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Approaching Ecological Sustainability in the Emerging Insects-as-Food Industry
Abstract
The emerging insects-as-food industry is increasingly promoted as a sustain- able alternative to other animal protein production systems. However, the exact nature of its environmental benefits are uncertain because of the overwhelming lack of knowledge concerning almost every aspect of production: from suitable species, their housing and feed requirements, and potential for accidental release. If ecological sustainability is to be a hallmark of mass insect rearing for consumption, ecologists need to engage in research related to sustainability criteria that are directly linked to key elements of the development of the industry. There is more to this subject than simply comparing feed-conversion ratios (FCRs) of insects to traditional livestock production, and we highlight areas where research needs to be immediately focused.
... Extensive production is expected to achieve environmental sustainability and was monitored using the life cycle assessment (LCA), which is a tool for assessing the environmental impact of edible insect production. Climate change, feed conversion, freshwater and land use and human and livestock well-being all focus on the sustainability and environmental aspects [148]. First, the species and life stage of insects should be selected using knowledge on the impact of other life stages [148]. ...
... Climate change, feed conversion, freshwater and land use and human and livestock well-being all focus on the sustainability and environmental aspects [148]. First, the species and life stage of insects should be selected using knowledge on the impact of other life stages [148]. Second, the determination of suitable diet for insects should focus on sustainable feed production such as the use of feed crops to increase the health of local native species for biodiversity enhancement [148] and impact the sustainability value the edible crickets [149]. ...
... First, the species and life stage of insects should be selected using knowledge on the impact of other life stages [148]. Second, the determination of suitable diet for insects should focus on sustainable feed production such as the use of feed crops to increase the health of local native species for biodiversity enhancement [148] and impact the sustainability value the edible crickets [149]. Even though the utilization of waste is labeled as environmentally friendly, According to Commission Regulation (EC) No 178/2002, Regulation (EC) No 767/2009, the Regulation (EC) No 1069/20097, European union forbid the use of manure and catering waste, especially foodstuffs containing fish and meat to be used as feed for edible insects [29,[150][151][152]. ...
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that more than 500 million people, especially in Asia and Africa, are suffering from malnutrition. Recently, livestock farming has increased to supply high-quality protein, with consequent impact on the global environment. Alternative food sources with high nutritive values that can substitute livestock demands are urgently required. Recently, edible crickets have been promoted by the FAO to ameliorate the food crisis. In this review, the distribution, nutritive values, health-promoting properties (antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic and anti-obesity), safety, allergenicity as well as the potential hazards and risks for human consumption are summarized. Cricket farming may help to realize the United Nations sustainable development goal No. 2 Zero Hunger. The sustainability of cricket farming is also discussed in comparison with other livestock. The findings imply that edible crickets are safe for daily intake as a healthy alternative diet due to their high protein content and health-promoting properties. Appropriate use of edible crickets in the food and nutraceutical industries represents a global business potential. However, people who are allergic to shellfish should pay attention on cricket allergy. Thus, the objective of this review was to present in-depth and up-to-date information on edible crickets to advocate and enhance public perception of cricket-based food.
... Insects are considered a promising and sustainable alternative to conventional food and feed production (Berggren et al., 2019;Van Huis and Oonincx, 2017). This is mainly because edible insects are found to have similar nutritional values when compared to traditional animals used for the production of meat (Barragan-Fonseca et al., 2017;Payne et al., 2016;Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013;Van Huis, 2013). ...
... This is mainly because edible insects are found to have similar nutritional values when compared to traditional animals used for the production of meat (Barragan-Fonseca et al., 2017;Payne et al., 2016;Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013;Van Huis, 2013). Insects have higher feed conversion efficiencies (Oonincx et al., 2015;Wegier et al., 2018), lower emission of greenhouse gases (Berggren et al., 2019;Gravel and Doyen, 2020;Jonsson et al., 2013;Mertenat et al., 2019) and higher water efficiency (Nakagaki and Defoliart, 1991;Wegier et al., 2018) than traditional farm animals. For these reasons, insects are extensively studied to be used to feed fish (Liland et al., 2021), as well monogastric animals (Dörper et al., 2021;Veldkamp and Vernooij, 2021). ...
... However, many aspects of insect mass rearing for consumption remain unclear due to its relatively short history (Berggren et al., 2019). In particular, knowledge gaps exist in practical insect rearing, as not enough is known about the life histories, physiologies and behaviour of commercially important insect species. ...
The effects of biotic and abiotic factors on insect life histories have been extensively studied. However, the impact of some crucial aspects, such as larval density (crowding) and the effects of environmental interactions, have often been overlooked. This study aims to determine the effects of larval density and temperature on life-history traits in the black soldier fly (BSF). Our results showed an increase in prepupal mass, pupal mass, prepupal-to-pupal mass loss, survival, prepupal fat content, adult mass, adult longevity and a reduction in larval and pupal development time at low densities. Larval density was maintained throughout the entire larval period and larval survival was determined at the 4th instar and at prepupation. Larvae were reared at three different larval densities (1, 5 and 10 larvae/cm2), at three temperature treatments (23, 27 and 30 C) and food was provided ad libitum. High densities, on the contrary, resulted in an increase in development time, mortality and a decrease in prepupal mass loss. Temperature significantly affected all studied traits except survival, prepupal fat content and adult longevity, and notably modified the larval density effects on prepupal mass, pupal mass, adult mass, prepupal-to-pupal mass loss, prepupal fat content, duration of larval period, and adult longevity. Males and females differed in all studied life history traits except adult mass. We conclude that density and temperature and their interaction-related effects during larval development considerably affect BSF larval life-history traits. Therefore, these effects should be carefully considered when planning for insect mass rearing.
... Although practiced by our hominine ancestors from prehistoric times on (Payne et al., 2019), it has been from the 2010s on that consuming edible insects (entomophagy) has started to gain more attention beyond its traditional boundaries. Questions regarding their food safety and sustainability have been raised (e.g., Van Huis et al., 2013;Smetana et al., 2016;Dicke, 2018;Berggren et al., 2019;Chia et al., 2019;Guiné et al., 2021), and reclaiming both sustainability and food safety for "the" insects has been observed frequently and was taken up by the media. 3 In consequence, the overall opinion of the general public, particularly in Western countries, is that insects are both safe and sustainable. ...
... Third, small-scale farmers for whom insects are also highly suited, rear this species with important social benefits and income generation opportunities (Chia et al., 2019;Barragán Fonseca et al., 2020). Sustainable insect farming is basically possible (Berggren et al., 2019;Guiné et al., 2021). The 17 goals of sustainable development are met, either directly (no poverty, zero hunger, good health and well-being, good jobs and economic growth, gender equality, reduced inequalities, innovation and infrastructure, sustainable cities and communities, responsible consumption, climate action, life below water, life on land, and partnerships for the goals) or indirectly (quality education, clean water and sanitation, affordable and clean energy, and strong institutions; Dicke, 2018). ...
... This approach is therefore suitable for small and medium farmers and companies that can cope with compositional variations and for those selling whole insects as food to the end user. Sustainability assessment is a complex matter as many factors need to be considered, and actual assessments must be carried out by a multidisciplinary team (Berggren et al., 2019;Guiné et al., 2021). To cite only some of these professions to assist a farmer, entomologists are familiar with species and the life cycles, livestock veterinarians are experts in adapting them to farming conditions, observing animal health and animal welfare, feed experts keep nutrition in mind, physicians assess the health of the operators, agricultural economists monitor the costs, ecologists assess the impact of the farm, and economists evaluate the market. ...
For almost a decade, edible insects have become promoted on a wider basis as one way to combat world hunger and malnourishment, although attempts to do so have a longer history. Contemporary researchers and consumers, particularly those without an entomophagous background, have been rising safety and sustainability concerns. The present contribution seeks a substantiated answer to the question posed above. The possible answer consists of different factors that have been taken into consideration. First, the species and its life cycle. It is mandatory to realize that what is labeled as “edible insects” stands for more than 2,140 animal species, not counting other edible, non-crustacean arthropods. Their life cycles are as diverse as the ecological niches these animals can fill and last between some days to several years and many of them may—or may not—be reproduced in the different farming systems. Second, the level of knowledge concerning the food use of a given species is important, be it traditional, newly created by research, or a combination of both. Third, the existence of a traditional method of making the use of the insect safe and sustainable, ideally from both the traditional and the modern points of view. Fourth, the degree of effectiveness of these measures despite globalization changes in the food-supplying network. Fifth, farming conditions, particularly housing, feeding (type, composition, and contaminants), animal health and animal welfare. Sixth, processing, transport, and storage conditions of both traditional and novel insect-based foodstuffs, and seventh, consumer awareness and acceptance of these products. These main variables create a complex web of possibilities, just as with other foodstuffs that are either harvested from the wild or farmed. In this way, food safety may be reached when proper hygiene protocols are observed (which usually include heating steps) and the animals do not contain chemical residues or environment contaminants. A varying degree of sustainability can be achieved if the aforementioned variables are heeded. Hence, the question if insects can be safe and sustainable can be answered with “jein,” a German portmanteau word joining “yes” (“ja”) and “no” (“nein”).
... In order to mitigate the biosecurity risk of introducing nonnative insect species, we suggest domesticating native species that have interacted with endemic arthropod communities (Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2016;Berggren et al., 2019). While our proposal to domesticate native insects for entomoculture is novel for waste closed-loop systems, it is based upon historical examples of successful animal domestication, including livestock (Larson and Fuller, 2014;Lecocq, 2019). ...
... (1) The risk of farmed insects becoming invasive is clearly possible. Thus, research on domestication of native species is needed to protect ecosystems (Berggren et al., 2019;Bang and Courchamp, 2020). Furthermore, domestication of native species could increase gains in feed conversion, growth performance, and nutrition of edible insects (Berggren et al., 2019). ...
... Thus, research on domestication of native species is needed to protect ecosystems (Berggren et al., 2019;Bang and Courchamp, 2020). Furthermore, domestication of native species could increase gains in feed conversion, growth performance, and nutrition of edible insects (Berggren et al., 2019). ...
Edible insects recycle food waste, which can help feed a hungrier planet by making food systems more circular and diversifying protein production. The potential for entomophagy (i.e., insect cuisine) to contribute to waste recycling and lower input food production is only beginning to be explored in the U.S., although insects have been consumed by people for millennia in a wide range of cultures. In this perspective piece, we consider as a case study the potential for university foodservice programs in New England to serve as incubators for circular entomophagous food systems. Students are likely early adopters of entomophagy because they increasingly demand sustainable non-meat protein options. University foodservices meanwhile purchase large amounts of food wholesale from local producers, utilize standardized pre-processing, and generate consistent waste streams which may be valuable feed for local insect farmers. Current Farm to Institution approaches strengthen regional food systems by connecting small farmers with university foodservices; we argue that a similar model (Farm to Institution to Farm) could support establishment of local insect farms, introduce edible insects to a relatively receptive base of university student customers, and provide a more sustainable mechanism for repurposing university food waste as insect feed. But to enable this type of food system, additional requirements include: (1) research on domestication of native insect species; (2) investment in processing capacity, ensuring new insect farmers have reliable markets for raw insect products; (3) infrastructure to recirculate waste streams within existing food systems; and (4) creation of recipes that entice new insect consumers.
... For example, the FCR for mealworm ranges between 2.2 to 5.3, while the FCR for nymphal stage of Acheta domesticus ranges between 1.08 to 4.5 [56]. The FCR for edible insects can vary depending on the feed used [57]. When reared on an optimal diet, mealworms convert feed as efficient as poultry and the nitrogen use efficiency is higher than traditional livestock [17]. ...
... Furthermore, mealworms do not produce methane (CH 4 ), contrary to pigs and cows. However, the true environmental effect of mass rearing of insects has not been determined [57] and a complete lifecycle analysis for edible insect species is lacking [55]. ...
... There are some concerns regarding the effect of a possible escape of edible insects into the environment and becoming locally invasive species to natural and production systems in non-native countries [57]. In Iceland, an environmental risk assessment for BSF was performed before receiving license from the Icelandic authorities for import and trials. ...
Insects are part of the diet of over 2 billion people worldwide; however, insects have not been popular in Europe, neither as food nor as a feed ingredient. This has been changing in recent years, due to increased knowledge regarding the nutritional benefits, the need for novel protein production and the low environmental impact of insects compared to conventional protein production. The purpose of this study is to give an overview of the most popular insects farmed in Europe, yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor, and black soldier fly (BSF), Hermetia illucens, together with the main obstacles and risks. A comprehensive literature study was carried out and 27 insect farming companies found listed in Europe were contacted directly. The results show that the insect farming industry is increasing in Europe, and the success of the frontrunners is based on large investments in technology, automation and economy of scale. The interest of venture capital firms is noticeable, covering 90% of the investment costs in some cases. It is concluded that insect farming in Europe is likely to expand rapidly in the coming years, offering new proteins and other valuable products, not only as a feed ingredient, but also for human consumption. European regulations have additionally been rapidly changing, with more freedom towards insects as food and feed. There is an increased knowledge regarding safety concerns of edible insects, and the results indicate that edible insects pose a smaller risk for zoonotic diseases than livestock. However, knowledge regarding risk posed by edible insects is still lacking, but food and feed safety is essential to put products on the European market.
... Insect farms are currently in the development stage and are beginning to create a completely unique agricultural sector. Entomophagy potentially provides redundancy and diversity in the food system, along with higher production rates (13)(14)(15). ...
... Crickets, for example, require only 1.7 kg of feed per kilogram of body weight (16). Insects have been reported to produce fewer GHG emissions and less ammonia than cattle and pigs, which can significantly reduce the land and water use of livestock production (13,14). In addition, insects can be reared in organic side streams (including human and animal waste), which can potentially increase profitability (17). ...
... The environmental benefits of entomophagy are attributed to its higher feed conversion efficiency and lower land use requirements for the production weight, protein, and energy than conventional livestock (7). Therefore, entomophagy contributes positively to the sustainability of human society and land use (13,15). To reduce land use by livestock production, insect meat production is potentially a suitable alternative. ...
A potentially suitable alternative to reduce land use by livestock production is insect meat production. However, land use predictions for insect meat production, which are important in the planning of food production strategies in each country, have not been well-performed. To consider the strategy of insect meat production with regard to land use, the categorical perspectives of countries would be highly useful. Here, using previous simulation results, we used random forest machine learning to classify the potential land use of 157 countries for insect meat production under future climate change. From the categorical maps, we showed the global distribution of five different country categories and found that the land area of the countries may be an important factor in considering the future increase in insect meat production. Our classification could be used to help formulate future food policies by considering the increase in insect meat production in each country, as well as regionally and/or globally.
... These effects can be minimized by shifting to healthier and more sustainable diets. More recently, a new solution of a sustainable source of protein has been gaining attention: edible insects (EI) [2,6]. ...
... In this regard, EI require far less feed when compared with chicken, pork or beef to produce 1 kg of weight, therefore being efficient convertors of feed to food. In general, the feed-to-meat conversion for crickets is twice as efficient as chicken, four times more efficient than pigs and twelve times more than beef [3,6,7]. One other benefit of insects is that some species bioconvert organic waste with high efficiency, which can greatly reduce organic pollution, highlighting the ability to breed insects on organic side streams. ...
The consumption of edible insects (EI) is traditional in many parts of the world, but not in others. In fact, despite globalization and the multiple advantages pointed out about the consumption of EI, there are still many countries where entomophagy is seen with disgust and aversion. This systematic review aimed to examine the motivations that influence the consumption of EI in diverse cultures and understand if there are differences between Western countries (WC) and insect-eating countries (IEC). It further evaluated whether the degree of acceptability was influenced by the form of consumption of the insects (eating whole insects or foods containing insects). This literature review was conducted in November 2021 within three databases, Web of Science, PubMed and Scopus, according to the Preferred Reporting of Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis and using PRISMA directives. From a total of 245 studies, 31 were selected to be included in this review, based on the inclusion criteria defined: only original research articles, from 2010 or beyond, and written in English. The results indicated that the main motivations that determine the consumption of EI are related to gender, age, sustainability, nutritional value, sensory attributes, tradition/culture, food neophobia, disgust and familiarity/past experiences. Moreover, whereas in IEC, there is a greater focus on factors related to sensory attributes, availability, affordability and preferences, in WC, there is a bigger emphasis on determinants such as nutritional value, sustainability, benefits, familiarity/past experience, tradition/culture, food neophobia and disgust. Finally, it was observed that people in WC are more willing to accept food products containing insects rather than the whole insect, which is one of the most promising points to be addressed in the future. Overall, this review highlights that there are numerous factors influencing the consumption of edible insects, and differences between WC and IEC are clear in what concerns the motivations of consumers. Hence, targeting market segments and consumers’ characteristics has to be present when designing strategies to incentivize the consumption of EI in WC as a part of a global strategy for sustainability of food systems.
... Apart from the benefits to food production, insect farming could significantly reduce the current global use of land and water, and produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions than animals such as cattle or pigs [4,5]. The sustainability of insect farming makes insects one of the potential alternative sources of protein to address the global protein shortage [3,6]. ...
... Firmansyah et al. [89] optimized the proteolysis process of H. illicens protein (using the central composite design method). The proteolysis process was conducted under varying enzyme (bromelain) concentrations (1-5%), pH values (6)(7)(8), and time (3-24 h). The mathematical model revealed that the optimal enzymolysis conditions were as follows: enzyme concentration 3%, pH 8 and time 24 h, and maximal degree of hydrolysis (DH) 47.4%. ...
Due to the recent increase in the human population and the associated shortage of protein resources, it is necessary to find new, sustainable, and natural protein resources from invertebrates (such as insects) and underutilized plants. In most cases, compared to plants (e.g., grains and legumes) and animals (e.g., fish, beef, chicken, lamb, and pork), insect proteins are high in quality in terms of their nutritional value, total protein content, and essential amino acid composition. This review evaluates the recent state of insects as an alternative protein source from production to application; more specifically, it introduces in detail the latest advances in the protein extraction process. As an alternative source of protein in food formulations, the functional characteristics of edible insect protein are comprehensively presented, and the risk of allergy associated with insect protein is also discussed. The biological activity of protein hydrolyzates from different species of insects (Bombyx mori, Hermetia illucens, Acheta domesticus, Tenebrio molitor) are also reviewed, and the hydrolysates (bioactive peptides) are found to have either antihypertensive, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial activity. Finally, the use of edible insect protein in various food applications is presented.
... To meet the demand of animal feed, insect protein is increasingly used as feedstuff for fish, poultry, pigs, crustaceans, and as pet food. Insects have a good conversion of protein, fast growth rates, and can be reared on a number of different materials including agricultural and food wastes (Berggren et al., 2019). After the larvae have been harvested, a waste product remains. ...
... The chemical composition of frass and its nutrient content mostly depend on the insect species and its diet (Berggren et al., 2019;Poveda et al., 2019;Barragán-Fonseca et al., 2020;Quilliam et al., 2020) with the N concentration of frass being directly proportional to diet N (Fielding et al., 2013). Accordingly, C:N ratios of frass can vary largely from 3.3 (Kagata and Ohgushi, 2012) to 20.1 (Lovett and Ruesink, 1995) depending on insect species and feeding regime. ...
Increased global production of animal-based protein results in high greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and other adverse consequences for human and planetary health. Recently, commercial insect rearing has been claimed a more sustainable source of animal protein. However, this system also leaves residues called frass, which—depending on the insect diet—is rich in carbon (C) and nitrogen (N), and could thus be used as fertilizer in agriculture. The impact of this kind of fertilizer on soil GHG emissions is yet unknown. Therefore, we investigated the effect of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) frass derived from a carbohydrate (Carb-) or a protein (Prot-) based diet applied at two different application rates to an arable soil on C and N fluxes and microbial properties in a 40-day incubation experiment. CO2, N2O, NO, N2, CH4, water extractable organic C (WEOC), and inorganic N were continuously measured quantitatively. At the end of the incubation, microbial biomass (MB), stoichiometry, community composition, and abundance of functional genes were assessed. Along with a strong increase in WEOC and CO2, Carb-frass caused strong initial N2O emissions associated with high N and C availability. In contrast, Prot-frass showed lower CO2 emissions and N2O release, although soil nitrate levels were higher. At the end of incubation, MB was significantly increased, which was more pronounced following Carb-frass as compared to Prot-frass application, and at higher amendment rates. Fungal abundance increased most from both frass types with an even stronger response at higher application rates, whereas bacterial abundance rose following Carb-frass as compared to Prot-application. Abundance of functional genes related to ammonia-oxidizing bacteria and archaea were enhanced by high frass application but did not clearly differ between frass types. C use efficiency of microorganisms, as revealed by the metabolic quotient, was most strongly reduced in the high Prot-frass application rate. Overall, insect diet influenced available C and N in frass and thus affected mineralization dynamics, GHG emissions, and microbial growth. Overall, emissions were very high undermining the potential environmental benefit of insect based protein production and calling for more detailed analyses before frass is widely applied in agriculture.
... The system of insect feeding which includes the striving for breeding maximization while ensuring physical, biochemical and microbiological safety of insect-based food products, must also be subject to standardization. If sustainable environmental development is to be the paramount feature of the mass production of insects for the consumption, it is necessary to conduct research related to sustainable development criteria, which are directly linked to crucial aspects of industrial development [109]. First of all, breeding may directly affect the adjacent natural systems. ...
... Another aspect is the thorough examination of the effect of insect consumption on health. As the subject of hazards to human health following the consumption of insects is new, there are few studies concerning this area of knowledge [109]. ...
All over the world, a large proportion of the population consume insects as part of their diet. In Western countries, however, the consumption of insects is perceived as a negative phenomenon. The consumption of insects worldwide can be considered in two ways: on the one hand, as a source of protein in countries affected by hunger, while, on the other, as an alternative protein in highly-developed regions, in response to the need for implementing policies of sustainable development. This review focused on both the regulations concerning the production and marketing of insects in Europe and the characteristics of edible insects that are most likely to establish a presence on the European market. The paper indicates numerous advantages of the consumption of insects, not only as a valuable source of protein but also as a raw material rich in valuable fatty acids, vitamins, and mineral salts. Attention was paid to the functional properties of proteins derived from insects, and to the possibility for using them in the production of functional food. The study also addresses the hazards which undoubtedly contribute to the mistrust and lowered acceptance of European consumers and points to the potential gaps in the knowledge concerning the breeding conditions, raw material processing and health safety. This set of analyzed data allows us to look optimistically at the possibilities for the development of edible insect-based foods, particularly in Europe.
... Therefore, ecological studies on selecting safe species for domestication and consumption must go hand in hand with research on the nutritional content and safety of insects for food and feed applications. Concerns have also been raised about the threat of ecosystem imbalance from insects that escape from insect farms [101]. ...
Hunger (811 million people, 2020) and food waste (931 million tonnes annually, 2020) are long-standing interconnected challenges that have plagued humankind for centuries. Food waste originates from various sources, including consumption habits and failures within the food supply chain. Given the growing concerns regarding food insecurity, malnutrition, and hunger, there is a pressing need to recover and repurpose as much food waste as possible. A growing body of knowledge identifies the valorisation (including upcycling) of food waste as one of the strategies to fight hunger by positively impacting food availability and food security. This paper evaluates the potential role of food waste valorisation, including upcycling, in reducing global hunger. A literature search was conducted to examine how converting food waste into value-added products, such as food formulations and farming inputs, can contribute to increasing food availability. The benefits of waste-to-food operations in improving food availability through producing food ingredients and products from materials that would have been wasted or discarded otherwise were discussed.
... 식용곤충의 하나인 갈색 거저리 유충 (Tenebrio molitor larvae)은 식용, 사료용, 기능성 소재 등의 원료로 활용되고 있다 (Jo et al., 2021;Jang et al., 2022;Kim et al., 2022aKim et al., , 2022bFan et al., 2023). 인구가 급속하게 증가하면서 2050년이 되면 육류 단백질 요 구량은 현재보다 75% 이상 증가하여 식용곤충을 이용한 대체 단백질 생산이 많아지고 곤충 배설물도 대량으로 생성 될 것으로 예상된다 (Berggren et al., 2019;Houben et al., 2020). 이러한 영향으로 곤충 배설물이 작물 양분관리를 위 한 유망한 자원으로 고려되고 있다 (Houben et al., 2020;Chavez and Uchanski, 2021;Joung et al., 2022aJoung et al., , 2022b. ...
... In commercially reared insects, development time, reproductive capacity, and growth are crucial for successful production (Berggren et al., 2019;Cadinu et al., 2020). Therefore, optimal larval densities and other environmental conditions, such as humidity and temperature just to mention a few, must be applied in production processes (Barragan-Fonseca et al., 2017). ...
Organisms are expected to invest more in their immune function when the risk of disease infection is high.
However, induction of a robust immune response is costly and may not be achievable in suboptimal environments.
High conspecific density could simultaneously imply high infection risk and a suboptimal environment for many
insect species. We focus on the economically important dipteran species (black soldier fly, BSF) that represents the
insect order that has been ignored in previous research on density effects on immunity. The experimental part of
the study was carried out to evaluate the effect of larval density (three density treatments: 1, 5 and 10 larvae/cm2)
and temperature (three thermal treatments: 23, 27 and 30 °C) on the immune function of BSF larvae. The larvae
that were reared at high compared to low larval densities and at higher than lower temperatures had significantly
higher activity of phenoloxidase, an enzyme that plays an essential role in insect immune function. Sex did not have
a significant effect on phenoloxidase activity and prepupal mass, pupal mass and adult mass were not affected by
the levels of phenoloxidase activity of fifth instar larvae. In addition, we give an overview of larval density effects on
insect immunity and show that density-dependent prophylaxis (stronger immune response in high larval density
environments) is indeed common in the results of published case studies. However, cases with no correlation between
density and immunity traits were as frequent. Moreover, in more than half of the studies, qualitatively different
within-species patterns in different immunity traits were observed. We conclude that BSF larvae exhibit densitydependent prophylaxis, and larvae invest more into their immune system at high larval densities and temperatures
than they do at low larval densities and temperatures.
... The future sustainability and environmental impact of large-scale rearing, harvesting and producing of edible insects is largely unknown and needs to be investigated in more detail in order to allow comparisons with traditional livestock raising and farming practices. In particular, suitable insect species and their requirements (feeding, housing, animal health and welfare) (Berggren et al., 2019) as well as processing, transport and storage conditions of insect-based foods need to be studied. Our knowledge of food safety in relation to insects for human consumption and of potential hazards of the intake of insects is limited. ...
... More recently, insect meal has gained attention in aquaculture nutrition [2,[12][13][14][15]. In this context, the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) has been widely considered [16][17][18][19][20][21] due to (i) a proper protein content (approximately 32%) [22] and an essential amino acid (EAA) profile close to FM [23-25]; (ii) a high feed-conversion efficiency, substrate consumption and waste reduction index of the larvae [26,27]; (iii) the ability to grow on different organic by-products [28,29]; and the low environmental impact of rearing culture (i.e., land use, water consumption and CO 2 production) [30,31]. These properties allow the application of the circular economy concept to the aquaculture sector, using for example land-produced organic by-product for insect rearing. ...
In the present study, an organic substrate (coffee silverskin) enriched with spirulina (Arthrospira platensis; 15% w/w), as a source of lipids and bioactive molecules, was used to rear the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) prepupae. Three grossly isonitrogenous, isoproteic, isolipidic and isoenergetic experimental diets for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) juveniles were then produced: a control diet (HM0) mostly including fish meal and fish oil, and two other test diets named HM3 and HM20, in which 3 or 20% of the marine ingredients were substituted with full fat black soldier fly prepupae meal (HM), respectively. Experimental diets were provided for 6 weeks, and at the end of the trial the physiological responses and marketable traits of the fish were investigated using a multidisciplinary approach. Generally, all test diets were well accepted, and fish growth, gut and liver health status, and marketable characteristics were not impaired by the experimental diets. However, an increased immuno-related gene expression along with a slight reduction of fillet redness and yellowness was evident in fish from the HM20 group.
... Comparing insect farming with traditional animal husbandry shows several advantages: less impact on deforestation and reduced soil fertility, less water consumption, and lower greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, insects can be farmed using a wide variety of feeds, including food processing by-products and waste streams with a high impact on environmental degradation [3,4]. ...
Edible insects are more and more widely researched and presented as a good source of nutrients. Among the available raw materials, cricket powder (CP), obtained from roasted and crushed crickets, deserves attention because it can be used as an ingredient in many food products. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of CP addition on the physical and sensory properties of extruded corn snacks. In the extrusion process, five variants of corn snacks were produced with 2%, 4%, 6%, and 8% additions of CP, and with 8% CP and 2% baking powder. Snacks without CP addition were used as a control (R). The study also evaluated the storage life of the manufactured snack products based on their sorption properties. It was found that increasing the CP content in snacks has a significant effect on their characteristics, with a lower expansion ratio as the result of the higher CP content in the extrudates. CP increased the solubility and decreased the water absorption of the snacks. Color changes were also observed in the produced snacks. The more CP in the recipe, the darker the end product. In addition, the color parameters a* and b* were shifted towards red and blue in cross-sections of snacks with higher percentages of CP. According to the sensory analysis, CP additions up to 6% allow for obtaining sensory-attractive snacks. Statistical analysis of the results showed that the snack parameters, expansion ratio, and water absorption index are of the greatest importance for sensory acceptance. Therefore, when planning the incorporation of CP into this type of product, special attention should be paid to obtaining extrudates with appropriate parameters.
... Insects consumed by humans need to consider their sustainability in many aspects, such as ecological sustainability, sustainability of sources, sustainability of consumption, etc. [264]. Insect farming has advantages over traditional farming as a sustainable food source. ...
For thousands of years, edible insects have been used as food to alleviate hunger and improve malnutrition. Some insects have also been used as medicines because of their therapeutic properties. This is not only due to the high nutritional value of edible insects, but more importantly, the active substances from edible insects have a variety of biofunctional activities. In this paper, we described and summarized the nutritional composition of edible insects and discussed the biological functions of edible insects and their potential benefits for human health. A summary analysis of the findings for each active function confirms that edible insects have the potential to develop functional foods and medicines that are beneficial to humans. In addition, we analyzed the issues that need to be considered in the application of edible insects and the current status of edible insects in food and pharmaceutical applications. We concluded with a discussion of regulations related to edible insects and an outlook on future research and applications of edible insects. By analyzing the current state of research on edible insects, we aim to raise awareness of the use of edible insects to improve human health and thus promote their better use and development.
... The venture is not without challenges: choosing suitable insect species, housing and food requirements, and waste management must be considered and discussed with the experts beforehand. Edible insects such as locusts, if escaping in large numbers, can change their behavior into migrating swarms and, with their capacity to move quickly, can turn into devastating pests damaging everything on their way (Berggren et al., 2019). They will not eat people, though. ...
The article entitled "Entomophagy and future foodstuff: a saga of sinister locusts in The Swarm" is a review of a French film "The Swarm (La Nuée)" that was released by Netflix in 2020.
... Hence, it is expected that BSFL fed on residual organic streams could not only reduce the wastage of resources, but also reduce the environmental impact of human diets if the insect biomass is used to replace resource-intensive animal-sourced foods (ASF) and feeds (e.g., soybean and fish meal). While there are still uncertainties regarding the environmental impacts associated with the use of farmed insects for food and feed (Berggren et al., 2019), different life cycle assessments (LCAs) showed that per mass unit of product or protein, BSFL fed on residual organic streams have generally a lower global warming potential (GWP) and land use than most ASF and resource-intensive feed ingredients such as soybean and fish meal Salomone et al., 2017;Smetana et al., 2015). It has also been reported that valorizing food waste via BSFL could reduce the GHG emissions compared to valorizing food waste via composting (Mertenat et al., 2019). ...
... The frass of commercially produced insect larvae, including BSF have great potential as a sustainable fertilizer source with many applications, since commercially produced insects are a way of utilizing pre-consumer food by-products that may otherwise create waste streams [16]. Additionally, the use of insect frass can reduce the need for chemical fertilizers [17]. Insect frass is rich in chitin from the shed exoskeleton, which is known to have several beneficial effects on plant growth and health [18] [19]. ...
In recent years, black soldier fly (BSF) has been shown to efficiently convert organic waste into nutrient-rich larval biomass while generating frass as the main by-product. This work aims to investigate the potential of BSF frass (BSFF) as an organic fertilizer for agricultural production. BSFF was produced by recycling household waste using BSF larvae, and a portion was taken to the lab for physicochemical and microbial analyses before the field trial on lettuce growth and health. The field trial consisted of two doses of BSFF (15 t·ha-1 and 30 t·ha-1) and one dose of urea (0.214 t·ha-1). An unfertilized plot was prepared and used as a control, and the effects on lettuce growth were assessed using agronomic parameters while the health effects were assessed using parameters such as: the number of leaves affected per plant, the incidence of affection, the severity of the affection and the microbial analysis. BSFF exhibited acceptable physicochemical properties as an organic fertilizer. Its application improved the growth parameters of lettuce plants compared to urea and control. The application rates of 15 t·ha-1 and 30 t·ha-1 did not reveal any significant difference (p > 0.05). Further studies are therefore needed to determine the minimum applicable dose. The health parameters of the lettuce plants were slightly altered regardless of the treatment and the microbial analysis of the affected leaves revealed pathogenic microorganisms. We therefore recommend that decontamination methods be considered when producing BSFF as an organic fertilizer.
... Some insects contain chemicals such as cyanide or thiaminases that are hazardous to humans and tend to diminish nutritional quality (Berggren et al., 2019). Thus, insect nutritional quality and food safety research must be conducted concurrently with ecological study into suitable species and domestication selection. ...
Background
The pupae is one of the most valuable components of the silkworm, a by-product of silk reeling. Employing them as a raw material to create valued products will help to recycle and reuse silkworm pupae, as well as contribute to the food industry's long-term development. Silkworm pupae protein (SPP) and pupae oil (SPO) are high in nutritional and bioactive components that have a variety of applications in the food industry as well as health-promoting characteristics.
In this review, we first elaborate on the modification, nutritional, and functional properties of silkworm pupae in terms of requirements for protein and lipids processing as well as current extraction technology. In the subsequent sections, we summarize the modification techniques including the science and technology involved in attaining fatty acid components of SPO. Finally, we focus on recent studies related to the utilization of SPP and SPO subject to their inclusion in foods for their health benefits.
The key to silkworm pupae product design may be to fully exploit and utilize the inherent characteristics of the pupae to produce functional peptides and structural lipids with high nutritional content, which may necessitate further improvements in the bioactive and functional properties. Designing more ecologically friendly, low-cost, and efficient processes for producing protein and oil from silkworm pupae is also a trend in technology. This may further provide new insights into the mechanisms behind modifying silkworm pupae as food and its health advantages.
... In fact, it has been documented that farming insects allows a significant reduction in land and direct water use compared to conventional crops (Van Huis & Oonincx, 2017), and generate fewer emission of greenhouse gases than cattle or pigs (Oonincx et al., 2010). The potential sustainability of insect farming makes them one of the alternative protein sources to face the increase in global protein demand (Berggren, Jansson, & Low, 2019). ...
House cricket (Acheta domesticus; AD) and yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor; TM) are two promising insect species for possible novel food applications. In this research the insect protein fractions were extracted, characterised, and used in the manufacturing of pasta by replacing semolina with 14% of powdered proteins. Pasta samples were then analysed to evaluate technological quality aspects. Results showed that insect protein inclusion resulted in a darker (L* value: 76.7, 53.4, 59.9 for control, AD and TM, respectively) and firmer (12.4, 13.7, 13.8 N: control, AD and TM, respectively) AD and TM pasta, and a higher water absorption index for AD (148, 178, 150%: control, AD and TM, respectively). In conclusion, both extracts offer interesting opportunity for pasta formulations, possibly leading to an improved protein content and quality. From an industrial perspective, the present study demonstrated that the tested edible insects can provide protein extracts for the possible
fortification of pasta with high-quality protein and technological traits, thus representing an ingredient with
interesting potential for several food applications.
... Appropriate husbandry methods for the mass rearing of healthy insects are still being developed for an industry that is in its infancy 20 . These methods are being adapted from the experience of insects reared for pet feed and sterile insect production for pest control 38 , and there are serious challenges to create conditions that not only are suitable for healthy insect rearing, but that also offer opportunities for individuals to appropriately respond to stressors like pathogens. ...
Disease-induced personality change results from endogenous and adaptive host responses or parasitic manipulation. Within animal husbandry systems understanding the connection between behaviour and disease is important for health monitoring and for designing systems considerate to animal welfare. However, understanding these relationships within insect mass-rearing systems is still in its infancy. We used a simple repeated behavioural-emergence test to examine parasite-induced differences in group personality traits in the house cricket Acheta domesticus , by comparing the behaviours of 37 individuals infected with the Acheta domesticus densovirus (AdDV) and 50 virus-free individuals . AdDV-infected animals had a much lower emergence probability, longer times until emergence, and did not change their behaviour with experience compared to the virus-free animals. AdDV-infected animals also had lower variation in their probability of emergence within the population, most likely related to animals displaying a relatively uniform sickness response. These infected animals also had higher variation in their response to experimental trial experience; this greater variation resulted from a difference between males and females. Infected females responded to experience in a similar way as virus-free animals, while AdDV-infected males showed a response to experience in the opposite direction: i.e., while all other groups reduced emergence time with experience, infected males always increased their mean emergence time as trials progressed. Our results are important not only in the context of animal personality research, but also with regards to creating husbandry systems and disease monitoring within the insects-as-food industry that are considerate to both production traits and animal welfare.
... Ulmer et al. (2020) reported that using honeybee drone brood as a novel source of protein can minimize the environmental impacts of beekeeping by 8%. Berggren et al. (2019) opposed the sustainability claims associated with edible-insects production. According to them, many ecological factors were not given appropriate considerations. ...
There is an urgent need for alternative protein sources due to the rapid population growth, climate change, environmental degradation by pollution, food-fuel competition and the reduction in arable land for agricultural use. Conventional livestock production is also deleterious to the environment due to the production of greenhouse gasses and ammonia. This article provides insights into the potentials of edibleinsects as novel food ingredients. The manuscript provides concise explanations for the need of embracing additional protein sources, edibleinsects consumption and their nutritional benefits and environmental and economic advantages of using edibleinsects as food. Literature was gathered through an online search on the Science Direct database and Google Scholar, relevant papers published between January 2002 and November 2020 were cited. Edibleinsects are good source of essential nutrients. They are rich in proteins and essential amino acids, contain good quality lipids and significant amounts of important minerals. They are potential source of proteins for humans and animals. They can play an important role in global food security by providing essential nutrients to the increasing global population. This can only be achieved when more attention is given to their production and processing. Creating awareness among new consumers on their nutritional and environmental benefits and the development of food products with appealing sensory properties will surely improve their acceptance as food.
... In such contexts, rather than introducing non-acclimatised BSF strains propagated elsewhere, it appears most reasonable to initiate managed strains with local native or naturalised BSF populations to better ensure long term resilience of such endeavours [116,148] (but see also [149]). Thereby, problems of introgression emanating from alien (domesticated) BSF strains into local wild populations could be mitigated alike [50,150,151]. By contrast, entrepreneurs maintaining escape-proof and highly automated large-scale productions with stable diets would likely benefit from choosing the most appropriate BSF strain matching specific artificial conditions, irrespective of its origin. ...
Further advancing black soldier fly (BSF) farming for waste valorisation and more sustainable global protein supplies critically depends on targeted exploitation of genotype-phenotype associations in this insect, comparable to conventional livestock. This study used a fully crossed factorial design of rearing larvae of four genetically distinct BSF strains (FST: 0.11–0.35) on three nutritionally different diets (poultry feed, food waste, poultry manure) to investigate genotype-by-environment interactions. Phenotypic responses included larval growth dynamics over time, weight at harvest, mortality, biomass production with respective contents of ash, fat, and protein, including amino acid profiles, as well as bioconversion and nitrogen efficiency, reduction of dry matter and relevant fibre fractions, and dry matter loss (emissions). Virtually all larval performance and body composition traits were substantially influenced by diet but also characterised by ample BSF genetic variation and, most importantly, by pronounced interaction effects between the two. Across evaluated phenotypes, variable diet-dependent rankings and the lack of generally superior BSF strains indicate the involvement of trade-offs between traits, as their relationships may even change signs. Conflicting resource allocation in light of overall BSF fitness suggests anticipated breeding programs will require complex and differential selection strategies to account for pinpointed trait maximisation versus multi-purpose resilience.
... Moreover, the use of insects as a protein source for fish feeding does not compete with human food sources. Insects have key characteristics, such as short life cycles and the ability to take advantage of plant residues, converting them into high quality nutrients (IPIFF, 2018;Berggren, Jansson & Low, 2019). The massive and large-scale production of these animals opens the possibility of reducing cost and achieving economic viability in the replacement of ingredients such as fishmeal and soybean meal (Khan et al., 2016), in addition to being considered an alternative in the search for sustainability environmental impact of the productive sector. ...
The creation of aquatic organisms it is constantly growing and with this comes the need to meet this demand with the increased production of inputs such as feed for aquaculture. Fish nutrition is mainly characterized by the use of fish meal and oil for the manufacture of rations for their food. Soybean bran is the second most used ingredient as a source of protein in the production of feed for aquaculture. However, these ingredients compete with other feed segments, increasing cost or reducing market availability. Therefore, alternative sources of protein must be studied and developed to meet this demand. In this sense, insects present themselves as sources of high quality protein, in addition to fatty acids, vitamins and minerals. Although there is a problem with large-scale production to meet the demand of the feed market, the ease of breeding certain species of insects is capable of making this reality possible. Thus, insects can be a likely alternative protein source in fish feed, replacing conventional sources. This review aims to evaluate the inclusion of mealworm in the fish diet, in terms of performance and discuss the results obtained.
... The data situation regarding the effects of frass fertilization on plant growth was recently assessed as small and unclear in its outcomes (Berggren et al. 2019). In the last years, there have been several studies investigating the fertilization effects of frass under greenhouse (e.g. ...
In the context of black soldier fly (BSF) rearing, often the residues from production — mainly faeces but also undigested substrate — are addressed as frass in a broader sense. As BSF production is expanding, the valorization of BSF frass as organic fertilizer is gaining importance. However, in contrast to established organic fertilizers, little is known on the properties and variation of this by-product, which is essential for assessing possible application purposes. To elaborate a first overview on this relatively new waste stream, BSF frass analyses from the literature and anonymized frass analyses enquired from BSF producers were compiled. For a possible agricultural use as a fertilizer, their nutrient patterns were assessed. With a balanced nitrogen:phosphorous pentoxide:potassium oxide (N:P 2 O 5 :K 2 O) ratio of 1:0.9:1.1, BSF frass can be characterized as a slightly alkaline (pH 7.5), nutrient-rich compound fertilizer, with the nutrient and especially the micronutrient contents showing high variation. The comparably high carbon-to-nitrogen ratio and low shares of ammonium nitrogen indicate a limited immediate nutrient release and point to possible applications of frass as a long-term fertilizer. The use of frass as an organic fertilizer as one element in a fertilization strategy is promising. By improving nutrient cycling back to the field, BSF frass can represent an important element of sustainable circular agriculture. However, more information on BSF feed and production systems needs to be combined with the nutrient analyses to better understand the variation in frass nutrient contents.
... Because the upscaling of the insect industry which currently takes place calls for more research on the fertilizer potential of frass (Berggren et al., 2019), the present study aimed therefore at gaining insight into the short-term fertilizer value of frass from mealworm in order to optimize the sustainable use of frass as an alternative to mineral fertilizers. ...
The forecasted growth of insect production in the next few years will generate high quantities of frass (insect excreta). Although frass is increasingly considered a potential fertilizer, the dynamics of nutrient supply by frass is still poorly understood. Here, we aimed at gaining insight into the short-term fertilizer value of frass from mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) in order to optimize its sustainable use in agroecosystems. Using a short-term pot experiment, we showed that, even though frass has a great potential to be used as a substitute of mineral NPK fertilizer, its N fertilizer potential is mediated by its rate of application. At 10 t ha −1 , due to its fast mineralization coupled with improvement in microbial activity (assessed using Biolog EcoPlate), frass was as effective as mineral fertilizer to supply N to plant. By contrast, at 5 t ha −1 , the lower frass mineralization induced a reduced N uptake compared to its mineral control. Unlike N, frass was as effective as mineral fertilizer to supply P and K to plants irrespective of its application rate. This was attributed to the presence of P and K in a readily available form in frass. Taken together, our results indicate that mealworm frass supplies very rapidly N, P and K to plants but its effects on N dynamics should be better investigated to warrant its sustainable use as an alternative fertilizer for managing NPK nutrition in cropping systems.
... The increasing global need to find sustainable alternative protein/energy sources for animal nutrition has stimulated research in the field of non-conventional feed ingredients. Insects have great potential for several reasons: (i) their nutritional value, (ii) their feed conversion efficiency, (iii) the small space required to cultivate, and (iv), as they are nearly omnivores, they can grow on different substrates [1,2]. Insect proteins have nutritional advantages in total protein content and/or essential amino acid profile over plant proteins, e.g., cereals, beans, lentils or soybeans. ...
Before insects can be used widely as an alternative source of dietary protein, their allerginicity should be investigated. Therefore, the aim of our study was to assess the potential adverse reactions of the immune system of dogs against Tenebrio molitor proteins. Dogs sensitised to storage mites T. putrescentiae and A. siro were included. Clinically healthy and clinically allergic dogs were compared. Proteins were extracted from mealworm larvae and their digestibility determined by in vitro incubation with digestive proteases. Mealworm protein extracts and digests were analysed by SDS–PAGE. Canine sera tested for the presence of mite-specific IgEs were used for subsequent Western blotting. LC-MS/MS analysis was used to identify mealworm proteins and their allergenic potential was predicted with the AllermatchTM tool. The binding of canine sera IgEs to mealworm proteins was confirmed; however, the differences between the two groups of dogs were not significant. Moreover, no clear correlation was found between sensitisation to storage mites and clinical status of the dogs. Altogether, 17 different proteins were identified, including tropomyosin, α-amylase, and Tm-E1a cuticular protein that are known cross-reacting IgE-binding allergens. Our results suggest that dogs allergic to mites may clinically express also the cross-reactivity with mealworm proteins.
... The chemical nitorgen fertilisers are not environmental friendly and extensively used, will continue to grow to feed 9.7 billion people by 2050. Further, animal protein and meat products are expected to increase from current demands by 75% in 2050, insects may be an alternative option for conventional protein (Berggren et al., 2019). Traditionally many indigenous people still consume insect as food in South East Asian countries. ...
Aim: To investigate the integrated use of chemical fertilizer and potential tasar silkworm (Antheraea mylitta) excreta as fertilizer on the growth, yield and quality of rice.. Methodology: A pot experiment was designed in Completely Randomized Design with four replicates with nine treatments, where Terminalia arjuna leaf litter, tasar silkworm excreta and recommended dose of chemical nitrogen fertilizer at 25%, 50% or 100% alone or in combinations was applied in transplanted rice plants. The observations were recorded for different growth parameters at 30, 60 and 90 days interval, while yield traits were recorded at the time of crop harvest. Results: Leaf litter and tasar silkworm (Antheraea mylitta Drury) excreta on growth, yield and quality of rice revealed that application of 100% recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN) from tasar silkworm excreta recorded significantly higher plant height, panicle length, number of grains panicle-1 and 1000 grain weight at rice harvest. While, chlorophyll index, grain yield, number of effective tillers per hill, biological and protein yield of rice recorded significantly higher in 75% recommended dose of nitrogen through chemical nitrogen fertilizer + 25% recommended dose of nitrogen from tasar silkworm excreta. Nitrogen and protein content of grain recorded statistically higher in 50% recommended dose of nitrogen through inorganic fertilizer + 50% RDN from tasar silkworm excreta. Grain yield was significantly correlated with nitrogen uptake and protein yield, plant height, effective tillers per hill, 1000 grain weight, straw and biological yield. Interpretation: Integrated use of 75% RDN through chemical nitrogen fertilizer with 25% RDN from tasar silkworm excreta is suitable for higher production that may reduce the external input of chemical nitrogen fertilizers and promote zero waste management.
... Both the silkworm and bumblebee rearing industries have significantly reduced their overall disease profile and risk for epidemic spread through high hygienic standards, containment measures, regular monitoring and tight control over external inputs into their operations. The current practices for rearing, movement and sale of crickets for feed and food are not yet up to these standards (58,59), so our findings are likely of interest for a large part of the rearing sector (60,61). ...
Insects generally have high reproductive rates leading to rapid population growth and high local densities; ideal conditions for disease epidemics. The parasites and diseases that naturally regulate wild insect populations can also impact when these insects are produced commercially, on farms. While insects produced for human or animal consumption are often reared under high density conditions, very little is known about the microbes associated with these insects, particularly those with pathogenic potential. In this study we used both target-free and targeted screening approaches to explore the virome of two cricket species commonly reared for feed and food, Acheta domesticus and Gryllus bimaculatus . The target-free screening of DNA and RNA from a single A. domesticus frass sample revealed that only 1% of the nucleic acid reads belonged to viruses, including known cricket, insect, bacterial and plant pathogens, as well as a diverse selection of novel viruses. The targeted screening revealed relatively high levels of Acheta domesticus densovirus, invertebrate iridovirus 6 and a novel iflavirus, as well as low levels of Acheta domesticus volvovirus, in insect and frass samples from several retailers. Our findings highlight the value of multiple screening approaches for a comprehensive and robust cricket disease monitoring and management strategy. This will become particularly relevant as-and-when cricket rearing facilities scale up and transform from producing insects for animal feed to producing insects for human consumption.
... Producers will need to carefully calibrate costs and benefits across feed substrates, as feed quality will impact the feed conversion efficiency and growth performance of the insects as well [110]. This same optimization can extend to other rearing practices such as housing, water delivery, and geographic location of production, which remain largely understudied or proprietary [25,111]. Furthermore, the number of commercially produced insect species represents a tiny fraction of the total number of consumed insects worldwide [112], and greater opportunities for efficiency may be found in identifying species with properties that are more innately suitable for industrial-scale production [59]. ...
Most global dietary forecasts predict a reduction in nutritional deficiencies over the next several decades driven by significant increases in environmentally unsustainable livestock and animal source food consumption. Here, we explore a more environmentally sensitive alternative to improve global nutrition, consuming insects. Our study focuses on Africa and Asia, two continents with a history of eating insects and high rates of nutritional deficiency. We model the impact of adding modest amounts (2.5, 5 and 10 g per day, dry weight) of regionally appropriate and farmable species on total nutrient intake and population-wide risk of deficiency for specific nutrients of concern: protein, zinc, folate, and vitamin B12. We also estimate the total potential change in dietary iron. Five grams per day of insect consumption could alleviate a considerable amount of risk of nutritional deficiency: 67 million (95% uncertainty interval: 49-84 million) fewer people at risk of protein deficiency, 166 million (120-220 million) fewer people at risk of zinc deficiency, 237 million (120-439 million) fewer people at risk of folate deficiency, and 251 million (28-2271) fewer people at risk for vitamin B12 deficiency. For iron, per capita supplies could increase by 3% (0.8%-6.0%) with insects, and even more so for vulnerable groups in countries currently suffering severe rates of anemia: 4.2% (0.5%-8.8%) for women of childbearing age and 4.1% (0.4%-10.0%) for children under 5. Doubling or halving insect intake per capita causes the benefits for nutritional deficiency risk to roughly double or halve accordingly. Effects are most pronounced in South and Central Asia, though sub-Saharan Africa, East Asia, and Southeast Asia also see considerable reduction in nutritional risk. These results demonstrate the potential for insects to fill a crucial role in providing nutrition for these populous and rapidly developing regions while safeguarding the global environment.
... One of the greatest challenges of the twenty-one century is meeting an ever-increasing food demanding while reducing agriculture's negative environmental impact [23,24]. Society transition and industrial transformation are developing to ensure sustainable food production in the next four decades [25,26]. Intensification of African smallholder agriculture is desirable for several reasons and the sustainable intensification concept covers the important dimensions of how such intensified agriculture could be sustained [27]. ...
Food insecurity throughout Sub-Saharan African countries is a common problem and needs a sustainable solution to improve crop yield production, rather than agricultural area expansion. Vegetables are important in sustaining the livelihood of many small-scale and subsistence farmers throughout Sub-Saharan African and contain vitamins, minerals, and essential amino acids, none has cholesterol and most are low in fat and calories. Vegetables also high in fiber, which helps keep the digestive system healthy. Vegetable production in Sub-Saharan Africa faces numerous agronomic constraints that will have to be overcome to feed the increasing population and to fight malnutrition. Major areas on the continent consequently experience nutrient limitation as a major yield gap component, especially in densely populated areas. Now a day one possible solution may come from insect farming, a growing industry with broad potential. Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L) feces (frass) may have great potential as a valuable organic bio-fertilizer by positively affecting soil fertility and ultimately vegetable yields. However, the understanding of this positive effect of frass is still limited in our community and very few researchers are trying to determine the effects of this bio-fertilizer on vegetable growth and soil fertility amendment and to explore the utilization of this waste product as a novel organic bio-fertilizer. As nitrogen and phosphorus uptake observed in plots treated with black soldier fly frass fertilizer compared to plots treated with the commercial organic and mineral fertilizers could be attributed to better supply and availability of nutrients from the newly introduced frass fertilize. Clearly black soldier fly frass fertilizer performed better than commercial and inorganic fertilizer. Therefore, further study and awareness creation should be conducted to promote the feasibility of black soldier fly frass bio-fertilizer application in vegetable production and its role in soil fertility amendment.
... In this context, the potential of insect frass as a fertilizer and a plant growth-and development-promoter has been lately identified, further enhancing the characterization of insect farming as a clear circular economy paradigm (Houben et al. 2020). However, further research is warranted to fully unfold the potential of this waste stream of insect production to an efficient, sustainable alternative of conventional fertilizers (Berggren et al. 2019). Moreover, this 'bio-fertilizer' cannot currently cover the market's needs, and thus, can be used only in small-area applications. ...
The objective of this special issue is to highlight the current state of research in the field of insects as food and feed, but also other aspects on the exploitation of insect farming. In this editorial, we make a short introduction of the topic of the special issue, briefly present the contributions that are collected in it and offer some thoughts on the future research priorities and challenges that should be addressed. Regarding insect farming, there are additional applications, such as fertilizer, health-promoting products, and cosmetics, that can be produced and utilized, that go far beyond food and feed production.
In the last few years, the concept of happiness economics has gained massive popularity among researchers and policy-makers. Taking GDP as an indicator that reflects the economic welfare of countries indicated “dematerializing” of the economy, also known as the coupling effect. However, the viability of GDP as the sole and unambiguous economic measure has been severely impacted. Moreover, an increased inclination toward measuring the economic welfare and not just the economic output has captured more attention paving way to happiness economics. The aim of the study is to review the research work done in the last 35 years (1987–2022) in the area pertaining to “beyond GDP.” The study includes 144 research papers from the Scopus database through a reference searching approach and identified keywords. A bibliometric-based review approach using VOSviewer and RStudio software will be used to trace and review the most influential authors, journals, and top keywords. Finally, a conceptual framework and future research avenues are suggested.KeywordsBeyond GDP Happiness economy Well-being economy Sustainability Bibliometric analysis
Proteins are one of the essential sources of human nourishment. However, lately, the food crisis is becoming more noticeable due to extraordinary and unconscious consumption habits. Also, there is another movement in human nutrition that adopts more vegetable-based foods to diminish animal origins, as also cruelty-free nutrition for sustainability. This movement contributes to an enhanced requirement for plant-based proteins. There is ongoing research to adopt a sustainable development strategy for nutritional proteins. Microalgae are one tremendous source of dietary proteins, some of them are already utilized as a single-cell protein source for functional nutrition. Microalgal proteins or protein hydrolysates have been also proven to exhibit certain bioactivities such as immunostimulant, anti-diabetic, antihypertensive, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory effects. This chapter focuses on the utilization of algal proteins as novel protein resources. Systematically, the concept and the content of the commonly used microalgal species will be deliberated.KeywordsMicroalgae Protein Sustainability Nutrition
Microbiomes live in symbiosis with their hosts at all stages of their life cycles, forming holobionts. The gut microbiome contributes to absorbing energy and affects the immune system and provides intense chemical communication and coordination of host physiological functions, characterizing the gut-brain axis. The human lifestyle promotes alterations in ecological relationships between the host and microbiome, as the non-rational use of antibiotics, biocides, and processed food, decreasing microbiome diversity and affecting gut homeostasis. This dysbiosis leads to disease development, as colitis, obesity, metabolic syndromes, diabetes mellitus, cancer, and liver, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases. Probiotic bacterial strains have been used in different dairy products to modulate the structure of the intestinal microbiome and recover a part of the lost functional balance, but a deep scientifical background is necessary to shift the focus of this product consumption, from food to pharmaceutical industry. Next-generation probiotic species have been sought with preventive and therapeutic characteristics; the main concern is efficiency and safety, which is the reason for the new category of live biotherapeutic products need to be standardized as drugs to be commercially viable, to search for intestinal homeostasis recovery and reducing dysbiosis and a chain of adverse effects that could culminate in severe and chronic diseases.KeywordsHealthy microbiomeDysbiosisIntestinal homeostasisGut microbiomeBacterial diversity
South African universities experience increased pressure to comply with and implement environmentally friendly practices. Specifically, state-funded universities need to enhance environmental management efficiency and environmental awareness. However, measuring the implementation of green initiatives in higher education takes time and effort. South African models for state-funded universities are absent, and international models are inapplicable. Therefore, this study aims to develop and empirically test the model by investigating existing theories and models and identifying potential factors for higher education. The paper determined ten initial factors from 31 environmental studies, limiting their number to five. The finally selected factors are cost of green products, awareness, training and education, top management attitude and commitment, committee for sustainable accountability, and digital transformation. This qualitative study uses a five-point Likert-scale questionnaire sampling 149 university managers. Structural equation modeling retained three of the original five factors in the model: cost of green products, top management attitude and commitment, and digital transformation. However, knowledge of the environment (SRW = 0.76) is also crucial. Ten theoretical measuring criteria are retained as valid measures of implementing green initiatives. The model has good fit indices (CMin/Df = 4.07, CFI = 0.944, GFI = 0.909), despite RMSEA exceeding 0.10. The developed conceptual model can be used to measure the implementation of green initiatives by South African state-funded universities.
Insect farming is growing in popularity, and in addition to insect meal, it generates waste products such as exuviae and frass, which can be recycled in agriculture. The aim of this incubation experiment was to evaluate the effect of Tenebrio molitor L. frass on selected chemical and biological properties of deacidified peat, which is widely used in horticulture. The optimal rate of frass fertilizer in peat for growing vegetables and ornamental plants was determined, with special emphasis on mineral nitrogen levels. Peat was fertilized with five nitrogen rates, 0, 50, 100, 200, and 400 mg dm−3, and supplied with frass or urea. The study demonstrated that frass can be used as organic fertilizer. An increase in the nitrogen rate significantly increased mineral nitrogen content and electrical conductivity and decreased Ca content in peat. Both frass and urea increased the ammonification rate at the beginning of incubation and the nitrification rate from the second week of the experiment. Higher frass rates (5 and 10 g dm−3) increased the content of plant-available nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, and sodium) in peat as well as the abundance of microorganisms supporting organic matter mineralization. Unlike frass, urea increased the counts of nitrogen-fixing bacteria in peat.
Every aspect of pet ownership has some environmental footprint, whether it is the food they eat, the toys they play with or the faeces they produce. Some of these environmental factors can be influenced by pet owners and healthcare providers, while others cannot. Studies considering the most eco-friendly pets ranked tortoises, rats and mice among the lowest impact pets to keep, with large breed dogs and horses the least eco friendly. These ratings were based on a variety of factors, including the pet's dietary requirements, water requirement, lifespan, transportation costs, grooming and accessories, waste production and likelihood to require veterinary medicines. This article concentrates on the impact of the food source provided to the most popular pets: cats and dogs.
Bazı böcek türlerinin insanlar tarafından tüketilmesi yeni bir konu olmamakla birlikte, son yıllarda özellikle nüfusun ve hayvansal protein talebinin artışı ile birlikte yeniden ele alınan bir konudur. Yenilebilir böceklerin hâlihazırda en az 2 milyar insan tarafından tüketildiği tahmin edilmektedir. Diğer pek çok hayvansal kaynağa göre daha az yem ile daha fazla vücut ağırlığı kazanımı ve küresel ısınmada çok önemli rol oynayan sera gazı salınımındaki payının oransal olarak çok daha az olması, yenilebilir böceklerin gelecek senaryolarında hem insan gıdası hem de hayvan yemi olarak potansiyelinin değerlendirilmesini önemli kılmaktadır. Bu çalışmada yenilebilir böceklerin besin değeri, üretimi, işlenmesi, depolanması, ekonomisi, sağlık ve çevre üzerine etkileri, tüketici kabulü ve yasal düzenlemeler gibi başlıklar ele alınarak konu çok boyutlu bir yaklaşımla derlenmiştir.
Insect farming is a rapidly expanding agricultural sector with the potential to improve the environmental sustainability of livestock production. A holistic approach is needed to use farmed insects responsibly and effectively with broad benefits across food systems.
Full-text access to the paper at: https://rdcu.be/cZkdf
A major challenge for development of sustainable aquafeeds is its dependence on fish meal and fish oil. Replacement with more sustainable, nutritious and safe ingredients is now a priority. Over the last years, among several alternatives proposed, insects have received great attention as possible candidates. In particular, the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens; BSF) represents a concrete example of how the circular economy concept can be applied to fish culture, providing a valuable biomass rich in fat and protein valorising organic by-products. In the last decade, several studies have been published about the use of different BSF dietary inclusion levels for various fish species including experimental models. Varying and encouraging results have been obtained in this research field using a plethora of laboratory methodological approaches that can be applied and coupled to obtain a comprehensive view of the BSF-based diets effects on fish physiology, health, and quality. The present review aims to explore some of the most promising laboratory approaches like histology, infrared spectroscopy, gut microbiome sequencing, molecular biology, fish fillets’ physico-chemical and sensory properties, essential for a better understanding of fish welfare and fillet quality, when BSF is used as aquafeed ingredient. In particular, great importance has been given to European finfish species and experimental models.
In terms of sustainability and circular economy, agricultural by-products may be efficiently reused in insects’ rearing for high-quality protein sources in human diet and animal feeds. The present study aimed to explore whether the utilization of carob pods as feeding substrate may beneficially affect Tenebrio molitor’s growth, nutritional value, antioxidant status and cellular responses. Increasing levels of milled whole carob pods (0, 25, 50, 75, 100%) were used as alternative wheat bran (control) substrates for yellow mealworm rearing, while growth performance, proximate composition, total phenolic content, antioxidant enzyme activity and the expression of stress- and apoptotic-related proteins were evaluated in larvae. The results showed that carob pods’ content up to 75% did not significantly differentiate larvae weight, development time and total dry matter. Larvae total phenolic content and antioxidant activity exhibited a significant increase at 75% content. Although the antioxidant enzymes’ activity decreased at both 25 and 50% levels, higher carob content levels (75 and 100%) resulted in no significant changes compared to the control. Carob pods led to decreased apoptotic indicators and the low expression of most stress-related proteins compared to the control. The present findings demonstrate that carob pods and their antioxidant properties exert beneficial effects on T. molitor’s rearing and nutritional status, although 100% carob content may impact adversely the larvae due to the high amounts of carob tannins.
Currently a multitude of protein substrates are available to obtain value-added peptides on the market, such as those used in food supplements, flavoring agents, culture media, antioxidants, antihypertensives, anti-inflammatory drugs, polyphenol oxidase inhibitors, among others. Enzymatic protein hydrolysis methods have demonstrated advantages due to their substrate specificity, unlikely formation of toxic products and occurrence under mild conditions. The use of isolated or combined proteases with different specificities has been applied in the production of more effective and stable bioactive and shorter reaction times, obtaining different peptide profiles (composition and molecular mass distribution). Several sources of protease extraction have been explored (animal, plant and microbial) in order to make the bioprocess more efficient and economical. Approaches to stimulating enzymatic activity is a field of study with intense activity, bringing it very close to industrial applications and consequent improvement in quality of life. Among these stimulatory technologies, advances have been reported with electrostimulation and ultrasound techniques.
KeywordCatalysisBioactive peptidesNew productsFoodFine chemistry
Edible insects are worldwide promoted as an alternative protein, trace mineral and lipid source in animal feed and human food. The house cricket (Acheta domesticus) is already being reared at an industrial scale, yet current mass-rearing practices and facility design may still leave room for improvement. Behavioral tests have been suggested as an important assessment tool at the whole-organism level that can be used to find optimal housing conditions (e.g. density, diet, temperature). Here, we adapt the widely used open field test to the house cricket. We tested 16 male and 16 female house crickets four times under two different light intensities. Videos were analysed with Ethovision ™ tracking software and variables distance moved, velocity, and duration and frequency in zone were extracted. Results showed that house crickets, like vertebrate model species, spent most time close to the walls of the arena, and crossed the center zone with high velocity. Brighter illumination was associated with increased velocity, in particular in the center zone during the first test occasion, suggesting avoidance of this zone. Male crickets had higher locomotory activity than females. Consistency repeatabilities and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were moderate to high, and the correlation between subsequent occasions became stronger over the four occasions at day 1, 2, 3 and 7. The first test occasion differed from subsequent occasions, therefore repeated testing may be necessary when analysing experimental manipulations of small effect size. Overall, the results are promising for use of the open field test as a precise phenotyping tool.
Several biophysical factors are leading to the loss of biodiversity, amongst them, the dominance of exotic invasive species on native communities is important. Their dominance can lead to changes in the structure of insect communities, by competing and displacing native species to other crops or habitats. These changes can impact the herbivore’s natural enemies in invaded areas by diverging them from suitable herbivores and alter their biological control process. The development of edible insects and derived products at an industrial scale can also have an impact on the local fauna by the risks of spillover and accidental release in nature. Several area-wide integrated pest management programs are also using the Sterile Insect Technique to control insect pests and disease vectors. This technique is becoming largely used, however, its application as “non-intrusive to the environment” is controversial particularly when eradication is concerning species that are at the basis of food webs.
Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) are good candidates for upcycling wet organic residuals. Like other unprocessed raw animal products, BSFL require processing to prevent spoilage and degradation during storage and to facilitate their use as feed ingredients. In this study, hot-air drying and freeze-drying were examined as means to ensure long-term preservation. Pre-treatments of larvae, such as puncturing, blanching (40 s) and scalding (2, 4, 6 and 8 min) in boiling water reduced drying times, most likely by affecting the integrity of the wax-coated cuticle that protects the larvae against desiccation. Overall, the larvae dried two to six times faster using hot-air compared to freeze-drying, and larvae pre-treatments were proven to effectively improve drying efficacy. Pre-treating larvae in boiling water followed by a shorter drying time with hot air was effective at reducing primary and secondary oxidation as well as darkening/browning (colour lightness, L* value) compared to the untreated control (raw-thawed) larvae. The larvae pre-treatments in boiling water also led to a significant reduction in microbial load (3.21 to 4.83 log) in the dry product compared to the control. BSFL powder, produced from grinding thawed larvae that were pre-treated for 4 min in boiling water before being dried in hot air (60 °C; 6 h), had a water activity below 0.4. This led to a relatively stable product with limited colour changes over a 30-day storage period. These processing treatments also resulted in a product with no detectable Salmonella and Escherichia coli counts ranging from 100 to 1000 cfu/g. Overall, the powdered BSFL product was deemed suitable to incorporate into pelleted feed under the current regulations in Canada.
As wild harvesting of insects gives way to mass rearing, there is an urgent need to develop expertise and methods in insect animal husbandry and facility design. In order to advance the science of animal husbandry and production in this field, comparisons and contrasts of different insect rearing facilities currently in production are likely to be beneficial. Here we initiate this discussion by suggesting a focus on insect rearing facilities at the two ends of the production scale spectrum (small-scale rearing and mass rearing) that have different end products (insects-as- food and insects for other purposes). We suggest that organisations with a philosophy of information sharing (e.g. universities) need to play an active role in this developing production system, by bridging gaps between academia, industry and traditional knowledge to ensure a rapid and societally acceptable development of wide-scale entomophagy.
This study evaluated diets including whole or peeled (legs removed) crickets (Teleogryllus testaceus) in terms of diet digestibility, growth and nitrogen retention, using pigs as an animal model. The experiment included three isonitrogenous diets (18.4% crude protein) including either whole cricket meal (WC), body cricket meal (legs removed, BC) or fish meal (control) as the main protein source. Castrated male piglets (n=21, 30-45 days) with initial body weight 13.0±0.3 kg were allocated to one of the dietary treatments (7 piglets/treatment) in a fixed block design. The piglets were kept in single bamboo/wooden stalls with slatted floors and were adapted to the feeds and the housing for 5 days before starting the 25-day experiment. The diets were offered ad libitum, but close to appetite (approximately 5% of body weight). Feed intake was recorded and piglets were weighed every 5 days. During days 20-25, total collection of faeces and urine was performed. Dry matter and nutrient intake were higher for piglets fed the WC and BC diets than for those fed the control diet. From day 10, piglets fed BC and WC were heavier than piglets fed the control diet, but there were no differences between WC and BC. Dry matter digestibility was highest for diet WC, and ash, crude fibre and crude fat digestibility was higher for BC and WC than for the control diet. Feed conversion ratio was lower for the WC and BC diets than for the control diet, and nitrogen retention (% of digested) was higher. We concluded that field cricket meal is a nutritious feedstuff for mono-gastric animals, and most likely also for humans. Removal of legs did not facilitate or improve the digestibility values and nitrogen retention. Thus, in order to minimise food waste, crickets should not be peeled in this way if they are going to be processed into meal.
With a growing world population, increasingly demanding consumers, and a limited amount of agricultural land, there is an urgent need to find alternatives to conventional meat products. Livestock production is, moreover, a leading cause of anthropogenic-induced climate change. To mediate this, more sustainable diets are needed, with reduced meat consumption or the use of alternative protein sources. Insects are promoted as human food and animal feed worldwide. In tropical countries, edible insects are harvested from nature, but overexploitation, habitat changes, and environmental contamination threaten this food resource. Therefore, sustainable harvesting practices need to be developed and implemented. We provide examples of (1) aquatic insects whose populations are threatened by pollution, (2) caterpillar species in Africa that are disappearing due to overexploitation and habitat change, (3) edible insects species that are considered pests in agro-ecosystems, and (4) edible insect species that can be conserved and enhanced in forest management systems. Insect farming can be conducted either on small-scale farms or in large-scale industrialized rearing facilities. We review the environmental sustainability of insect farming compared to livestock production. The major environmental advantages of insect farming compared to livestock production are as follows: (1) less land and water is required; (2) greenhouse gas emissions are lower; (3) insects have high feed conversion efficiencies; (4) insects can transform low-value organic by-products into high-quality food or feed; and (5) certain insect species can be used as animal feed or aqua feed. For instance, they can replace fish meal, which is becoming increasingly scarce and expensive. However, edible insect species intended for production should be screened for risks to humans, animals, plants, and biodiversity.
The recent research interest is illustrated by the many refereed articles that appeared during the last years. Only in 2016, there were 47 articles listed in Web of Science (consulted 15 February 2017) when using ‘edible insects’ compared to only 25 during the entire five-year period 2006-2010. At the start of 2017 there are close to 200 start-up companies worldwide (http://tinyurl.com/zyotzcy). In 2016, a number of organisations made predictions about how the global edible insect market will grow. With an increased interest, what are the research challenges ahead of us? Where should we be focussing on? What are the bottlenecks to be solved to make it a viable sector?
The black soldier fly Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus, 1758) is recorded from Bohumín inCzech Silesia (Czech Republic). This finding represents not only the first record from the Czech Republic but also the northernmost occurrence (at 49°55'N) of this species in Europe. H. illucens is anon-indigenous fly in Europe that was introduced from the New World and is now distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions all over the world. The first Czech record is documented in detail and the causalities of the occurrence of H. illucens at so high a latitude is discussed. An updated distribution of the species in Europe is mapped.
This study evaluated survival and growth of Cambodian field crickets (Teleogryllus testaceus) during captivity when fed a set of local weed species, agricultural and food industry by-products. Wild individuals were caught at two locations in Cambodia, kept in pens and fed commercial chicken feed until the second generation off-spring hatched. First larval stage nymphs from this generation were collected and used in a 70-day feeding trial with one control treatment (chicken feed) and 12 experimental treatments (rice bran, cassava plant tops, water spinach, spent grain, residue from mungbean sprout production, and Alternanthera sessilis, Amaranthus spinosus, Commelina benghalensis, Cleome rutidosperma, Cleome viscosa, Boerhavia diffusa and Synedrela nodiflora). The crickets were kept in plastic cages and feed intake, weight and survival of crickets were recorded weekly. Overall survival did not differ between chicken feed and the experimental treatments with the exception of crickets fed B. diffusa, which had lower survival. From day 35 to day 49, survival on A. sessilis was also lower (P<0.05) than on chicken feed. There was no difference in weight between crickets fed chicken feed, cassava tops and C. rutidosperma. However, crickets fed A. sessilis, A. spinosus and B. diffusa weighed less than those fed chicken feed already at day 21. The feed conversion rate ranged from 1.6 to 3.9 and was ≤1.9 in crickets fed chicken feed, cassava plant tops and C. rutidosperma. Thus this study shows that it is possible, using simple means, to rear Cambodian field crickets. Cassava plant tops and C. rutidosperma both have great potential as cricket feed and the other weeds, with the exception of A. sessilis, A. spinosus and B. diffusa, agricultural and food industry by-products tested, also showed potential.
There is an ongoing debate on what constitutes sustainable intensification of agriculture (SIA). In this paper, we propose that a paradigm for sustainable intensification can be defined and translated into an operational framework for agricultural development. We argue that this paradigm must now be defined-at all scales-in the context of rapidly rising global environmental changes in the Anthropocene, while focusing on eradicating poverty and hunger and contributing to human wellbeing. The criteria and approach we propose, for a paradigm shift towards sustainable intensification of agriculture, integrates the dual and interdependent goals of using sustainable practices to meet rising human needs while contributing to resilience and sustainability of landscapes, the biosphere, and the Earth system. Both of these, in turn, are required to sustain the future viability of agriculture. This paradigm shift aims at repositioning world agriculture from its current role as the world's single largest driver of global environmental change, to becoming a key contributor of a global transition to a sustainable world within a safe operating space on Earth.
Description of the subject. Current trends suggest an increasing future demand for conventional meats, which indicates a strong need to shift this dependency to other alternative protein sources such as insects.
Literature. From a nutritional point of view, of all the insects consumed globally, grasshoppers are particularly important as a human food. Data from the literature regarding the nutrient composition, amino acid profile, fatty acid profile, mineral composition and vitamin content of grasshoppers as reviewed in this paper, suggest that a number of grasshopper species are a good source of nutrients. It also highlights some of the health related aspects that might arise from the consumption of grasshoppers, mostly linked to agricultural practices and the allergic response of sensitive individuals. The paper also summarizes some religious, social and economic factors that are associated with grasshopper consumption.
Conclusions. The success of introducing grasshoppers as a novel food in western countries depends on changes in consumer attitudes. It would be interesting to develop food products derived from grasshoppers in a form acceptable to consumers. Furthermore, it is important to explore the food potential of some grasshopper species native to western countries and to develop their rearing methodologies to enhance availability.
Solid residues produced by processing food waste via Microaerobic Fermentation (MF) and by Black Soldier Fly larvae (BSFL) have been proposed as soil fertilizers. Yet, little is known about their effects on plant growth. This study compares the growth of corn plants (Zea mays) in soil amended with MF or BSFL residue, with effects of aerated compost on corn growth over ten weeks. Corn plants grown in soil amended with MF residues were 109% taller and had 14% more leaves than those grown in traditional aerated compost (Cedar Grove). But plants grown in BSFL residues were stunted, growing 39% shorter and having 19% fewer leaves on average. Only height data was statistically significant. Results indicate that MF produced from food scraps is a suitable soil amendment product, but BSFL solid residue from a similar source is phytotoxic when amended, untreated, into soil in a ratio of one part residue to two parts soil. More research on additional post-processing methods for BSFL solid residue is needed.
Invasive non-native species risk assessment in Great Britain is coordinated by the Non-native Species Secretariat for the GB Programme Board for non-native species under a Great Britain strategy that follows the principles of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Risk assessments are commissioned from independent expert assessors and overseen by the Non-native Species Risk Analysis Panel, a panel of risk assessment experts that ensures consistent and technically valid assessments and interpretation. The process uses a risk assessment template to follow closely the scheme used by the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organisation (EPPO) for agricultural quarantine pests, modified for all non-native organisms in the natural environment. Each response is documented by the assessor and checked by a peer reviewer and by the Panel. Directly elicited estimates of entry, establishment, spread and impact, with measures of assessor confidence, give an overall semi-quantitative summary of risk, in terms of likelihood and magnitude.
In Western countries, the popularity of edible insects as an alternative animal protein source is increasing. Nevertheless, there is a lack of profound insight into the microbial safety and shelf life of living insects sold for human consumption. The purpose of this study was to characterise the microflora of fresh edible mealworm larvae and grasshoppers in a quantitative and qualitative way. Therefore, culture-dependent analyses (the total viable aerobic count, Enterobacteriaceae, lactic acid bacteria, yeasts and moulds, and bacterial endospores) and next-generation sequencing (454amplicon pyrosequencing) were performed. High microbial counts were obtained for both insect species. Different insect batches resulted in quite similar microbial numbers, except for bacterial endospores. However, the bacterial community composition differed between both insect species. The most abundant operational taxonomic unit in mealworm larvae was Propionibacterium. Also members of the genera Haemophilus, Staphylococcus and Clostridium were found. Grasshoppers were mainly dominated by Weissella, Lactococcus and Yersinia/. Rahnella. Overall, a variety of potential spoilage bacteria and food pathogens were characterised. The results of this study suggest that a processing step with a microbiocidal effect is required to avoid or minimize risks involved with the consumption of edible insects.
Commercially raised feeder insects used to feed captive insectivores are a good source of many nutrients but are deficient in several key nutrients. Current methods used to supplement insects include dusting and gut-loading. Here, we report on the nutrient composition of four species of commercially raised feeder insects fed a special diet to enhance their nutrient content. Crickets, mealworms, superworms, and waxworms were analyzed for moisture, crude protein, fat, ash, acid detergent fiber, total dietary fiber, minerals, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, taurine, carotenoids, inositol, and cholesterol. All four species contained enhanced levels of vitamin E and omega 3 fatty acids when compared to previously published data for these species. Crickets, superworms, and mealworms contained β-carotene although using standard conversion factors only crickets and superworms would likely contain sufficient vitamin A activity for most species of insectivores. Waxworms did not contain any detectable β-carotene but did contain zeaxanthin which they likely converted from dietary β-carotene. All four species contained significant amounts of both inositol and cholesterol. Like previous reports all insects were a poor source of calcium and only superworms contained vitamin D above the limit of detection. When compared to the nutrient requirements as established by the NRC for growing rats or poultry, these species were good sources of most other nutrients although the high fat and low moisture content of both waxworms and superworms means when corrected for energy density these two species were deficient in more nutrients than crickets or mealworms. These data show the value of modifying the diet of commercially available insects as they are growing to enhance their nutrient content. They also suggest that for most insectivores properly supplemented lower fat insects such as crickets, or smaller mealworms should form the bulk of the diet.
The planetary boundaries framework defines a safe operating space for humanity based on the intrinsic biophysical processes
that regulate the stability of the Earth system. Here, we revise and update the planetary boundary framework, with a focus
on the underpinning biophysical science, based on targeted input from expert research communities and on more general scientific
advances over the past 5 years. Several of the boundaries now have a two-tier approach, reflecting the importance of cross-scale
interactions and the regional-level heterogeneity of the processes that underpin the boundaries. Two core boundaries—climate
change and biosphere integrity—have been identified, each of which has the potential on its own to drive the Earth system
into a new state should they be substantially and persistently transgressed.
The recycling of organic waste worldwide is not effective, which leads to water pollution and loss of potential crop fertilizers. Available resources have to be used more efficiently as the world population increases. An innovative solution is to use insects for the management of organic waste. Here, we used black soldier fly to convert organic waste into animal feed protein, as fly larvae, and plant fertilizer, as compost residue. A continuous fly reactor was monitored for 9 weeks. We analyzed physicochemical and microbial param-eters, and we evaluated the sanitary risk. Results show 55.1 % of material degradation and 11.8 % of biomass conversion based upon total solids. We observed higher levels of N and P in the treatment residue than in the inflow material. Results also show a lower concentration of Salmonella spp. and viruses. Compost treatment with black soldier fly is therefore an efficient system for nutrient recycling.
A 60-70% increase in consumption of animal products is expected by 2050. This increase in the consumption will demand enormous resources, the feed being the most challenging because of the limited availability of natural resources, ongoing climatic changes and food-feed-fuel competition. The costs of conventional feed resources such as soymeal and fishmeal are very high and moreover their availability in the future will be limited. Insect rearing could be a part of the solutions. Although some studies have been conducted on evaluation of insects, insect larvae or insect meals as an ingredient in the diets of some animal species, this field is in infancy. Here we collate, synthesize and discuss the available information on five major insect species studied with respect to evaluation of their products as animal feed. The nutritional quality of black soldier fly larvae, the house fly maggots, mealworm, locusts-grasshoppers-crickets, and silkworm meal and their use as a replacement of soymeal and fishmeal in the diets of poultry, pigs, fish species and ruminants are discussed. The crude protein contents of these alternate resources are high: 42 to 63% and so are the lipid contents (up to 36% oil), which could possibly be extracted and used for various applications including biodiesel production. Unsaturated fatty acid concentrations are high in housefly maggot meal, mealworm and house cricket (60-70%), while their concentrations in black soldier fly larvae are lowest (19-37%). The studies have confirmed that palatability of these alternate feeds to animals is good and they can replace 25 to 100% of soymeal or fishmeal depending on the animal species. Except silkworm meal other insect meals are deficient in methionine and lysine and their supplementation in the diet can enhance both the performance of the animals and the soymeal and fishmeal replacement rates. Most insect meals are deficient in Ca and its supplementation in the diet is also required, especially for growing animals and laying hens. The levels of Ca and fatty acids in insect meals can be enhanced by manipulation of the substrate on which insects are reared. The paper also presents future areas of research. The information synthesized is expected to open new avenues for a large scale use of insect products as animal feed.
Methanogenic archaea (methanogens) that inhabit the gut of termites generate enormous amount of methane that adds to the global atmospheric methane (CH 4). Methane is an important trace gas in the atmosphere, contributing significantly to long wave absorption and bringing in variations into the chemistries of both the troposphere and the stratosphere. In the troposphere, methane acts as a sink for hydroxide (OH) and as a source for carbon monoxide (CO). While in the stratosphere, methane is a sink for chlorine (Cl) molecules and a source of water vapor, which is a dominant greenhouse gas. Analysis has shown that atmospheric concentrations of methane have increased by about 30% over the last 40 years. Such an increase may greatly affect future levels of stratospheric ozone and hence, the climate of the earth. Recent estimates of the total annual source strength of CH 4 vary from 400 to 1200 Tg. Activities such as rice cultivation, cattle production, mining, use of fossil fuels and biomass burning is believed to be the cause of increasing methane levels in the atmosphere. To add to this list is the source from termites, which contributes measurable quantities of CH 4 ranging from 2 to 150 Tg per year. However, data indicate that while there are large variations in the amount of CH 4 produced by different species, the total methane addition due to termites is probably less than 15 Tg per year, thus making a contribution of less than 5% to global CH 4 emissions. Furthermore, the review addresses questions related to the biological aspects of termite harboring groups of bacteria that participate in methanogenesis and various other biotechnological potential of unique microbiota as well as possible strategies to mitigate methanogenesis by termite.
Global production of farmed fish and shellfish has more than doubled in
the past 15 years. Many people believe that such growth relieves pressure
on ocean fisheries, but the opposite is true for some types of aquaculture.
Farming carnivorous species requires large inputs of wild fish for feed. Some
aquaculture systems also reduce wild fish supplies through habitat modification,
wild seedstock collection and other ecological impacts. On balance, global
aquaculture production still adds to world fish supplies; however, if the
growing aquaculture industry is to sustain its contribution to world fish
supplies, it must reduce wild fish inputs in feed and adopt more ecologically
sound management practices.
Frass deposition to soil is an important pathway by which herbivorous insects impact decomposition and soil nutrient availability.
However, little is known about how frass quality influences ecosystem properties. Here, we examined the effects of frass quality
on the decomposition process, soil nitrogen (N) availability, and plant growth, using frass of Mamestra brassicae (L.) that fed on fertilized or unfertilized Brassica rapa L. var. perviridis Bailey. The frass quality was largely dependent on the host plant quality. Frass excreted by larvae that fed on the fertilized
plants had higher N than that of larvae that fed on the unfertilized plants. The decomposition rate of the frass did not differ
between N-rich and N-poor frass, except during the early decomposition period. The inorganic N concentration decreased during
decomposition in both frass types. However, difference in the initial inorganic N concentration led to different consequences
regarding soil N availability. Furthermore, addition of frass to the soil differently influenced the growth of B. rapa plants depending on the frass quality: plant biomass was increased by N-rich frass addition but decreased by N-poor frass
addition, compared to the biomass without frass addition. These results indicate that frass quality is an important factor
in determining the impact of herbivorous insects on nutrient dynamics, and that frass positively or negatively influences
soil N availability and plant growth, depending on its quality.
Over the past 11,000 years humans have brought a wide variety of animals under domestication. Domestic animals belong to all Linnaean animal classes- mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fi sh, insects, and even, arguably, bacteria. Raised for food, secondary products, labor, and companionship, domestic animals have become intricately woven into human economy, society, and religion. Animal domestication is an on-going process, as humans, with increasingly sophisticated technology for breeding and rearing animals in captivity, continue to bring more and more species under their control. Understanding the process of animal domestication and its reciprocal impacts on humans and animal domesticates requires a multidisciplinary approach. This paper brings together recent research in archaeology, genetics, and animal sciences in a discussion of the process of domestication, its impact on animal domesticates, and the various pathways humans and their animal partners have followed into domestication.
The cricket pet food industry in the United States, where as many as 50 million crickets are shipped a week, is a multimillion dollar business that has been devastated by epizootic Acheta domesticus densovirus (AdDNV) outbreaks. Efforts to find an alternative, virus-resistant field cricket species have led to the widespread USA (and European) distribution of a previously unnamed Gryllus species despite existing USA federal regulations to prevent such movement. We analyze and describe this previously unnamed Gryllus and propose additional measures to minimize its potential risk to native fauna and agriculture. Additionally, and more worrisome, is our incidental finding that the naturally widespread African, European, and Asian "black cricket," G. bimaculatus, is also being sold illegally in southern California pet food stores. We assayed crickets of all five USA and European commercial species for presence of the AdDNV to document extent of the infection-all five species can be infected with the virus but only A. domesticus is killed. Based on its already cosmopolitan distribution, apparent inability to live away from human habitation, and resistance to AdDNV, we suggest that Gryllodes sigillatus is the best-suited replacement cricket for commercial production.
The demand for animal protein is expected to rise by 70-80% between 2012 and 2050, while the current animal production sector already causes major environmental degradation. Edible insects are suggested as a more sustainable source of animal protein. However, few experimental data regarding environmental impact of insect production are available. Therefore, a lifecycle assessment for mealworm production was conducted, in which greenhouse gas production, energy use and land use were quantified and compared to conventional sources of animal protein. Production of one kg of edible protein from milk, chicken, pork or beef result in higher greenhouse gas emissions, require similar amounts of energy and require much more land. This study demonstrates that mealworms should be considered a more sustainable source of edible protein.
With a growing world population and increasingly demanding consumers, the production of sufficient protein from livestock, poultry, and fish represents a serious challenge for the future. Approximately 1,900 insect species are eaten worldwide, mainly in developing countries. They constitute quality food and feed, have high feed conversion ratios, and emit low levels of greenhouse gases. Some insect species can be grown on organic side streams, reducing environmental contamination and transforming waste into high-protein feed that can replace increasingly more expensive compound feed ingredients, such as fish meal. This requires the development of costeffective, automated mass-rearing facilities that provide a reliable, stable, and safe product. In the tropics, sustainable harvesting needs to be assured and rearing practices promoted, and in general, the food resource needs to be revalorized. In the Western world, consumer acceptability will relate to pricing, perceived environmental benefits, and the development of tasty insect-derived protein products. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Entomology Volume 58 is December 03, 2013. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates.
Th is chapter reviews the eff ects of alien terrestrial arthropods on the economy, society and environment in Europe. Many alien insect and mite species cause serious socio-economic hazards as pests of agriculture, horticulture, stored products and forestry. Th ey may also aff ect human or animal health. Surprisingly, there is relatively little information available on the exact yield and fi nancial losses due to alien agricultural and forestry pests in Europe, particularly at continental scale. Several alien species may have a positive impact on the economy, for example parasitoids and predators introduced for the biological control of important pests. Invasive alien arthropods can also cause environmental hazards. Th ey may aff ect native biodiversity through various mechanisms, including herbivory, predation, parasitism, competition for resource and space, or as vectors of diseases. Th ey can also aff ect ecosystem services and processes through cascading eff ects. However, these ecological impacts are poorly studied, particularly in Europe, where only a handful cases have been reported.
Greenhouse gas (GHG) production, as a cause of climate change, is considered as one of the biggest problems society is currently facing. The livestock sector is one of the large contributors of anthropogenic GHG emissions. Also, large amounts of ammonia (NH(3)), leading to soil nitrification and acidification, are produced by livestock. Therefore other sources of animal protein, like edible insects, are currently being considered.
An experiment was conducted to quantify production of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and average daily gain (ADG) as a measure of feed conversion efficiency, and to quantify the production of the greenhouse gases methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) as well as NH₃ by five insect species of which the first three are considered edible: Tenebrio molitor, Acheta domesticus, Locusta migratoria, Pachnoda marginata, and Blaptica dubia. Large differences were found among the species regarding their production of CO₂ and GHGs. The insects in this study had a higher relative growth rate and emitted comparable or lower amounts of GHG than described in literature for pigs and much lower amounts of GHG than cattle. The same was true for CO₂ production per kg of metabolic weight and per kg of mass gain. Furthermore, also the production of NH₃ by insects was lower than for conventional livestock.
This study therefore indicates that insects could serve as a more environmentally friendly alternative for the production of animal protein with respect to GHG and NH₃ emissions. The results of this study can be used as basic information to compare the production of insects with conventional livestock by means of a life cycle analysis.
Identifying and quantifying planetary boundaries that must not be transgressed could help prevent human activities from causing unacceptable environmental change, argue Johan Rockström and colleagues.
The present opinion has the format of a risk profile and presents potential biological and chemical hazards as well as allergenicity and environmental hazards associated with farmed insects used as food and feed taking into account of the entire chain, from farming to the final product. The opinion also addresses the occurrence of these hazards in non-processed insects, grown on different substrate categories, in comparison to the occurrence of these hazards in other non-processed sources of protein of animal origin. When currently allowed feed materials are used as substrate to feed insects, the possible occurrence of microbiological hazards is expected to be comparable to their occurrence in other non-processed sources of protein of animal origin. The possible occurrence of prions in non-processed insects will depend on whether the substrate includes protein of human or ruminant origin. Data on transfer of chemical contaminants from different substrates to the insects are very limited. Substrates like kitchen waste, human and animal manure are also considered and hazards from insects fed on these substrates need to be specifically assessed. It is concluded that for both biological and chemical hazards, the specific production methods, the substrate used, the stage of harvest, the insect species and developmental stage, as well as the methods for further processing will all have an impact on the occurrence and levels of biological and chemical contaminants in food and feed products derived from insects. Hazards related to the environment are expected to be comparable to other animal production systems. The opinion also identifies the uncertainties (lack of knowledge) related to possible hazards when insects are used as food and feed and notes that there are no systematically collected data on animal and human consumption of insects. Studies on the occurrence of microbial pathogens of vertebrates as well as published data on hazardous chemicals in reared insects are scarce. Further data generation on these issues are highly recommended.
Edible insects are expected to become an important nutrient source for animals and humans in the Western world in the near future. However, before insects can be put on the market, the safety of their use for feed and food is warranted. This literature study was prepared to provide an overview of the actual knowledge of possible food safety hazards, including chemical, microbiological, and allergenic agents and prions, to human and animal health upon the use of insects for food and feed, and to highlight data gaps and suggest the way forward. From the data available, heavy metals of concern are cadmium in black soldier fly and arsenic in yellow mealworm larvae. Investigated mycotoxins do not seem to accumulate. Residues of pesticides, veterinary drugs, and hormones, as well as dioxins and PCBs, are sometimes found in insects. Contamination of insects with pathogens to human health is a consequence of a combination of the substrates used and the farming and processing steps applied. Insects harbor a wide variety of microorganisms, and some human pathogenic bacteria may be present. In addition, insects may harbor and transmit parasites. There is no evidence so far insects may harbor pathogenic viruses or prions, but they may act as vectors. Insects and insect‐derived products may have allergenic potential. In this review, evidence on some safety aspects is displayed, and data gaps are identified. Recommendations are given for future research to fill the most relevant data gaps.
Both the means by which we produce our food and our eating habits influence some of the most important environmental problems of our planet. The most exploited livestock for the past 50 years has been cattle, which are fed primarily on maize to increase production. However, this combination of maize and cattle is inefficient in ecological terms. Producing and consuming proteins from animals with more efficient biomass and energy conversions could help to solve certain environmental problems. For instance, insects that are considered pests in agricultural systems - including, specifically, the Orthoptera species - may be excellent candidates as protein sources. This work analyses the feed conversion ratio (FCR) of the three types of livestock that are most widely bred worldwide: cattle, pigs, and poultry. It then compares these results with those of potential minilivestock from the Orthoptera species that are more abundant in agroecosystems. Based on the calculated FCRs (cow:pork:poultry:grasshopper pests and insects grown on farms; 10:6:2:4:1.7), we project that reducing beef production by half could significantly lower greenhouse gas emissions and the maize sowing hectares destined for feed (2.1-2.9×10⁷ ha), while simultaneously releasing maize for human consumption. Additionally, consuming insect-based protein could reduce pollution problems by decreasing insecticide use (by at least 7×10⁷ l). Though a comprehensive solution to current environmental problems (e.g. global warming), will require coordinated global effort (e.g. to replace fossil fuels), there is one way that everyone can contribute: eating grasshopper burgers instead of beef burgers.