, 82%) was 127 kJ (95% CI -45 to 299). An average of 6.3 (SD 3.7) of 26 BCTs were included.
Conclusions:
Overall, the most popular commercial apps for weight management are suboptimal in quality, given the inadequate scientific coverage and accuracy of weight-related information, and the relative absence of BCTs across the apps reviewed. With the limited regulatory oversight around the quality of these types of apps, this evaluation provides clinicians and consumers an informed view of the highest-quality apps in the current popular app pool appropriate for recommendation and uptake. Further research is necessary to assess the effectiveness of apps for weight management.
The report presents the findings of the Evaluation of the 2012 family violence amendments. This Evaluation examines the impact of amendments to the Family Law Act Cth 1975 (Cth) that came into effect in 2012 and were intended to support safer parenting arrangements for children. The report synthesises the findings from three separate components of the Evaluation of the 2012 family violence amendments research program, which was funded by the Australian Attorney General's Department. The three components were the Experiences of Separated Parents Study, based on data examining the experiences of separated parents in two cross sectional pre and post reform samples (n= 6000); the Responding to Family Violence: Survey of Family Law Prcatices and Experiences based on online surveys with 653 family law system professionals and the Court Outcomes Project based on a study of 1892 court files, published judgments and court-supplied administrative data.
Mobile phones are ubiquitous in society and owned by a majority of psychiatric patients, including those with severe mental illness. Their versatility as a platform can extend mental health services in the areas of communication, self-monitoring, self-management, diagnosis, and treatment. However, the efficacy and reliability of publicly available applications (apps) have yet to be demonstrated. Numerous articles have noted the need for rigorous evaluation of the efficacy and clinical utility of smartphone apps, which are largely unregulated. Professional clinical organizations do not provide guidelines for evaluating mobile apps.
Guidelines and frameworks are needed to evaluate medical apps. Numerous frameworks and evaluation criteria exist from the engineering and informatics literature, as well as interdisciplinary organizations in similar fields such as telemedicine and healthcare informatics.
We propose criteria for both patients and providers to use in assessing not just smartphone apps, but also wearable devices and smartwatch apps for mental health. Apps can be evaluated by their usefulness, usability, and integration and infrastructure. Apps can be categorized by their usability in one or more stages of a mental health provider's workflow.
Ultimately, leadership is needed to develop a framework for describing apps, and guidelines are needed for both patients and mental health providers.
Drawing on 435 telephone interviews in Australia and 498 in New Zealand, this paper investigates the ‘demand’ side of e-government. That is, we examine the use of and support for e-government measures. Whilst respondents were generally supportive of e-government on a number of measures, we find that the majority were reluctant to use some of the more sophisticated ‘transactional’ e-government measures, and less than half had even visited a government website. High users of information and communications technologies (ICT) were more likely to use e-government measures, and are more positive towards e-government in general across several measures. Similar to a number of U.S. studies, we find a ‘digital divide,’ where older age, and less education were associated with lower ICT and e-government use and support. Income level was not a statistically significant predictor in all cases however, and gender was not significant for e-government support.
As an increasing number of Government services have moved away from traditional modes of provision to online formats, there has been a corresponding need to ensure greater access to the internet. Although older people (those over 60) are least likely of all age groups to have access to the internet in their homes, the internet holds much potential as an information and advice resource for those older people who may find it difficult to access advice over the telephone or in person. Realising this potential extends beyond issues of physical access; consideration must necessarily be given to issues of internet literacy and the inclination of this cohort to utilise what may be new and unfamiliar technology. This paper examines these matters in the context of the resolution of everyday problems with a legal dimension. Looking first at the use of the internet for information and advice seeking related to such problems, we find that those aged over 60 demonstrate the least use of the internet for problems with a legal dimension. Simultaneously, those aged over 60 are also the group with the lowest level of home access - a particular issue given that for over 60-year-olds, home access is a far stronger determinant of internet use for problems than it is for other age groups. Examining use of the internet for advice seeking over the last decade, findings demonstrate the existence of a general increase in use amongst all age groups over time, albeit with a lower rate of growth amongst those currently over 60. As an indication of future growth, this will have implications for the provision of services. Whilst the 'young old' will utilise the internet to a greater degree and will require websites which are tailored to their needs, those individuals at the older end of the age spectrum may best be served by continued access to face-to-face or outreach advice. The implications these findings pose for policy makers in setting priorities in the remit of online service provision are discussed, with results having particular relevance in England and Wales given planned changes to civil legal aid.
Ninety-five percent of American kids have Internet access by age 11; the average number of texts a teenager sends each month is well over 3,000. More families report that technology makes life with children more challenging, not less, as parents today struggle with questions previous generations never faced: Is my thirteen-year-old responsible enough for a Facebook page? What will happen if I give my nine year-old a cell phone? In The Parent App, Clark provides what families have been sorely lacking: smart, sensitive, and effective strategies for coping with the dilemmas of digital and mobile media in modern life. Clark set about interviewing scores of mothers and fathers, identifying not only their various approaches, but how they differ according to family income. Parents in upper-income families encourage their children to use media to enhance their education and self-development and to avoid use that might distract them from goals of high achievement. Lower income families, in contrast, encourage the use of digital and mobile media in ways that are respectful, compliant toward parents, and family-focused. Each approach has its own benefits and drawbacks, and whatever the parenting style or economic bracket, parents experience anxiety about how to manage new technology. With the understanding of a parent of teens and the rigor of a social scientist, she tackles a host of issues, such as family communication, online predators, cyber bullying, sexting, gamer drop-outs, helicopter parenting, technological monitoring, the effectiveness of strict controls, and much more. The Parent App is more than an advice manual. As Clark admits, technology changes too rapidly for that. Rather, she puts parenting in context, exploring the meaning of media challenges and the consequences of our responses--for our lives as family members and as members of society.
Digital technologies are becoming more pervasive in all areas of society. Enabling everyone to have access and capability to use the Internet and associated digital technologies, summed up in the term 'digital inclusion', is seen to have wide-ranging benefits to the individual, to the economy and to society. For older people, being digitally included can help them to maintain their independence, social connectedness and sense of worth in the face of declining health or limited capabilities, as well as also offering new opportunities to improve their quality of life. At present however, access to the technology and to the benefits is not equally distributed either between or within nations, and older people tend to be on the 'wrong' side of what is termed the 'digital divide'. Governments globally are developing strategies to promote digital inclusion and indeed Internet uptake is increasing steadily, including amongst older people. However, such strategies have focussed on getting people online, and there appears to be an assumption that once someone is online they will remain 'digitally engaged'. In fact statistics show that some users give up using the Internet, and there is emerging evidence that older people are more vulnerable to the factors which can lead to this outcome. The authors see this phenomenon as a potential but largely unrecognised 'fourth digital divide' which has serious implications for social inclusion. The objectives of this article are (a) to raise awareness of the phenomenon of digital disengagement by considering some of the emerging evidence, (b) to explore some of the potential implications of not recognising and therefore not addressing the needs of the digitally disengaged older population, and (c) to reveal the prevailing gap in knowledge which future research should address.
This paper explores the potential role of online dispute resolution (ODR) in family disputes. Following recent reforms in family law in Australia, primary dispute resolution processes (PDR) such as mediation have become the default process for the majority of cases in which there are disputes over parenting or property. PDR processes can potentially be enhanced by the use of information and communication technology. But despite potential benefits for some categories of disputants, the application of ODR to family disputes has been little explored. We identify and classify nine ODR systems that have relevance to family disputes. While further research and system development is needed, we conclude that ODR remains an interesting if not yet fully developed new tool for family dispute resolution practitioners. As the increased use of information and communication technology and the Internet influence the way in which services are delivered, practitioners and providers of dispute resolution services would do well to anticipate that some clients will want ODR offered as an option for facilitating family disputes.
Obra que estudia cómo las nuevas tecnologías de comunicación y las redes sociales que a través de ellas se han generado dan soporte a una nueva forma de establecer relaciones entre las personas y, por lo tanto, de nuevas formas de soledad.
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