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Approaching Ecological Sustainability in the Emerging Insects-as-Food Industry
Abstract
The emerging insects-as-food industry is increasingly promoted as a sustain- able alternative to other animal protein production systems. However, the exact nature of its environmental benefits are uncertain because of the overwhelming lack of knowledge concerning almost every aspect of production: from suitable species, their housing and feed requirements, and potential for accidental release. If ecological sustainability is to be a hallmark of mass insect rearing for consumption, ecologists need to engage in research related to sustainability criteria that are directly linked to key elements of the development of the industry. There is more to this subject than simply comparing feed-conversion ratios (FCRs) of insects to traditional livestock production, and we highlight areas where research needs to be immediately focused.
... For instance, where insects eat feed-grade products and are then themselves used as feed, insect farming may increase the environmental footprint of our food system by introducing an additional step in the food production chain. More broadly, many factors influence the efficiency of insect production, including insect species, composition of the feed used for insects, production methods, and end use (Liverød, 2019;Berggren, Jansson & Low, 2019;Smetana, Spykman & Heinz, 2021b;Smetana et al., 2023a). ...
... In the event of diseases, entire insect populations in farms may need to be eradicated. The future of disease management in insect farming remains uncertain (Maciel-Vergara & Ros, 2017;Berggren et al., 2019), although in a recent survey of industry stakeholders, this issue is "considered of medium concern relative to other 'operational' barriers" (Niyonsaba et al., 2023b). Antibiotics could be used, but it is unclear whether this would be effective or desirable, considering the risk of antimicrobial resistance (Suckling et al., 2020). ...
... Additionally, the impacts of frass "vary significantly depending on the substrate used to grow larvae" (Gebremikael et al., 2020). While several studies indicate that frass can increase yield, others reported negative growth, probably associated with the phytotoxicity of the frass (Kagata & Ohgushi, 2012;Alattar, Alattar & Popa, 2016;Berggren et al., 2019;Lopes, Yong & Lalander, 2022). Some studies suggest that replacing chemical fertilisers with frass reduces environmental impacts in some categories (Smetana et al., 2019;Schmitt & de Vries, 2020). ...
Humanity's food system has an immense environmental impact, and insects have been frequently proposed as a more environmentally sustainable option. The industrialised farming of insects for livestock feed and human food has attracted the attention of industry, policymakers, and the scientific community. However, many of the benefits commonly mentioned by companies and proponents of insect farming are challenged by current scientific evidence. This review examines the evidence used to assess insect farming's environmental benefits and drawbacks for both human food and animal feed. Significant knowledge gaps remain. Most studies have been conducted in small-scale settings, which may not accurately reflect real-world, industrial conditions. There are significant uncertainties, with many authors highlighting the fact that the future environmental impact of large-scale insect production is largely unknown. This is especially true given claims that insects can be fed on food waste and that insect frass can be used as fertiliser, both of which have considerable challenges to overcome at scale. Lastly, most insect based foods replace plant-based products with limited environmental impact rather than meat, and several studies indicate that insects-based feeds and pet food can have a larger environmental impact than conventional products. By providing a comprehensive overview, this review highlights key areas for further research and ensures policymakers have a clearer picture of the remaining uncertainties surrounding this emerging industry.
... Insects are generally high in protein, vitamins, and minerals (Finke, 2002;Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013;Payne et al., 2016;Weru et al., 2021), and their production requires considerably less resources than other protein sources such as beef or chicken (Wegier et al., 2018;Berggren et al., 2019). Insects have the potential to replace traditional protein sources that are strongly relied upon by farmers and in the aquafeed industry, such as fishmeal and soybean meal (Maiolo et al., 2021). ...
... Insects, a sustainable and nutritious alternative protein source, are one potential solution to this problem. Insects are generally high in protein, vitamins, and minerals (Finke, 2002;Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013;Payne et al., 2016;Weru et al., 2021), and their production requires considerably less resources than other protein sources such as beef or chicken (Wegier et al., 2018;Berggren et al., 2019). Crickets are one of the most common insects raised for food and feed (Magara et al., 2021), and are used principally by the petfood and aquafeed markets (de Jong and Nikolik, 2021; van Huis, 2022). ...
Insects, a sustainable and nutritious alternative protein source, are one potential solution to mitigating food insecurity. North America and Europe are currently experiencing the rapid development of the insects as food and feed industry, with some companies focused on farming crickets for human food and agricultural feed. Increasing yield is a primary goal of agricultural research. Yield is a measurement of product harvested per unit area, and cricket farms struggle with how best to do this at a scale of billions of crickets required for a farming environment without the costs of additional labour. I argue that yield can be thought of as a function of survival and body size at and development time to adulthood. In this thesis, I have used a multi-faceted approach to explore how diet can manipulate growth, development time to adulthood, and survival of Gryllodes sigillatus. My findings revealed that a 15% dietary supplementation with royal jelly elicited a sex-specific increase in mass; females fed the royal jelly diet were 30% heavier, and this effect was driven by significantly longer abdomens containing 67% more eggs compared to those fed the basal diet. I also demonstrate that manipulation of protein and carbohydrate availability can optimize growth and development of G. sigillatus; yield was maximized on a 3P:1C diet, as crickets fed this diet were most likely to develop into adults and grew maximum mass and body size. Similarly, I show that the physical attributes of diet can also exert strong influences on life history; crickets fed a large particle size diet grew larger and heavier faster compared to crickets fed a small particle size diet, and crickets also demonstrated a preference for medium and large size diet throughout development. Finally, I present the first recorded results detailing the pest-beneficial interactions between dermestids and farmed crickets; crickets experienced delayed growth early in life after living with dermestids, but crickets can tolerate living with, and consuming, dermestid larvae. Overall, my findings suggest that dietary supplementation, macronutrient ratio, diet particle size, and pest interactions all contribute to variation in cricket life history traits important to production yield.
... However, there are some concerns about the ecological consequences of the escape of farmed insects [96][97][98][99][100] as the escaping of farmed insects can impact the ecosystem in the area [101]. The BSF is non-native insect species in many European countries due to the climate but there are some evidence that they could establish in these countries under certain conditions especially due to climate change [99,102,103]. ...
... However, there are some concerns about the ecological consequences of the escape of farmed insects [96][97][98][99][100] as the escaping of farmed insects can impact the ecosystem in the area [101]. The BSF is non-native insect species in many European countries due to the climate but there are some evidence that they could establish in these countries under certain conditions especially due to climate change [99,102,103]. This is however, not believed to be a threat in Iceland due to too cold climate [2]. ...
In this review, the multifaceted issue of food security is addressed, emphasizing the need for innovative and culturally appropriate solutions. Exploring insect livestock farming emerges as a potential remedy, offering a pathway to alleviate food insecurity and promote food sovereignty, particularly when integrated with social acceptability. Stakeholder engagement on both production and consumption fronts, coupled with sustained support, is vital for successful implementation. The expanding landscape of commercial insect farming in the West prompts questions about its broader scalability and equitable deployment, especially for vulnerable populations. Existing research gaps underscore the need for a coordinated effort across international, national, and legal frameworks to effectively integrate insect farming into existing agricultural systems. In this review, we have delved into the industrial-scale production processes of mealworms and black soldier flies (BSFs), known for their high protein content and organic waste conversion, covering small and industrial cultivation methods, offering insights into mealworm production life cycles, innovative rearing systems, and harvesting techniques. This review concludes with climate-specific recommendations for insect facilities, stressing the importance of sustainable practices, continuous research and development, effective market strategies and economic feasibilities in Iceland. In the context of escalating demand for sustainable protein sources, industrial-scale insect production emerges as a pivotal player in addressing global food security challenges.
... In recent years, experts in the food industry have considered insects as a future food source Berggren et al. (2018). Insects have a rapid reproduction ability, require minimal land, and are highly nutritious, especially protein (Katayama et al., 2007;Nijdam et al., 2012;Premalatha et al., 2011). ...
Black soldier fly (BSF) larvae are known for their rich nutritional profile, particularly in protein, essential fatty
acids, and micronutrients. Incorporating BSF larvae flour into food products offers a promising avenue to improve
dietary intake. This research aimed to utilize the nutritional content of BSF larvae as food to prevent stunting by
examining the effect of BSF larvae flour formulation on cookies characteristics and determine BSF cookies that
comply with the Indonesian National Standard (SNI) and are accepted by consumers. The research was designed
using a completely randomized design (CRD) with BSF larvae flour formulation (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and
25%). The observed variables were proximate characteristics, color characteristics with L*, a*, and b*, and overall
consumer acceptability with scoring and hedonic tests. The results showed that the formulation of BSF larvae flour
greatly influenced the proximate characteristics of BSF cookies. These cookies had the following characteristics:
moisture content of 3.57%, ash content of 1.5%, crude fat content of 9.64%, crude protein content of 14.40%, crude
fiber content of 1.48%, carbohydrate content of 70.01%, and a total plate count (TPC) of 731.7 cfu/g. The color
metrics were L* of 31.60, a* of 8.00, and b* of 37.60, indicating a reddish-brown hue. Products that comply with
the Indonesian National Standard (SNI) were cookies with formulations of 5% and 10% BSF flour. The best product
based on sensory and physicochemical properties was the cookies with 10% BSF flour formulation. This product
met the SNI requirements, displaying a reddish-brown color intensity and normal texture, and was generally liked
in terms of overall acceptance.
... Likewise, additional research is needed to better understand the nutrient release rate from frass, crop responses in soils with sub-optimal nutrient availability, as well as the combined use of frass with mineral N and K fertilizer sources for a balanced nutrient supply. As stressed by Berggren et al. 35 , exploring and optimizing the use of frass fertilizer is needed prior to industry upscaling and largescale producer adoption. This is also needed given the urgent necessity to find cost-effective, regional, and environmental-friendly alternatives to conventional mineral fertilizers whose production relies on fossil fuels and finite resources 36 . ...
Insect farming is expected to increase in coming years, thus generating high quantities of frass (insect excreta). Frass valorization hinges on basic agronomic research prior to industry upscaling. Here, we investigated soil physiochemical properties, SMAF (Soil Management Assessment Framework) soil health, CO2 efflux, and bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.] yield and quality as affected by yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) frass [3400 and 6800 kg ha⁻¹, low (LF) and high (HF) rates], poultry litter (PL; 3400 kg ha⁻¹), and ammonium nitrate (AN; 67 kg N ha⁻¹). HF increased soil C, N, P, K, and Mg by 10, 12, 44, 58, and 61%, respectively, compared to AN. Even LF increased soil P, K, and Mg by 37, 31, and 32%, respectively, relative to AN. Compared to PL, HF increased soil N, K, and Mg by 12, 30, and 35%, respectively. After two years, HF increased soil C and N stocks 2- and 3-fold, respectively, relative to AN. Forage yield and quality were similar among amendments, while SMAF and CO2 were unaffected. Frass substantially improved soil fertility and maintained forage yield, underscoring its biofertilizer value and potential to increase circularity in agroecosystems under the global backdrop of reduced availability of non-renewable fertilizers.
... As outlined above, environmental/ecology sustainability is the most studied aspect related to the sustainability of farmed insects. This is because insects consume fewer resources per output of animal protein produced or body mass gained at a significant level [42]. In this context, there are key physiological and biological differences between conventional livestock species and insects that positively contribute to the lower environmental impact derived from insect production. ...
Farmed edible insects are considered a potential resource to help address food security concerns toward the year 2050. The sustainability (e.g., lower environmental impact), nutritional (e.g., high-quality proteins, essential amino acids, fiber, unsaturated fats, vitamins, and minerals) and health (e.g., antioxidant, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory) benefits are the main reasons for the rise in interest for insects as alternative protein sources for food and feed production. Thus, edible insects can address the future global protein demand of an ever-increasing world population. In this context, several aspects related to their sustainability have been explored and addressed from an environmental perspective. This review describes the rationale for using insects as alternative protein sources and provides a comprehensive viewpoint, integrating economic, environmental, and social aspects into their sustainability framework toward addressing food insecurity concerns. For example, edible insects offer a more sustainable protein source comparable to, or even better than, that of conventional livestock. Considering their sustainability advantages, insects are noted for their lower impact on natural resources (e.g., water and agrarian land) and lower greenhouse gas emissions (e.g., carbon dioxide and methane). From a socioeconomic point of view, edible insects have lower production costs compared to conventional animal protein sources because of their high feed efficiency conversion, rapid growth rate, and short life cycles. Currently, the market for edible, farmed insects is becoming a significant economic activity that not only meets the needs of industry and consumers but also supports the ability of future generations to maintain a secure and sustainable community.
... Many companies began selling frass as a new alternative to conventional fertilizer, yet there is limited information on frass and its ability to improve plant growth, and research is urgently needed (Berggren et al., 2019, Poveda et al., 2019. Current research suggests that mealworm frass, based on the feed given to the mealworms, can contain plant growth promoters (Poveda et al., 2019). ...
... The diversity of edible insects in the Global South offers a range of environmental, social, and economic opportunities (Barragán-Fonseca and Llauradó, 2024;Berggren et al., 2019). Research and bioprospecting -seeking nature-based solutions -would facilitate taking advantage of these opportunities. ...
Clear differences exist between the Global South and the Global North with respect to economic development. The majority of small and medium-sized insect production farms are located in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, which face challenges to food production and organic waste management in general. These regions have a long history of insect use, as well as environmental advantages, making production of insects in general - and the black soldier fly in particular - a promising option for sustainable food production and organic waste management. This study aimed to identify the current state of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) production in the Global South. The results of a survey and a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) Analysis are presented; responses were obtained from 33 of the 100 insect producers contacted: 14 in Africa, 4 in Latin America, and 15 in Asia. Their responses indicate that although insects have great potential and can help meet many of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) thanks to their ecosystem services they provide - which is one of the main reasons producers engage in their production, significant challenges exist to the sustainability of insect farming, including lack of an adequate regulatory framework, an unstable supply of raw materials, market instability, and lack of adequate technology for operational scaling. Global collaboration among all stakeholders is crucial to overcoming these challenges.
... Insects, a sustainable and nutritious alternative protein source, are one potential solution to this problem. Insects are generally high in protein, vitamins and minerals [3][4][5][6], and their production requires considerably less resources than other protein sources such as beef or chicken [7,8]. Crickets are one of the most common insects raised for food and feed [9] and used principally by the pet food and aquafeed markets [10,11]. ...
Increasing yield is a primary goal of mass insect rearing for food and feed, and diet impacts insect life-history traits that affect yield, such as survival, development time and body size. However, experiments rarely test the nutritional requirements of insects from hatch to adulthood, and so little is known about how the full developmental macronutrient intake impacts the survival, growth and adult body size of mass-reared insects. Here, we applied the nutritional geometry framework and reared individual tropical house crickets (Gryllodes sigillatus) from hatch to adulthood on a wide range of protein : carbohydrate diets. We measured weekly food consumption, survival, development time to adulthood and adult body size and mass, and calculated a yield metric to extrapolate our individual-level results and predict how diet influences yield at the mass-rearing level. Yield was maximized on a 3P : 1C diet, as crickets fed this diet were most likely to develop into adults and grew maximum mass and body size. When provided with a choice between diets, crickets selected a relatively balanced 1.05P : 1C diet throughout development, but males consumed 17% more protein than females. Our results represent a crucial first step towards determining the optimal standard feed formulation required to maximize cricket farming yield.
... Additionally, as cold-blooded animals, edible insects require less energy to maintain body temperature, resulting in high resource efficiency. This is particularly evident in their feed conversion ratio (FCR): while the FCR for cattle ranges from 2.7 to 8.8, depending on diet and life stage, the FCR for mealworms in the larval stage is 2.2-5.3, and for house crickets in the nymphal stage, it is 1.6-4.5, indicating excellent feed conversion efficiency (Berggren et al., 2019). ...
The expansion of alternative food industries, including cultured meat, is often promoted as a strategy to reduce environmental pollution, particularly greenhouse gas emissions. However, comprehensive data on the environmental impacts of these industries remains limited. This study examines the environmental impacts of traditional meat and meat substitute production, highlighting their respective advantages and disadvantages. Our findings indicate that meat substitute production generally has a lower environmental impact compared to traditional livestock farming. However, it is challenging to quantify the extent to which meat substitutes can reduce the environmental impacts of traditional livestock products, as both sectors produce different pollution measurements depending on the criteria used. Moreover, the growth of the meat substitute market has been significantly smaller compared to that of the traditional livestock products market, limiting the availability of accurate data on the environmental impacts of meat substitute production. Therefore, assumptions that the meat substitute market will eventually surpass the traditional livestock market and reduce environmental pollution require caution. Continuous and in-depth research is crucial to fully understand the long-term environmental impacts of meat substitutes. Furthermore, enhancing the quality of alternative meat substitutes should be prioritized to increase their overall acceptability and facilitate technological advancements in alternative protein production before it becomes a sustainable food production system.
... In recent years entomophagy has attracted particular interest [9], both because of the curiosity it generates [10], but also because insect products typically have a good nutritional profile [11] allowing at the same time to recycle organic matter [12] which is used for their sustenance. In addition, the production process has a much lower environmental impact than other sources of animal protein, in terms of greenhouse emissions, land use, and water footprints [13]. ...
Background: Although insect-based foods (IBF) have been recently proposed as a way to face climate crisis and starvation, they encounter the aversion from Western countries which perceive fear, disgust, and high risk. The contribution of psychology research to food choices highlighted how decisions are taken not only through reasoned attitudes and goal-directed behavior, but also through more automatic associations (dual-systems models). Methods: In this paper we investigated people’s disposition towards IBF by combining (a) explicit attitudes (as assessed via self-report scales), (b) automatic associations (as measured via indirect measures), (c) intention to taste, and comparing different profiles based on (d) psychological factors, including decision-making style, food neophobia, and trust in science and scientist. A pilot sample of 175 Italian University students participated in the study. Results: The analyses on the general sample highlighted rather negative attitudes. The cluster analysis identified 4 decision-making profiles: “the gut-feeling”, “the suspicious”, “the vicarious”, and “the mind”. It revealed more favorable opinions in “the mind” profile, characterized by a rational decision-making style and high trust in science, and very aversive reactions from “the suspicious” profile, characterized by high food neophobia and low trust in science. Conclusions: The results underline the importance of psychological factors in interpreting people's reactions to IBF and changes in dietary habits based on the decision-making process. They suggest possible strategies to promote eco-friendly diets
... In recent years, entomophagy has attracted particular interest [9], not only because of the curiosity it generates [10], but also because insect products typically have a good nutritional profile [11], allowing us at the same time to recycle organic matter [12], which is used for their sustenance. In addition, the production process has a much lower environmental impact than other sources of animal protein in terms of greenhouse emission, land use, and water footprints [13]. ...
Background: Although insect-based foods (IBFs) have been recently proposed as a way to face climate crisis and starvation, they encounter aversion from Western countries, which express fear, disgust, and high risk. The contribution of psychology research to food choices highlights how decisions are made, not only through reasoned attitudes and goal-directed behavior, but also through more automatic associations (dual-system models). Methods: In this paper, we investigated people’s dispositions towards IBFs by combining (a) explicit attitudes (as assessed via self-report scales), (b) automatic associations (as measured via indirect measures), and (c) intention to taste, and comparing different profiles based on (d) psychological factors, including decision-making style, food neophobia, and trust in science and scientist. A pilot sample of 175 Italian university students participated in the study. Results: The analyses of the general sample highlighted rather negative attitudes. The cluster analysis identified 4 decision-making profiles: ‘the gut feeling’, ‘the suspicious’, ‘the vicarious’, and ‘the mind’. It revealed more favorable opinions in ‘the mind’ profile, characterized by a rational decision-making style and high trust in science, and very aversive reactions from ‘the suspicious’ profile, characterized by high food neophobia and low trust in science. Conclusions: The results underline the importance of psychological factors in interpreting people’s reactions to IBF and changes in dietary habits based on the decision-making process. They suggest possible strategies to promote eco-friendly diets.
... Regarding proteins from insects, the study by Smetana [29] carried out in Germany states that insects have recently become a viable alternative to food proteins in Western countries, being in full progression due to the high conversion rate of protein foods and potentially low environmental impact [28] and low impact on land use [29]. In the Swedish study by Berggren [30], the authors questioned the insect industry on how the food would be considered ecologically correct, and they drew attention to the empirical measure of ecological impact and sustainability between different insect production systems. ...
Sustainable food practices are intrinsically linked to human nutrition in the preservation of the ecosystem. This study, therefore, evaluates the effectiveness, challenges, environmental impacts, and new food strategies related to plant and animal products, with a view to promoting more sustainable and healthy eating practices. The search stages were conducted using the following databases: PubMed, Science Direct, and SciElo. The studies selected included those published from 2018 to 2024 and government documents, available in English, Portuguese, and Spanish. The 34 articles analyzed in this study showed the environmental impacts related to the production of plant and animal proteins, highlighting the urgency of implementing changes in this sector. However, factors such as land use, carbon footprint, and water footprint show remarkable differences depending on the type of crop cultivated, agricultural practices adopted, and stages involved in the supply chain. As final considerations, the analysis suggests that achieving sustainability in food systems requires an integrate approach that combines the optimization of plant protein production with a reduction in environmental impacts and the development of technologies that that support the efficiency and resilience of the industry. Meeting the nutritional needs of the population in a sustainable way will only be possible through regional actions and a deep understanding of the challenges and opportunities.
... 4. Are there likely to be significant negaƟve human or environmental impacts to farming the novel species? It is noted, for example, that there are concerns raised about the environmental impacts of farming insects for human or animal feed (Berggren et al., 2019;Jones, 2023;Tran et al., 2022) and that, although scatter-feeding whole larvae provides positive experiences for chickens even in intensive and barren environments (Ipema et al., 2020a(Ipema et al., , 2020b if this practice were to further 'prop-up' intensive chicken farming, slowing change to more animal-welfare-friendly systems, this could be considered a significant negative impact on sentient animals and therefore should be avoided under the framework. Evaluation of the impact on a whole farming system is a 'hard to estimate' type of evidence but given the consequentialist nature of the framework, efforts should be made to ascertain all possible outcomes. ...
More widespread farming of species not typically used as livestock may be part of a sustainable approach for promoting human health and economic prosperity in a world with an increasing population; a current example is peccary farming in the Neotropics. Others have argued that species that are local to a region and which are usually not farmed should be considered for use as livestock. They may have a more desirable nutrient profile than species that are presently used as livestock. It may also reduce the pressure from hunting on other wild species, and cause less environmental damage than exotic species. We propose a sentiocentric utilitarian framework that could be used to decide whether species that are local, but generally not used as livestock, should be farmed. To illustrate the use of our decision-making framework, we employ two contrasting neotropical case studies: the Spotted Paca (Cuniculus paca) and the Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris). We argue that it may be acceptable to use non-sentient species that are typically not farmed as livestock. However, research should determine whether farming them offers human, environmental or sustainability benefits. In addition, we recommend that if invertebrate species are considered for farming, research should be conducted to determine the likelihood that they are sentient. Finally, given the ethical failings of current livestock farming practices, we argue that a high bar must be met if ‘new’ species that are sentient are to be farmed.
... Animal feed can include supplements like fish meal, bone meal, blood, and various plant proteins from sources such as sunflower, soybean, and cotton seedcake. [51][52][53] During the rainy seasons in many parts of Western and Eastern Africa, termites are gathered as they come out of holes in the ground. This typically happens between April and October in Western Kenya. ...
Climate change not only fringes rising average temperatures but shifting wildlife populations, rising seas, extreme weather events and other impacts. These changes are due to addition of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere due to impact of human activities. One of the important human activities which are a major contributor of greenhouse gas is Animal Agriculture. Meat consumption is responsible for releasing greenhouse gases such as methane, CO, and nitrous oxide. Livestock production accounts for 14.5% of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, with beef having the highest footprint due to large amounts of methane that an average cow produces. Agriculture accounts for 92% of the freshwater footprint of humanity; almost 35% relates to animal farming. The production of meat is directly and indirectly related to the loss of forests in South America, Amazon Rainforest and other areas of Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay. And many species face extinction or are under threat due to the destruction of natural environments. Sustainable alternative to going meat-free is entomophagy or insect farming which produces about 100 times less greenhouse gases per kg of mass organism gain. Edible insects like grasshoppers, crickets and mealworms are rich in protein and contain significantly higher sources of minerals such as iron, zinc, copper, and magnesium than beef. Regardless of its environmental benefits, entomophagy comes with its unique set of challenges.
... Protein meals from terrestrial animals, such as black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) meal (HIM) and poultry by-product meal (PBM), appear to be promising replacements for conventional raw materials in diets for carnivorous fishes [9,10]. Both HIM and PBM are not directly intended for human consumption, and their production has a low environmental footprint [11,12]. In addition, the nutritional profile of HIM is similar to that of FM [13,14], and PBM is readily available on the market [15]. ...
Simple Summary
After a decade of research about the use of insects as fish feed, this paper reports the results of a large-scale trial on European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) farmed under commercial conditions. Fish were fed an experimental diet containing 10% Hermetia illucens larva meal, 30% poultry by-product meal, and <5.5 g/100 g of feed of marine proteins. The results highlight that fish growth performances and the flesh quality of sea bass fed the experimental diet were similar to those of fish fed a commercial diet containing fish meal and fish oil. This study suggests that a diet rich in plant proteins, in which H. illucens and poultry by-products are also included, may be a viable alternative to existing aquafeeds for marine species.
Abstract
Protein meals from insects in combination with poultry by-product meal appear to be promising ingredients for replacing conventional proteins in the diets of carnivorous fish. The present study explored the effects on growth performance, hepatic enzymatic activity, and fillet physical and nutritional characteristics during a 66-day feeding trial performed on European seabass. A total of 3000 fish were distributed into three tanks, where the control group was fed with a commercial diet (CG) and a second group was fed in duplicate with the experimental diet (SSH) containing 10% Hermetia illucens larva meal, 30% poultry by-product meal, and <5.5 g/100 g of feed of marine origin proteins. All fish showed good growth performance. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, aspartate aminotransferase, and 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase activities were higher in the SSH group than in the CG group. The fillet fatty acid profile was largely unaffected by diet, except for a few fatty acids. Fish fed the SSH diet had a lower C22:1n-11 content than CG, thus suggesting an increased β-oxidation. The oxidative status of muscle lipids was not affected by the diet. In conclusion, the present study showed that European seabass can be successfully fed the SSH diet for two months in a commercial setting.
... 세계 인구는 2050년에 100억 명에 이를 것으로 예상되며 식량문제를 해결하기 위해서는 자원 및 에너지 효율성을 높이고 지속 가능한 바이오 기반 순환 경제 전략이 필요하다 (FAO, 2018;Chen et al., 2020). 육류 단백질 요구량은 2050년이 되면 현재보다 75% 이상 증가하여 대체 단백질 생산을 위한 식용곤충 산업이 활성화 될 것으로 예상된다 (Berggren et al., 2019;Houben et al., 2020;Nikkhah et al., 2021). ...
... Due to the rapid development of insect farming and the conversion of leftover substrates into fertilizers, the fertilizing potential of frass should be explored to ensure that insect wastes can be safely used [9,29]. Insect feed should be monitored to obtain safe frass for the environment. ...
The aim of this incubation experiment was to evaluate the effect of Tenebrio molitor L. frass on selected chemical and microbiological properties of acid peat. The optimal rate of mealworm frass in the substrate for growing ornamental trees and shrubs was determined. Acid peat was fertilized with frass or urea at five nitrogen (N) rates: 0, 50, 100, 200, and 400 mg dm⁻³. Mineral N content and electrical conductivity increased, and calcium content decreased in peat with increasing N rates. Similarly to urea, frass increased the ammonification rate at the beginning of incubation and the nitrification rate from the second week of incubation. Higher frass rates increased the abundance of plant-available nutrients (N, P, Mg, K, and Na) in acid peat. Frass undesirably decreased the counts of bacteria with antagonistic activity against soil-borne plant pathogens. Regarding the abundance of functional genes, the optimal N rate was 100 mg dm⁻³, which promoted the growth of N-fixing and chitinolytic bacteria. Higher N rates promoted the development of aerobic spore-forming bacteria, which produce antibiotics that can be used as biocontrol agents. Moderate fertilizer rates contributed to N accumulation in bacterial biomass. These preliminary findings, which indicate that insect frass can partially replace mineral fertilizers, are promising and can be used in pot and field experiments testing various plant species.
... A plethora of waste streams has been explored, including spent grains, beer yeast, potato peelings, waste plant tissues and grocery store food waste after aerobic enzymatic digestion [49][50][51] . Some of these sources require additional processing to ensure their microbiological safety before being used as insect feeds, but few economic evaluations exist on this aspect 35,52 . ...
Food consumption play a crucial role in human life, yet conventional food production and consumption patterns can be detrimental to the environment. Thus, research and development has been directed towards alternative proteins, with edible insects being promising sources. Edible insects have been recognised for their sustainable benefits providing protein, with less emission of greenhouse gas, land and water usage compared to sources, such as beef, chicken, and dairy products. Among the over 2000 known edible insect species, only four, namely yellow mealworm ( Tenebrio molitor) , migratory locust/grasshopper (Locusta migratoria) , grain mould beetle, also known as lesser mealworm which is a larval form of Alphitobius diaperinus (from the family of Tenebrionidae of darkling beetles) and house cricket (Acheta domesticus) , are currently authorised in specific products through specific producers in the EU. The expansion of such foods into Western diets face challenges such as consumer barriers, gaps in microbiological and chemical safety hazard data during production and processing, and the potential for fraudulent supply chain activity. The main aim of this study was to map the supply chain, through interviews with personnel along the supply chain, coupled with searches for relevant publications and governmental documents. Thus, the main potential points of food safety and fraud along the edible insect supply chain were identified. Feed substrate was identified as the main area of concern regarding microbiological and chemical food safety and novel processing techniques were forecast to be of most concern for future fraudulent activity. Despite the on-going authorisation of insect species in many countries there are substantial food safety and authenticity information gaps in this industry that need to be addressed before edible insects can be viewed as a safe and sustainable protein sources by Western consumers.
... Although this is often used as an argument to promote this sector as a sustainable alternative to conventional protein sources, apart from the use of side streams as feed, there is actually little research into, for example, energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions during rearing and processing. These are parameters that are not only important for the image of the sector but extremely important information for companies when applying for environmental permits (Berggren et al., 2019). ...
Insects have the potential to form the basis of a sustainable value chain that plays a key role in the transition to a biobased economy. Numerous companies recognize the potential of insects, but immediate application on an industrial scale is hampered by several obstacles such as regulatory uncertainties and the need for support to upscale their processes. Another challenge is that only limited information is available on industrial insect rearing, and the information that is freely available often comes from small-scale research. Translating the research findings of that small-scale research to industrial scale is often cumbersome. In Belgium, KU Leuven and Thomas More in collaboration with VITO started doing research on insect rearing and processing about a decade ago. They recognized the need to add expertise on pilot scale, aside from their research on laboratory scale, as an intermediate step towards industrial production. The realisation of the Insect Pilot Plant in Belgium has enabled their ambition to offer such solutions at pilot scale. Additional benefit of having this pilot facility is that increased reliability and flexibility that comes with it enables the standardisation of all experiments, lab-scale as well as pilot scale, further increasing the expertise of the research centres involved and their ability to transfer that expertise to the sector.
... Insects have great potential for several reasons: (i) their nutritional value, (ii) their feed conversion efficiency, (iii) the small space required for cultivation and (iv) because they are almost omnivorous, they can grow on diverse substrates (Pinotti et al., 2019;Berggren et al., 2019;Bajuk et al., 2021). Insect proteins have nutritional advantages in terms of their total protein content and/or essential amino acid profile over plant proteins, e.g. ...
... Insects have great potential for several reasons: (i) their nutritional value, (ii) their feed conversion efficiency, (iii) the small space required for cultivation and (iv) because they are almost omnivorous, they can grow on diverse substrates (Pinotti et al., 2019;Berggren et al., 2019;Bajuk et al., 2021). Insect proteins have nutritional advantages in terms of their total protein content and/or essential amino acid profile over plant proteins, e.g. ...
The aim of this study was to evaluate the haematological and biochemical parameters of dogs submitted to different levels of inclusion of mealworm meal (0, 2.5, 5 and 7.5%) in their diet. Four adult females aged 5 years, castrated, with an average weight of 15.8 kg were used. A Latin square design was used, with 4 treatments and 4 replications. The base diets were calculated based on the NRC and provided in the proportion of 80% dry food and 20% wet food. The animals were dewormed, clinically evaluated and adapted to the base diet for 10 days prior to the insertion of me. After fitting, blood was collected for evaluation of haematological and biochemical parameters. The experimental period of each treatment was 14 days, with a new blood collection on the 15th day, with the animals in the fasted state. The blood parameters evaluated were blood count and biochemical tests, composed of urea, creatinine, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol, total proteins and their fractions, glucose, triglycerides, C-reactive protein, fibrinogen and immunoglobulin E. The data obtained were subjected to multiple analysis of variance at the 5% significance level. The results showed that none of the mealworm protein inclusion levels showed blood alterations. Therefore, it can be concluded that the use of mealworm meal did not harm the health of the animals tested in experiment, showing that it can be an alternative protein source and can be safely included up to a level of 7.5% in dog foods.
... Therefore, ecological studies on selecting safe species for domestication and consumption must go hand in hand with research on the nutritional content and safety of insects for food and feed applications. Concerns have also been raised about the threat of ecosystem imbalance from insects that escape from insect farms [101]. ...
Hunger (811 million people, 2020) and food waste (931 million tonnes annually, 2020) are long-standing interconnected challenges that have plagued humankind for centuries. Food waste originates from various sources, including consumption habits and failures within the food supply chain. Given the growing concerns regarding food insecurity, malnutrition, and hunger, there is a pressing need to recover and repurpose as much food waste as possible. A growing body of knowledge identifies the valorisation (including upcycling) of food waste as one of the strategies to fight hunger by positively impacting food availability and food security. This paper evaluates the potential role of food waste valorisation, including upcycling, in reducing global hunger. A literature search was conducted to examine how converting food waste into value-added products, such as food formulations and farming inputs, can contribute to increasing food availability. The benefits of waste-to-food operations in improving food availability through producing food ingredients and products from materials that would have been wasted or discarded otherwise were discussed.
... 식용곤충의 하나인 갈색 거저리 유충 (Tenebrio molitor larvae)은 식용, 사료용, 기능성 소재 등의 원료로 활용되고 있다 (Jo et al., 2021;Jang et al., 2022;Kim et al., 2022aKim et al., , 2022bFan et al., 2023). 인구가 급속하게 증가하면서 2050년이 되면 육류 단백질 요 구량은 현재보다 75% 이상 증가하여 식용곤충을 이용한 대체 단백질 생산이 많아지고 곤충 배설물도 대량으로 생성 될 것으로 예상된다 (Berggren et al., 2019;Houben et al., 2020). 이러한 영향으로 곤충 배설물이 작물 양분관리를 위 한 유망한 자원으로 고려되고 있다 (Houben et al., 2020;Chavez and Uchanski, 2021;Joung et al., 2022aJoung et al., , 2022b. ...
... In commercially reared insects, development time, reproductive capacity, and growth are crucial for successful production (Berggren et al., 2019;Cadinu et al., 2020). Therefore, optimal larval densities and other environmental conditions, such as humidity and temperature just to mention a few, must be applied in production processes (Barragan-Fonseca et al., 2017). ...
Organisms are expected to invest more in their immune function when the risk of disease infection is high.
However, induction of a robust immune response is costly and may not be achievable in suboptimal environments.
High conspecific density could simultaneously imply high infection risk and a suboptimal environment for many
insect species. We focus on the economically important dipteran species (black soldier fly, BSF) that represents the
insect order that has been ignored in previous research on density effects on immunity. The experimental part of
the study was carried out to evaluate the effect of larval density (three density treatments: 1, 5 and 10 larvae/cm2)
and temperature (three thermal treatments: 23, 27 and 30 °C) on the immune function of BSF larvae. The larvae
that were reared at high compared to low larval densities and at higher than lower temperatures had significantly
higher activity of phenoloxidase, an enzyme that plays an essential role in insect immune function. Sex did not have
a significant effect on phenoloxidase activity and prepupal mass, pupal mass and adult mass were not affected by
the levels of phenoloxidase activity of fifth instar larvae. In addition, we give an overview of larval density effects on
insect immunity and show that density-dependent prophylaxis (stronger immune response in high larval density
environments) is indeed common in the results of published case studies. However, cases with no correlation between
density and immunity traits were as frequent. Moreover, in more than half of the studies, qualitatively different
within-species patterns in different immunity traits were observed. We conclude that BSF larvae exhibit densitydependent prophylaxis, and larvae invest more into their immune system at high larval densities and temperatures
than they do at low larval densities and temperatures.
... The future sustainability and environmental impact of large-scale rearing, harvesting and producing of edible insects is largely unknown and needs to be investigated in more detail in order to allow comparisons with traditional livestock raising and farming practices. In particular, suitable insect species and their requirements (feeding, housing, animal health and welfare) (Berggren et al., 2019) as well as processing, transport and storage conditions of insect-based foods need to be studied. Our knowledge of food safety in relation to insects for human consumption and of potential hazards of the intake of insects is limited. ...
... More recently, insect meal has gained attention in aquaculture nutrition [2,[12][13][14][15]. In this context, the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) has been widely considered [16][17][18][19][20][21] due to (i) a proper protein content (approximately 32%) [22] and an essential amino acid (EAA) profile close to FM [23-25]; (ii) a high feed-conversion efficiency, substrate consumption and waste reduction index of the larvae [26,27]; (iii) the ability to grow on different organic by-products [28,29]; and the low environmental impact of rearing culture (i.e., land use, water consumption and CO 2 production) [30,31]. These properties allow the application of the circular economy concept to the aquaculture sector, using for example land-produced organic by-product for insect rearing. ...
Simple Summary
To promote sustainability in aquaculture, the black soldier fly deserves special attention as an alternative ingredient for aquafeed formulation. The present study proposed the inclusion of spirulina in the growth substrate of black soldier fly prepupae to enrich their final biomass in terms of polyunsaturated fatty acids and antioxidant molecules. The obtained prepupae meal was used as a replacer of unsustainable marine-derived ingredients in diets intended for rainbow trout during a 6-week feeding trial. The results showed that fish zootechnical performances, gut and liver health status, and marketable characteristics were not negatively affected by the experimental diets.
Abstract
In the present study, an organic substrate (coffee silverskin) enriched with spirulina (Arthrospira platensis; 15% w/w), as a source of lipids and bioactive molecules, was used to rear the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) prepupae. Three grossly isonitrogenous, isoproteic, isolipidic and isoenergetic experimental diets for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) juveniles were then produced: a control diet (HM0) mostly including fish meal and fish oil, and two other test diets named HM3 and HM20, in which 3 or 20% of the marine ingredients were substituted with full fat black soldier fly prepupae meal (HM), respectively. Experimental diets were provided for 6 weeks, and at the end of the trial the physiological responses and marketable traits of the fish were investigated using a multidisciplinary approach. Generally, all test diets were well accepted, and fish growth, gut and liver health status, and marketable characteristics were not impaired by the experimental diets. However, an increased immuno-related gene expression along with a slight reduction of fillet redness and yellowness was evident in fish from the HM20 group.
Insects are crucial for the functioning of ecosystems and might be facing declines globally, although data are biased away from the tropics where insect diversity and abundance are highest. In this Review, we assess the current status of insect populations in the tropics and discuss the prevailing threats to tropical insect biodiversity. Burgeoning human populations, increasing urbanization and land-use changes are leading to habitat loss and fragmentation, as well as increased pollution, including both light and pesticides. Insects on tropical islands are particularly sensitive to invasive species, which have already led to the extinction of multiple unique endemic species. Climate change further threatens insect populations across the tropics and might be disrupting crucial weather cycles such as El Niño and La Niña, which are important drivers of phenology and synchrony at these latitudes. Tropical insect declines might alter fundamental ecosystem processes such as nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration and herbivory. Disruption of food webs could lead to increased outbreaks of pests and of insect-vectored diseases in humans and livestock, affecting human health and reducing food security. Methodological advances — including artificial intelligence and computer vision, remote sensing and meta-barcoding — are facilitating taxonomy, speeding up identification of diverse samples and improving the monitoring of tropical insect biodiversity to guide future conservation efforts.
Purpose
This paper aims to discuss the innovation challenge in the alternative protein sectors of the European Union (EU) and Australia-New Zealand (AUSNZ) by comparing their respective novel food frameworks. The study investigates which regulatory provisions stakeholders perceive as barriers to innovation and proposes measures to address these obstacles.
Design/methodology/approach
Alternative proteins are often legally classified as “novel foods” in both the EU and AUSNZ. A functional comparative legal analysis of the novel food frameworks of these two jurisdictions was conducted. Qualitative interviews with stakeholders active in the EU or AUSNZ alternative protein sectors complemented the legal analysis. The interviews aimed at gathering stakeholder perspectives on the framework within which they operate and discuss ways to foster innovation in their jurisdictions.
Findings
While the AUSNZ framework is generally perceived as more innovation-friendly, particularly regarding breakthrough innovations like cultivated meat, the EU is viewed as a challenging regulatory environment. The duration of the authorisation procedure, differing levels of communication and opportunities for dialogue between stakeholders and regulators, along with the political stances of EU member states, emerged as the main elements to explain such differences. In both jurisdictions, a lack of support for small-scale companies was identified as a key factor hindering the innovation process.
Originality/value
This study provides the first in-depth comparative analysis of the novel food frameworks in the EU and AUSNZ and explores stakeholder perceptions of their respective frameworks. Through this comparison, the study offers suggestions for enhancing both frameworks' ability to incentivise innovation in their alternative protein sectors.
Aquaculture will contribute 52% of global fish production by 2025, up from its present 47% share as per the projections. The most cultivated crustacean in the world, the Pacific white shrimp (Penaeus vannamei), accounted for 11.96% of the world’s aquaculture output in 2020 and has become a prominent species in the worldwide aquatic trade. The single most important input in aquaculture production is feed. To reach the anticipated fish production, the growth of the aquafeed sector must correspond with the advancement of aquaculture practices. Fishmeal is often thought to be the primary source of nutrient-rich protein for making aquafeed. It is not advisable to rely solely on fishmeal because of the current rise in prices brought on by a fall in supply and a rise in demand. We can therefore investigate and utilize a variety of animal protein sources in shrimp aquaculture. The many sources of animal protein covered in this chapter are as follows: insect meal, earthworm meal, silkworm pupae meal, maggot meal, fish protein hydrolysate, feather meal, poultry by-product meal, meat and bone meal, blood meal, and krill meal. Shrimps develop faster and can withstand more stress because of the high protein content of earthworm and insect meals. Shrimps’ vibrant color is enhanced by astaxanthin, a pigment found in krill meal and silkworm pupae meal. The rapid availability of amino acids, minerals, and other nutrients from different protein sources, along with the peptides from fish protein hydrolysate, support the immune system, growth, palatability, reproduction, and general health of shrimp.
Animal- and plant-based foods are considered staple foods worldwide. As the population increases, new alternative foods with higher nutritional value and sustainable nature are needed. Moreover, the current food system drastically impacts the environment and may result in unsustainability. The livestock sector significantly contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and is a major user of land and water resources. Additionally, excessive animal farming adversely affects the environment, accelerating climate change. To solve these problems, alternative and eco-friendly food resources that offer proper nutritional and health benefits are needed. Although edible insects have been used through several civilizations, they have emerged as an exciting and promising approach. Edible insects can transform various organic products into high-quality proteins with essential amino acids, including agricultural and food waste products. Edible insects are nutritionally rich and contain healthy fatty acids such as lauric acid, oleic acid, and omega 3 and 6. In addition, edible insect production requires much less resources, such as water and land, and emits significantly less greenhouse gases, thus contributing to sustainable food production. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of the nutritional profile, sustainability aspects, and health benefits of edible insects.
Food losses and waste (FLW) is considered a critical issue in the ongoing debate on the sustainability of agri-food systems. However, the scholarly literature on FLW is still geographically-biased, with more attention devoted to developed countries, even in Europe. In this context, this article analyses the state of research on FLW in the Western Balkan region (viz. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Serbia). A search performed in October 2021 on the Web of Science database returned 34 documents, and 21 eligible ones were included in the systematic review. The topical
analysis of the literature addressed causes of FLW, stages of the food supply chain, extent and magnitude of FLW, FLW and food security, economic and environmental impacts of FLW, and food waste (FW) management strategies. A central finding was the scarcity of data on FW in the Western Balkans. Moreover, the literature focused on FW at the consumer level, while food loss at other stages of the food chain was generally overlooked. There is a lack of comprehensive analyses of the economic and environmental impacts of FLW as well as its implications in terms of food and nutrition security. The quantification of FLW is generally inaccurate and based on estimates and self-reported data. The literature focuses on FW reuse and recycling (e.g., energy, compost) while other management strategies (e.g., reduction/prevention, redistribution) are rarely addressed. However, the results indicated that consumers in the Western Balkans pay attention to the FW issue, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, which is an encouraging sign that can be exploited in awareness-raising campaigns and education activities. Meanwhile, research on FLW in the Western Balkans is highly needed to fill the identified knowledge gap and provide evidence to policies dealing with the transition to sustainable food systems in the region.
The marketing of insect-derived protein has led to the development of respective legal regulations on such insects-based foods in the European Union. Despite the interest in the area of insect-based food, European researchers have paid relatively little attention to consumer attitudes and behaviors towards such products or the factors that may affect them. Attempts undertaken so far in this respect are insufficient; therefore, there is a need to continue and expand research in this field. The present study attempts to verify the following research hypotheses: H1. Attitudes towards food containing insects are related to the attributes/characteristics of these products, care for health and the natural environment, and attitudes towards novelty (neophilic/neophobic); H2. Intentions to purchase food containing insects can be predicted based on attitudes towards food from insects, product attributes, and attitudes towards environmental health and novelties. An empirical study was conducted among university students (N = 1063) by an indirect interview method using a specially designed questionnaire, via an online platform (Computer-Assisted Web Interview, CAWI) in November 2023. The questionnaire was validated by assessing the construction validity and estimating the reliability of the scales used. The study results demonstrated that the attributes of insect-based food products can influence the positive attitudes towards them and behavioral intentions to consume them, and that the strength of the impact of health quality traits is far greater than that of the organoleptic or functional traits. A negative, statistically significant value of the correlation coefficient between neophobic attitude and intention to purchase this type of food was observed. Thus, respondents without food neophobia were characterized by a positive attitude towards the purchase of foods containing edible insects in their composition.
Agriculture is faced with the need to reduce mineral fertilizers in order to reduce costs but also to meet political goals. Resilience-enhancing climate change, especially in the face of increasingly frequent and prolonged droughts, has become another issue. The dynamically increasing production of insects for feed and food purposes has become one of the answers to this challenge. This study assesses the fertilizing efficacy effect of frass derived from Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) production on lettuce (Lactuca L.) growth, including aspects such as yield, photosynthesis activity, photosystem II performance (chlorophyll fluorescence), mineral profile, and antioxidant properties. Additionally, the properties of the soil were assessed by measuring the gas exchange between the soil and the atmosphere. The lettuce plants grew under two water regimes—optimal irrigation and induced drought. The efficiency of frass fertilization was compared with the control and traditional cattle manure. The results indicate that H. illucens frass (HI frass) used as a fertilizer increased the content of essential nutrients in plants—such as potassium and iron. As the dosage of frass increased, the content of vitamin B2 (riboflavin) doubled. The plants that were subjected to drought and properly fertilized showed greater resistance; therefore, a reduction in the synthesis of polyphenolic compounds was observed. Fertilizer had a positive effect on the efficiency of photosynthesis. This study underscores the promising impact of unconventional organic fertilizers, such as H. illucens frass, on enhancing plant performance, especially in challenging environmental conditions. Fertilizers obtained from insect production can be green chemicals in a sustainable food production model.
The agri-food industry is increasingly recognizing the environmental impact of the over-exploitation of natural resources and waste production, which has prompted a search for sustainable alternatives based on circular bioeconomy principles. Insects can efficiently transform food substrates into reusable biomass, thus making them valuable contributors to a circular bioeconomy system. However, the relationship between the circular bioeconomy and the insect industry has so far appeared relatively unexplored in the existing research. To address this gap, a meta-synthesis has been conducted through a systematic literature review. By identifying the state of the art and assessing the role of insects in the transition of closed-loop systems, the aim of this research has been to shed light on the opportunities and challenges of integrating insects in circular bioeconomy strategies. The research revealed three main topics: (1) waste management by insects, i.e., the use of insects as a tool for waste management and with which to create high-value substrates; (2) insect-based feeds, namely the use of insects as alternative food sources in farming systems; (3) insect-based food acceptance by consumers. The results underscore the significant potential of this market within the circular bioeconomy context, highlighting the obstacles that need to be addressed and future strategies that could be adopted.
During the past 20 years, there has been a growing concern about how best to replace fish meals with more sustainable, cost-effective, and environment-friendly ingredients. A global crisis of high feed prices, expansion of the aquaculture sector, and the increasing proportion of farmed fish have run into a decrease in the supply of fishmeal products. Therefore, scientists have redoubled efforts to discover alternatives and more renewable ingredients for aquafeeds worldwide. The goal has been to protect ecosystems and increase economic viability based on enhanced efficiency of production facility outputs and nutritional efficiency. A key challenge though is sourcing sustainable, renewable protein ingredients. This chapter reviews the advances, novel ingredients, and new techniques that serve the mission for the future of aquafeed research on alternatives for fishmeal to achieve global aquaculture sustainability, with a focus on partial or full replacement of fishmeal, especially in the feed of tilapia.
Waste management is undergoing a rapid transformation into the waste valorization industry, with biological and chemical refining methods currently emerging as the most appealing options. To maintain competitiveness, staying well informed about the latest advancements and promptly adapting to evolving trends is essential. However, not all stakeholders have the necessary time to closely monitor and assess the intricacies associated with ever-changing regulations, customer preferences, societal concerns, post-pandemic conditions, climate change, and the various other challenges within the global market. The overarching objective of this paper is to pinpoint the most economically promising technologies, thereby encouraging a shift away from linear economic models and fostering the adoption of concepts like sustainability, social responsibility, and circularity in waste management. It is deduced that the highest potential lies in the gradual refinement of valuable components. Currently, the most promising avenues for management appear to be as follows, ranked in descending order of managerial viability: (A) The production of cleansing products and feed through insect rearing; (B) the creation of fertilizers through the regeneration of phosphorus and nitrogen; and (C) the development of cement substitutes through pyrolysis.
This chapter investigates the relationships between environmental sustainability as a movement and practice with religious motivations and drivers. The author uses a qualitative anthropological method to examine and analyze the complex interpersonal relationships, motivations, and identity-shaping processes within a Christian community in South Korea that is highly eco-aware. The chapter highlights the unique aspects of this localized religious community, such as eco-identity, solidarity, and religiosity, and how these aspects contribute to their engagement in environmental sustainability. The chapter presents a case study that showcases the connections and causality directions between local and global engagement in environmental sustainability. The study provides valuable new insights into established social movement theory and sustainability research. It contributes to the discourse on the intersection of religion and sustainability and demonstrates the relevance of religious motivations to environmental activism. Overall, it sheds light on how religious motivations can inform and contribute to contemporary environmental discourse and offers a model for future research in this field.
In the last few years, the concept of happiness economics has gained massive popularity among researchers and policy-makers. Taking GDP as an indicator that reflects the economic welfare of countries indicated “dematerializing” of the economy, also known as the coupling effect. However, the viability of GDP as the sole and unambiguous economic measure has been severely impacted. Moreover, an increased inclination toward measuring the economic welfare and not just the economic output has captured more attention paving way to happiness economics. The aim of the study is to review the research work done in the last 35 years (1987–2022) in the area pertaining to “beyond GDP.” The study includes 144 research papers from the Scopus database through a reference searching approach and identified keywords. A bibliometric-based review approach using VOSviewer and RStudio software will be used to trace and review the most influential authors, journals, and top keywords. Finally, a conceptual framework and future research avenues are suggested.KeywordsBeyond GDP Happiness economy Well-being economy Sustainability Bibliometric analysis
Proteins are one of the essential sources of human nourishment. However, lately, the food crisis is becoming more noticeable due to extraordinary and unconscious consumption habits. Also, there is another movement in human nutrition that adopts more vegetable-based foods to diminish animal origins, as also cruelty-free nutrition for sustainability. This movement contributes to an enhanced requirement for plant-based proteins. There is ongoing research to adopt a sustainable development strategy for nutritional proteins. Microalgae are one tremendous source of dietary proteins, some of them are already utilized as a single-cell protein source for functional nutrition. Microalgal proteins or protein hydrolysates have been also proven to exhibit certain bioactivities such as immunostimulant, anti-diabetic, antihypertensive, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory effects. This chapter focuses on the utilization of algal proteins as novel protein resources. Systematically, the concept and the content of the commonly used microalgal species will be deliberated.KeywordsMicroalgae Protein Sustainability Nutrition
Microbiomes live in symbiosis with their hosts at all stages of their life cycles, forming holobionts. The gut microbiome contributes to absorbing energy and affects the immune system and provides intense chemical communication and coordination of host physiological functions, characterizing the gut-brain axis. The human lifestyle promotes alterations in ecological relationships between the host and microbiome, as the non-rational use of antibiotics, biocides, and processed food, decreasing microbiome diversity and affecting gut homeostasis. This dysbiosis leads to disease development, as colitis, obesity, metabolic syndromes, diabetes mellitus, cancer, and liver, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases. Probiotic bacterial strains have been used in different dairy products to modulate the structure of the intestinal microbiome and recover a part of the lost functional balance, but a deep scientifical background is necessary to shift the focus of this product consumption, from food to pharmaceutical industry. Next-generation probiotic species have been sought with preventive and therapeutic characteristics; the main concern is efficiency and safety, which is the reason for the new category of live biotherapeutic products need to be standardized as drugs to be commercially viable, to search for intestinal homeostasis recovery and reducing dysbiosis and a chain of adverse effects that could culminate in severe and chronic diseases.KeywordsHealthy microbiomeDysbiosisIntestinal homeostasisGut microbiomeBacterial diversity
South African universities experience increased pressure to comply with and implement environmentally friendly practices. Specifically, state-funded universities need to enhance environmental management efficiency and environmental awareness. However, measuring the implementation of green initiatives in higher education takes time and effort. South African models for state-funded universities are absent, and international models are inapplicable. Therefore, this study aims to develop and empirically test the model by investigating existing theories and models and identifying potential factors for higher education. The paper determined ten initial factors from 31 environmental studies, limiting their number to five. The finally selected factors are cost of green products, awareness, training and education, top management attitude and commitment, committee for sustainable accountability, and digital transformation. This qualitative study uses a five-point Likert-scale questionnaire sampling 149 university managers. Structural equation modeling retained three of the original five factors in the model: cost of green products, top management attitude and commitment,
and digital transformation. However, knowledge of the environment (SRW = 0.76) is also crucial. Ten theoretical measuring criteria are retained as valid measures of implementing green initiatives. The model has good fit indices (CMin/Df = 4.07, CFI = 0.944, GFI = 0.909), despite RMSEA exceeding 0.10. The developed conceptual model can be used to measure the implementation of green initiatives by South African state-funded universities.
South African universities experience increased pressure to comply with and implement environmentally friendly practices. Specifically, state-funded universities need to enhance environmental management efficiency and environmental awareness. However, measuring the implementation of green initiatives in higher education takes time and effort. South African models for state-funded universities are absent, and international models are inapplicable. Therefore, this study aims to develop and empirically test the model by investigating existing theories and models and identifying potential factors for higher education. The paper determined ten initial factors from 31 environmental studies, limiting their number to five. The finally selected factors are cost of green products, awareness, training and education, top management attitude and commitment, committee for sustainable accountability, and digital transformation. This qualitative study uses a five-point Likert-scale questionnaire sampling 149 university managers. Structural equation modeling retained three of the original five factors in the model: cost of green products, top management attitude and commitment, and digital transformation. However, knowledge of the environment (SRW = 0.76) is also crucial. Ten theoretical measuring criteria are retained as valid measures of implementing green initiatives. The model has good fit indices (CMin/Df = 4.07, CFI = 0.944, GFI = 0.909), despite RMSEA exceeding 0.10. The developed conceptual model can be used to measure the implementation of green initiatives by South African state-funded universities.
As wild harvesting of insects gives way to mass rearing, there is an urgent need to develop expertise and methods in insect animal husbandry and facility design. In order to advance the science of animal husbandry and production in this field, comparisons and contrasts of different insect rearing facilities currently in production are likely to be beneficial. Here we initiate this discussion by suggesting a focus on insect rearing facilities at the two ends of the production scale spectrum (small-scale rearing and mass rearing) that have different end products (insects-as- food and insects for other purposes). We suggest that organisations with a philosophy of information sharing (e.g. universities) need to play an active role in this developing production system, by bridging gaps between academia, industry and traditional knowledge to ensure a rapid and societally acceptable development of wide-scale entomophagy.
This study evaluated diets including whole or peeled (legs removed) crickets (Teleogryllus testaceus) in terms of diet digestibility, growth and nitrogen retention, using pigs as an animal model. The experiment included three isonitrogenous diets (18.4% crude protein) including either whole cricket meal (WC), body cricket meal (legs removed, BC) or fish meal (control) as the main protein source. Castrated male piglets (n=21, 30-45 days) with initial body weight 13.0±0.3 kg were allocated to one of the dietary treatments (7 piglets/treatment) in a fixed block design. The piglets were kept in single bamboo/wooden stalls with slatted floors and were adapted to the feeds and the housing for 5 days before starting the 25-day experiment. The diets were offered ad libitum, but close to appetite (approximately 5% of body weight). Feed intake was recorded and piglets were weighed every 5 days. During days 20-25, total collection of faeces and urine was performed. Dry matter and nutrient intake were higher for piglets fed the WC and BC diets than for those fed the control diet. From day 10, piglets fed BC and WC were heavier than piglets fed the control diet, but there were no differences between WC and BC. Dry matter digestibility was highest for diet WC, and ash, crude fibre and crude fat digestibility was higher for BC and WC than for the control diet. Feed conversion ratio was lower for the WC and BC diets than for the control diet, and nitrogen retention (% of digested) was higher. We concluded that field cricket meal is a nutritious feedstuff for mono-gastric animals, and most likely also for humans. Removal of legs did not facilitate or improve the digestibility values and nitrogen retention. Thus, in order to minimise food waste, crickets should not be peeled in this way if they are going to be processed into meal.
With a growing world population, increasingly demanding consumers, and a limited amount of agricultural land, there is an urgent need to find alternatives to conventional meat products. Livestock production is, moreover, a leading cause of anthropogenic-induced climate change. To mediate this, more sustainable diets are needed, with reduced meat consumption or the use of alternative protein sources. Insects are promoted as human food and animal feed worldwide. In tropical countries, edible insects are harvested from nature, but overexploitation, habitat changes, and environmental contamination threaten this food resource. Therefore, sustainable harvesting practices need to be developed and implemented. We provide examples of (1) aquatic insects whose populations are threatened by pollution, (2) caterpillar species in Africa that are disappearing due to overexploitation and habitat change, (3) edible insects species that are considered pests in agro-ecosystems, and (4) edible insect species that can be conserved and enhanced in forest management systems. Insect farming can be conducted either on small-scale farms or in large-scale industrialized rearing facilities. We review the environmental sustainability of insect farming compared to livestock production. The major environmental advantages of insect farming compared to livestock production are as follows: (1) less land and water is required; (2) greenhouse gas emissions are lower; (3) insects have high feed conversion efficiencies; (4) insects can transform low-value organic by-products into high-quality food or feed; and (5) certain insect species can be used as animal feed or aqua feed. For instance, they can replace fish meal, which is becoming increasingly scarce and expensive. However, edible insect species intended for production should be screened for risks to humans, animals, plants, and biodiversity.
The recent research interest is illustrated by the many refereed articles that appeared during the last years. Only in 2016, there were 47 articles listed in Web of Science (consulted 15 February 2017) when using ‘edible insects’ compared to only 25 during the entire five-year period 2006-2010. At the start of 2017 there are close to 200 start-up companies worldwide (http://tinyurl.com/zyotzcy). In 2016, a number of organisations made predictions about how the global edible insect market will grow. With an increased interest, what are the research challenges ahead of us? Where should we be focussing on? What are the bottlenecks to be solved to make it a viable sector?
The black soldier fly Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus, 1758) is recorded from Bohumín inCzech Silesia (Czech Republic). This finding represents not only the first record from the Czech Republic but also the northernmost occurrence (at 49°55'N) of this species in Europe. H. illucens is anon-indigenous fly in Europe that was introduced from the New World and is now distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions all over the world. The first Czech record is documented in detail and the causalities of the occurrence of H. illucens at so high a latitude is discussed. An updated distribution of the species in Europe is mapped.
This study evaluated survival and growth of Cambodian field crickets (Teleogryllus testaceus) during captivity when fed a set of local weed species, agricultural and food industry by-products. Wild individuals were caught at two locations in Cambodia, kept in pens and fed commercial chicken feed until the second generation off-spring hatched. First larval stage nymphs from this generation were collected and used in a 70-day feeding trial with one control treatment (chicken feed) and 12 experimental treatments (rice bran, cassava plant tops, water spinach, spent grain, residue from mungbean sprout production, and Alternanthera sessilis, Amaranthus spinosus, Commelina benghalensis, Cleome rutidosperma, Cleome viscosa, Boerhavia diffusa and Synedrela nodiflora). The crickets were kept in plastic cages and feed intake, weight and survival of crickets were recorded weekly. Overall survival did not differ between chicken feed and the experimental treatments with the exception of crickets fed B. diffusa, which had lower survival. From day 35 to day 49, survival on A. sessilis was also lower (P<0.05) than on chicken feed. There was no difference in weight between crickets fed chicken feed, cassava tops and C. rutidosperma. However, crickets fed A. sessilis, A. spinosus and B. diffusa weighed less than those fed chicken feed already at day 21. The feed conversion rate ranged from 1.6 to 3.9 and was ≤1.9 in crickets fed chicken feed, cassava plant tops and C. rutidosperma. Thus this study shows that it is possible, using simple means, to rear Cambodian field crickets. Cassava plant tops and C. rutidosperma both have great potential as cricket feed and the other weeds, with the exception of A. sessilis, A. spinosus and B. diffusa, agricultural and food industry by-products tested, also showed potential.
There is an ongoing debate on what constitutes sustainable intensification of agriculture (SIA). In this paper, we propose that a paradigm for sustainable intensification can be defined and translated into an operational framework for agricultural development. We argue that this paradigm must now be defined-at all scales-in the context of rapidly rising global environmental changes in the Anthropocene, while focusing on eradicating poverty and hunger and contributing to human wellbeing. The criteria and approach we propose, for a paradigm shift towards sustainable intensification of agriculture, integrates the dual and interdependent goals of using sustainable practices to meet rising human needs while contributing to resilience and sustainability of landscapes, the biosphere, and the Earth system. Both of these, in turn, are required to sustain the future viability of agriculture. This paradigm shift aims at repositioning world agriculture from its current role as the world's single largest driver of global environmental change, to becoming a key contributor of a global transition to a sustainable world within a safe operating space on Earth.
Description of the subject. Current trends suggest an increasing future demand for conventional meats, which indicates a strong need to shift this dependency to other alternative protein sources such as insects.
Literature. From a nutritional point of view, of all the insects consumed globally, grasshoppers are particularly important as a human food. Data from the literature regarding the nutrient composition, amino acid profile, fatty acid profile, mineral composition and vitamin content of grasshoppers as reviewed in this paper, suggest that a number of grasshopper species are a good source of nutrients. It also highlights some of the health related aspects that might arise from the consumption of grasshoppers, mostly linked to agricultural practices and the allergic response of sensitive individuals. The paper also summarizes some religious, social and economic factors that are associated with grasshopper consumption.
Conclusions. The success of introducing grasshoppers as a novel food in western countries depends on changes in consumer attitudes. It would be interesting to develop food products derived from grasshoppers in a form acceptable to consumers. Furthermore, it is important to explore the food potential of some grasshopper species native to western countries and to develop their rearing methodologies to enhance availability.
Solid residues produced by processing food waste via Microaerobic Fermentation (MF) and by Black Soldier Fly larvae (BSFL) have been proposed as soil fertilizers. Yet, little is known about their effects on plant growth. This study compares the growth of corn plants (Zea mays) in soil amended with MF or BSFL residue, with effects of aerated compost on corn growth over ten weeks. Corn plants grown in soil amended with MF residues were 109% taller and had 14% more leaves than those grown in traditional aerated compost (Cedar Grove). But plants grown in BSFL residues were stunted, growing 39% shorter and having 19% fewer leaves on average. Only height data was statistically significant. Results indicate that MF produced from food scraps is a suitable soil amendment product, but BSFL solid residue from a similar source is phytotoxic when amended, untreated, into soil in a ratio of one part residue to two parts soil. More research on additional post-processing methods for BSFL solid residue is needed.
Invasive non-native species risk assessment in Great Britain is coordinated by the Non-native Species Secretariat for the GB Programme Board for non-native species under a Great Britain strategy that follows the principles of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Risk assessments are commissioned from independent expert assessors and overseen by the Non-native Species Risk Analysis Panel, a panel of risk assessment experts that ensures consistent and technically valid assessments and interpretation. The process uses a risk assessment template to follow closely the scheme used by the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organisation (EPPO) for agricultural quarantine pests, modified for all non-native organisms in the natural environment. Each response is documented by the assessor and checked by a peer reviewer and by the Panel. Directly elicited estimates of entry, establishment, spread and impact, with measures of assessor confidence, give an overall semi-quantitative summary of risk, in terms of likelihood and magnitude.
In Western countries, the popularity of edible insects as an alternative animal protein source is increasing. Nevertheless, there is a lack of profound insight into the microbial safety and shelf life of living insects sold for human consumption. The purpose of this study was to characterise the microflora of fresh edible mealworm larvae and grasshoppers in a quantitative and qualitative way. Therefore, culture-dependent analyses (the total viable aerobic count, Enterobacteriaceae, lactic acid bacteria, yeasts and moulds, and bacterial endospores) and next-generation sequencing (454amplicon pyrosequencing) were performed. High microbial counts were obtained for both insect species. Different insect batches resulted in quite similar microbial numbers, except for bacterial endospores. However, the bacterial community composition differed between both insect species. The most abundant operational taxonomic unit in mealworm larvae was Propionibacterium. Also members of the genera Haemophilus, Staphylococcus and Clostridium were found. Grasshoppers were mainly dominated by Weissella, Lactococcus and Yersinia/. Rahnella. Overall, a variety of potential spoilage bacteria and food pathogens were characterised. The results of this study suggest that a processing step with a microbiocidal effect is required to avoid or minimize risks involved with the consumption of edible insects.
Commercially raised feeder insects used to feed captive insectivores are a good source of many nutrients but are deficient in several key nutrients. Current methods used to supplement insects include dusting and gut-loading. Here, we report on the nutrient composition of four species of commercially raised feeder insects fed a special diet to enhance their nutrient content. Crickets, mealworms, superworms, and waxworms were analyzed for moisture, crude protein, fat, ash, acid detergent fiber, total dietary fiber, minerals, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, taurine, carotenoids, inositol, and cholesterol. All four species contained enhanced levels of vitamin E and omega 3 fatty acids when compared to previously published data for these species. Crickets, superworms, and mealworms contained β-carotene although using standard conversion factors only crickets and superworms would likely contain sufficient vitamin A activity for most species of insectivores. Waxworms did not contain any detectable β-carotene but did contain zeaxanthin which they likely converted from dietary β-carotene. All four species contained significant amounts of both inositol and cholesterol. Like previous reports all insects were a poor source of calcium and only superworms contained vitamin D above the limit of detection. When compared to the nutrient requirements as established by the NRC for growing rats or poultry, these species were good sources of most other nutrients although the high fat and low moisture content of both waxworms and superworms means when corrected for energy density these two species were deficient in more nutrients than crickets or mealworms. These data show the value of modifying the diet of commercially available insects as they are growing to enhance their nutrient content. They also suggest that for most insectivores properly supplemented lower fat insects such as crickets, or smaller mealworms should form the bulk of the diet.
The planetary boundaries framework defines a safe operating space for humanity based on the intrinsic biophysical processes
that regulate the stability of the Earth system. Here, we revise and update the planetary boundary framework, with a focus
on the underpinning biophysical science, based on targeted input from expert research communities and on more general scientific
advances over the past 5 years. Several of the boundaries now have a two-tier approach, reflecting the importance of cross-scale
interactions and the regional-level heterogeneity of the processes that underpin the boundaries. Two core boundaries—climate
change and biosphere integrity—have been identified, each of which has the potential on its own to drive the Earth system
into a new state should they be substantially and persistently transgressed.
The recycling of organic waste worldwide is not effective, which leads to water pollution and loss of potential crop fertilizers. Available resources have to be used more efficiently as the world population increases. An innovative solution is to use insects for the management of organic waste. Here, we used black soldier fly to convert organic waste into animal feed protein, as fly larvae, and plant fertilizer, as compost residue. A continuous fly reactor was monitored for 9 weeks. We analyzed physicochemical and microbial param-eters, and we evaluated the sanitary risk. Results show 55.1 % of material degradation and 11.8 % of biomass conversion based upon total solids. We observed higher levels of N and P in the treatment residue than in the inflow material. Results also show a lower concentration of Salmonella spp. and viruses. Compost treatment with black soldier fly is therefore an efficient system for nutrient recycling.
A 60-70% increase in consumption of animal products is expected by 2050. This increase in the consumption will demand enormous resources, the feed being the most challenging because of the limited availability of natural resources, ongoing climatic changes and food-feed-fuel competition. The costs of conventional feed resources such as soymeal and fishmeal are very high and moreover their availability in the future will be limited. Insect rearing could be a part of the solutions. Although some studies have been conducted on evaluation of insects, insect larvae or insect meals as an ingredient in the diets of some animal species, this field is in infancy. Here we collate, synthesize and discuss the available information on five major insect species studied with respect to evaluation of their products as animal feed. The nutritional quality of black soldier fly larvae, the house fly maggots, mealworm, locusts-grasshoppers-crickets, and silkworm meal and their use as a replacement of soymeal and fishmeal in the diets of poultry, pigs, fish species and ruminants are discussed. The crude protein contents of these alternate resources are high: 42 to 63% and so are the lipid contents (up to 36% oil), which could possibly be extracted and used for various applications including biodiesel production. Unsaturated fatty acid concentrations are high in housefly maggot meal, mealworm and house cricket (60-70%), while their concentrations in black soldier fly larvae are lowest (19-37%). The studies have confirmed that palatability of these alternate feeds to animals is good and they can replace 25 to 100% of soymeal or fishmeal depending on the animal species. Except silkworm meal other insect meals are deficient in methionine and lysine and their supplementation in the diet can enhance both the performance of the animals and the soymeal and fishmeal replacement rates. Most insect meals are deficient in Ca and its supplementation in the diet is also required, especially for growing animals and laying hens. The levels of Ca and fatty acids in insect meals can be enhanced by manipulation of the substrate on which insects are reared. The paper also presents future areas of research. The information synthesized is expected to open new avenues for a large scale use of insect products as animal feed.
Methanogenic archaea (methanogens) that inhabit the gut of termites generate enormous amount of methane that adds to the global atmospheric methane (CH 4). Methane is an important trace gas in the atmosphere, contributing significantly to long wave absorption and bringing in variations into the chemistries of both the troposphere and the stratosphere. In the troposphere, methane acts as a sink for hydroxide (OH) and as a source for carbon monoxide (CO). While in the stratosphere, methane is a sink for chlorine (Cl) molecules and a source of water vapor, which is a dominant greenhouse gas. Analysis has shown that atmospheric concentrations of methane have increased by about 30% over the last 40 years. Such an increase may greatly affect future levels of stratospheric ozone and hence, the climate of the earth. Recent estimates of the total annual source strength of CH 4 vary from 400 to 1200 Tg. Activities such as rice cultivation, cattle production, mining, use of fossil fuels and biomass burning is believed to be the cause of increasing methane levels in the atmosphere. To add to this list is the source from termites, which contributes measurable quantities of CH 4 ranging from 2 to 150 Tg per year. However, data indicate that while there are large variations in the amount of CH 4 produced by different species, the total methane addition due to termites is probably less than 15 Tg per year, thus making a contribution of less than 5% to global CH 4 emissions. Furthermore, the review addresses questions related to the biological aspects of termite harboring groups of bacteria that participate in methanogenesis and various other biotechnological potential of unique microbiota as well as possible strategies to mitigate methanogenesis by termite.
Global production of farmed fish and shellfish has more than doubled in
the past 15 years. Many people believe that such growth relieves pressure
on ocean fisheries, but the opposite is true for some types of aquaculture.
Farming carnivorous species requires large inputs of wild fish for feed. Some
aquaculture systems also reduce wild fish supplies through habitat modification,
wild seedstock collection and other ecological impacts. On balance, global
aquaculture production still adds to world fish supplies; however, if the
growing aquaculture industry is to sustain its contribution to world fish
supplies, it must reduce wild fish inputs in feed and adopt more ecologically
sound management practices.
Frass deposition to soil is an important pathway by which herbivorous insects impact decomposition and soil nutrient availability.
However, little is known about how frass quality influences ecosystem properties. Here, we examined the effects of frass quality
on the decomposition process, soil nitrogen (N) availability, and plant growth, using frass of Mamestra brassicae (L.) that fed on fertilized or unfertilized Brassica rapa L. var. perviridis Bailey. The frass quality was largely dependent on the host plant quality. Frass excreted by larvae that fed on the fertilized
plants had higher N than that of larvae that fed on the unfertilized plants. The decomposition rate of the frass did not differ
between N-rich and N-poor frass, except during the early decomposition period. The inorganic N concentration decreased during
decomposition in both frass types. However, difference in the initial inorganic N concentration led to different consequences
regarding soil N availability. Furthermore, addition of frass to the soil differently influenced the growth of B. rapa plants depending on the frass quality: plant biomass was increased by N-rich frass addition but decreased by N-poor frass
addition, compared to the biomass without frass addition. These results indicate that frass quality is an important factor
in determining the impact of herbivorous insects on nutrient dynamics, and that frass positively or negatively influences
soil N availability and plant growth, depending on its quality.
Over the past 11,000 years humans have brought a wide variety of animals under domestication. Domestic animals belong to all Linnaean animal classes- mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fi sh, insects, and even, arguably, bacteria. Raised for food, secondary products, labor, and companionship, domestic animals have become intricately woven into human economy, society, and religion. Animal domestication is an on-going process, as humans, with increasingly sophisticated technology for breeding and rearing animals in captivity, continue to bring more and more species under their control. Understanding the process of animal domestication and its reciprocal impacts on humans and animal domesticates requires a multidisciplinary approach. This paper brings together recent research in archaeology, genetics, and animal sciences in a discussion of the process of domestication, its impact on animal domesticates, and the various pathways humans and their animal partners have followed into domestication.
The cricket pet food industry in the United States, where as many as 50 million crickets are shipped a week, is a multimillion dollar business that has been devastated by epizootic Acheta domesticus densovirus (AdDNV) outbreaks. Efforts to find an alternative, virus-resistant field cricket species have led to the widespread USA (and European) distribution of a previously unnamed Gryllus species despite existing USA federal regulations to prevent such movement. We analyze and describe this previously unnamed Gryllus and propose additional measures to minimize its potential risk to native fauna and agriculture. Additionally, and more worrisome, is our incidental finding that the naturally widespread African, European, and Asian "black cricket," G. bimaculatus, is also being sold illegally in southern California pet food stores. We assayed crickets of all five USA and European commercial species for presence of the AdDNV to document extent of the infection-all five species can be infected with the virus but only A. domesticus is killed. Based on its already cosmopolitan distribution, apparent inability to live away from human habitation, and resistance to AdDNV, we suggest that Gryllodes sigillatus is the best-suited replacement cricket for commercial production.
The demand for animal protein is expected to rise by 70-80% between 2012 and 2050, while the current animal production sector already causes major environmental degradation. Edible insects are suggested as a more sustainable source of animal protein. However, few experimental data regarding environmental impact of insect production are available. Therefore, a lifecycle assessment for mealworm production was conducted, in which greenhouse gas production, energy use and land use were quantified and compared to conventional sources of animal protein. Production of one kg of edible protein from milk, chicken, pork or beef result in higher greenhouse gas emissions, require similar amounts of energy and require much more land. This study demonstrates that mealworms should be considered a more sustainable source of edible protein.
With a growing world population and increasingly demanding consumers, the production of sufficient protein from livestock, poultry, and fish represents a serious challenge for the future. Approximately 1,900 insect species are eaten worldwide, mainly in developing countries. They constitute quality food and feed, have high feed conversion ratios, and emit low levels of greenhouse gases. Some insect species can be grown on organic side streams, reducing environmental contamination and transforming waste into high-protein feed that can replace increasingly more expensive compound feed ingredients, such as fish meal. This requires the development of costeffective, automated mass-rearing facilities that provide a reliable, stable, and safe product. In the tropics, sustainable harvesting needs to be assured and rearing practices promoted, and in general, the food resource needs to be revalorized. In the Western world, consumer acceptability will relate to pricing, perceived environmental benefits, and the development of tasty insect-derived protein products. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Entomology Volume 58 is December 03, 2013. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates.
Th is chapter reviews the eff ects of alien terrestrial arthropods on the economy, society and environment in Europe. Many alien insect and mite species cause serious socio-economic hazards as pests of agriculture, horticulture, stored products and forestry. Th ey may also aff ect human or animal health. Surprisingly, there is relatively little information available on the exact yield and fi nancial losses due to alien agricultural and forestry pests in Europe, particularly at continental scale. Several alien species may have a positive impact on the economy, for example parasitoids and predators introduced for the biological control of important pests. Invasive alien arthropods can also cause environmental hazards. Th ey may aff ect native biodiversity through various mechanisms, including herbivory, predation, parasitism, competition for resource and space, or as vectors of diseases. Th ey can also aff ect ecosystem services and processes through cascading eff ects. However, these ecological impacts are poorly studied, particularly in Europe, where only a handful cases have been reported.
Greenhouse gas (GHG) production, as a cause of climate change, is considered as one of the biggest problems society is currently facing. The livestock sector is one of the large contributors of anthropogenic GHG emissions. Also, large amounts of ammonia (NH(3)), leading to soil nitrification and acidification, are produced by livestock. Therefore other sources of animal protein, like edible insects, are currently being considered.
An experiment was conducted to quantify production of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and average daily gain (ADG) as a measure of feed conversion efficiency, and to quantify the production of the greenhouse gases methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) as well as NH₃ by five insect species of which the first three are considered edible: Tenebrio molitor, Acheta domesticus, Locusta migratoria, Pachnoda marginata, and Blaptica dubia. Large differences were found among the species regarding their production of CO₂ and GHGs. The insects in this study had a higher relative growth rate and emitted comparable or lower amounts of GHG than described in literature for pigs and much lower amounts of GHG than cattle. The same was true for CO₂ production per kg of metabolic weight and per kg of mass gain. Furthermore, also the production of NH₃ by insects was lower than for conventional livestock.
This study therefore indicates that insects could serve as a more environmentally friendly alternative for the production of animal protein with respect to GHG and NH₃ emissions. The results of this study can be used as basic information to compare the production of insects with conventional livestock by means of a life cycle analysis.
Identifying and quantifying planetary boundaries that must not be transgressed could help prevent human activities from causing unacceptable environmental change, argue Johan Rockström and colleagues.
The present opinion has the format of a risk profile and presents potential biological and chemical hazards as well as allergenicity and environmental hazards associated with farmed insects used as food and feed taking into account of the entire chain, from farming to the final product. The opinion also addresses the occurrence of these hazards in non-processed insects, grown on different substrate categories, in comparison to the occurrence of these hazards in other non-processed sources of protein of animal origin. When currently allowed feed materials are used as substrate to feed insects, the possible occurrence of microbiological hazards is expected to be comparable to their occurrence in other non-processed sources of protein of animal origin. The possible occurrence of prions in non-processed insects will depend on whether the substrate includes protein of human or ruminant origin. Data on transfer of chemical contaminants from different substrates to the insects are very limited. Substrates like kitchen waste, human and animal manure are also considered and hazards from insects fed on these substrates need to be specifically assessed. It is concluded that for both biological and chemical hazards, the specific production methods, the substrate used, the stage of harvest, the insect species and developmental stage, as well as the methods for further processing will all have an impact on the occurrence and levels of biological and chemical contaminants in food and feed products derived from insects. Hazards related to the environment are expected to be comparable to other animal production systems. The opinion also identifies the uncertainties (lack of knowledge) related to possible hazards when insects are used as food and feed and notes that there are no systematically collected data on animal and human consumption of insects. Studies on the occurrence of microbial pathogens of vertebrates as well as published data on hazardous chemicals in reared insects are scarce. Further data generation on these issues are highly recommended.
Edible insects are expected to become an important nutrient source for animals and humans in the Western world in the near future. However, before insects can be put on the market, the safety of their use for feed and food is warranted. This literature study was prepared to provide an overview of the actual knowledge of possible food safety hazards, including chemical, microbiological, and allergenic agents and prions, to human and animal health upon the use of insects for food and feed, and to highlight data gaps and suggest the way forward. From the data available, heavy metals of concern are cadmium in black soldier fly and arsenic in yellow mealworm larvae. Investigated mycotoxins do not seem to accumulate. Residues of pesticides, veterinary drugs, and hormones, as well as dioxins and PCBs, are sometimes found in insects. Contamination of insects with pathogens to human health is a consequence of a combination of the substrates used and the farming and processing steps applied. Insects harbor a wide variety of microorganisms, and some human pathogenic bacteria may be present. In addition, insects may harbor and transmit parasites. There is no evidence so far insects may harbor pathogenic viruses or prions, but they may act as vectors. Insects and insect‐derived products may have allergenic potential. In this review, evidence on some safety aspects is displayed, and data gaps are identified. Recommendations are given for future research to fill the most relevant data gaps.
Both the means by which we produce our food and our eating habits influence some of the most important environmental problems of our planet. The most exploited livestock for the past 50 years has been cattle, which are fed primarily on maize to increase production. However, this combination of maize and cattle is inefficient in ecological terms. Producing and consuming proteins from animals with more efficient biomass and energy conversions could help to solve certain environmental problems. For instance, insects that are considered pests in agricultural systems - including, specifically, the Orthoptera species - may be excellent candidates as protein sources. This work analyses the feed conversion ratio (FCR) of the three types of livestock that are most widely bred worldwide: cattle, pigs, and poultry. It then compares these results with those of potential minilivestock from the Orthoptera species that are more abundant in agroecosystems. Based on the calculated FCRs (cow:pork:poultry:grasshopper pests and insects grown on farms; 10:6:2:4:1.7), we project that reducing beef production by half could significantly lower greenhouse gas emissions and the maize sowing hectares destined for feed (2.1-2.9×10⁷ ha), while simultaneously releasing maize for human consumption. Additionally, consuming insect-based protein could reduce pollution problems by decreasing insecticide use (by at least 7×10⁷ l). Though a comprehensive solution to current environmental problems (e.g. global warming), will require coordinated global effort (e.g. to replace fossil fuels), there is one way that everyone can contribute: eating grasshopper burgers instead of beef burgers.
This paper overviews the technological, technical, economic, environmental, social, toxicological and human health risk considerations of biodiesel production and use. The future efforts in the technological domain should be directed towards low–cost and non–edible feedstocks, advanced technologies with reduced overall production costs and profitable production capacity. Process innovations that include new more active and stable catalysts, advanced reactors, continuous operation, lower energy inputs, better energy balance and lower GHG emissions and produce low or no wastes can lead to more efficient biodiesel production. Environmentally sustainable biodiesel production requires that sustainability standards cover direct and indirect impacts on the environment, i.e. soil, water and air. The combination of technological with economic, social and environmental issues will increase biodiesel benefits and may lead to integrated biorefineries capable of producing sustainable biodiesel and other valuable chemicals. Government policies will be the primary driving force for further increases in biodiesel production. Increased cooperation among governments and various stakeholders is needed to develop and apply corresponding sustainability criteria in a consistent way worldwide as soon as possible.
The black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.), shows potential as a resource for animal feed. However, industrial production in regions where the insect is not native, like northwestern Europe, could lead to permanent establishment, which might entail environmental risks. In temperate climates, establishment depends on the insect's ability to overwinter. This study assessed the insect's cold hardiness by determining the supercooling point (SCP) and lower lethal time at 5 °C (LTime10,50,90) for different life stages. As diet or acclimation can influence cold hardiness, prepupae reared on different substrates and acclimated prepupae were tested in separate experiments. The SCP ranged from -7.3 °C for late-instar larvae to -13.7 °C for pupae. Prepupae reared on a highly nutritional substrate had a lower SCP compared with a control diet composed of chicken feed (-14.1 °C vs. -12.4 °C, respectively), whereas the SCP was unaffected by acclimation. Based on the LTime, prepupae and pupae were the most cold hardy life stages. Acclimated prepupae were most cold tolerant, with a LTime50 of 23 d. Based on an empirical relationship between LTime50 and field survival of various arthropods, it was predicted that H. illucens would survive about 47 d in the field during northwestern European winters. The results from this laboratory study suggest that H. illucens is rather unlikely to overwinter in northwestern Europe. However, caution is warranted given that diet and acclimation can influence the insect's cold hardiness and in the field the insect may survive in a diapausing state or in protected hibernacula.
Worldwide, huge quantities of organic wastes are generated annually in the forest industry, but most of these wastes are discarded. Only a minor proportion is used, mainly for biofuel and secondarily for compost production. Simultaneously, demand for more and new food products is increasing due to rapid growth in the global population. In recent years, use of edible insects has been proposed as one promising solution to an upcoming food supply crisis. The rearing of insects for human food and livestock feed has some significant advantages, like high protein content, effective feed conversion rate, low greenhouse gas emissions and low water requirements. The aim of this review was to compile up-to-date information on rearing edible insects for food and feed and to investigate the potential use of forest biomass waste as a new substrate for insect rearing.
Compared to their vertebrate counterparts in traditional husbandry, insects are extremely efficient at converting organic matter into animal protein and dietary energy. For this reason, insects for food and feed show great potential as an environmentally friendly choice in future food systems. However, to obtain a true assessment of this, more information is needed about the production systems. Currently, only six studies applying the life cycle assessment (LCA) method to insect production systems have been published. The studies are heterogenous and thus difficult to compare. The aim of this paper was to establish a versatile reference framework that would allow for the selection of standardized settings for LCA applications in insect production systems, taking both the peculiarity of each system and the latest developments in food LCA into account. It is recommended that future LCAs of insect production systems take the following into account: (1) clear definition of the insect species and life stages included in the LCA, (2) use of at least two of the following types of functional units: nutritional, mass, or economic-based, (3) collection of empirical data in situ (e.g., on farms/production sites), (4) comparative analysis where production systems produce products that are realistic alternatives to the insect species under investigation, (5) inclusion of additional or previously unconsidered unit processes, such as processing and storage and waste management, and (6) use of a wide range of impact categories, especially climate change, resource consumption, nutrient enrichment potential, acidification potential, and impacts on land and water consumption in order to allow for comparison between studies.
The emergence of insect production as a source of sustainable protein, aimed to substitute traditional feeds and foods, indicates the need to perform their environmental impact assessment with a holistic approach and on a fair functional basis. The study aims at life cycle assessment of insect production at industrial level and further insect biomass processing for feed and food purposes. In order to identify a relative sustainability state of insect-based products, the results of life cycle assessment are compared to the appropriate benchmarks (protein feeds, whey protein powder, and chicken meat). Current study includes an analysis based on industrial insect production data, with further scenarios modelling based on data from industries, databases and literature. It is indicated that environmental performance of insect based feed could be beneficial, provided that suitable diet is selected. Protein diets are responsible for high environmental impacts and high insect yields, while the utilization of manure is environmentally beneficial, but does not result in high yields. Low value food processing by-products (distilled grains) and high-impacting waste streams use for insect growing are confirmed to be among the best strategies for sustainable feed production. The production of insect-based protein powder and meat substitute, based on food by-products, is 2-5 times more environmentally beneficial than that of traditional products. The need for extended studies of different insect species use in combination with identified beneficial options is highlighted.
Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, IN PRESS, 2016 online
http://dx.doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2015.0097
Given a growing global human population and high pressures on resources, interest in insects as a source of protein for human food (entomophagy) and for animal feed is growing. So far, the main issues discussed have been the embedded technical challenges of scaling up the production. The use of insects as a major human food and feed source is thought to present two major challenges: (1) how to turn insects into safe, tasty socially acceptable feed and food; and (2) how to cheaply yet sustainably produce enough insects? Entomophagy, however, as any utilisation of animals and the rest of nature also entails ethical issues – both regarding the impact on human health, the environment and climate change and regarding production methods such as intensification and biotechnology. The aim of the paper is to give a systematic overview of ethical aspects embedded in the notion of utilising insects as protein providers in the Western food and feed production chains. We identify five areas where ethical questions are especially pertinent: environmental impact, human and animal health, human preferences and social acceptability, animal welfare and finally broader animal ethics issues. Especially the latter two are more scantly dealt with in the literature. This part of the review will therefore contain suggestions for ethical issues that should be examined closer.
Background
Health status of the indigenous people of the Ratanakiri Province, Cambodia, is significantly lower compared to the rest of the nation. The domestication and mass production of insects may represent a sustainable, cost effective and high quality alternative source of protein to traditional livestock. This study aimed to optimise a cheap and residential cricket breeding system based on unused wild resources. The cricket development, Teleogryllus testaceus (Walker), under seven diets composed of taro aerial parts, young cassava leaves, young cashew leaves and brown rice flour (with or without banana slices), versus a traditionally used broiler feed diet was studied.ResultsCricket mortality was low in all diets, except the two cashew-based diets. Total biomass was significantly higher under the broiler feed, in addition to the two diets containing a combination of cassava leaf powder and brown rice. Yet, crickets fed with the taro diet had the highest percentage of protein. Concerning the breeding system cost, units using cassava leaves were the cheapest ones.Conclusion
Diets based of cassava leaves seems to be the most promising ones. Nevertheless, to produce crickets with a high body mass and a high protein level, a new experiment must be realised in which the cassava leaf maturity will be adapted to fit with the cricket growth stage. Moreover, to reduce the cost of the breeding units, handmade local products should be used instead of purchased components.
1.1. Cyanogenesis has been confirmed in Acraeinae and demonstrated for the first time in Heliconiinae.2.2. In both butterfly families the source of cyanide has been found to be the glucosides linamarin and lotaustralin.3.3. Since these glucosides are not the same as those which occur in Passifloraceae, their normal food plants, it would appear that they are synthesized by the butterflies themselves and that they lack the capacity to sequester cyanogenic glucosides from their food.
Insects, a traditional food in many parts of the world, are highly nutritious and especially rich in proteins and thus represent a potential food and protein source. A compilation of 236 nutrient compositions in addition to amino acid spectra and fatty acid compositions as well as mineral and vitamin contents of various edible insects as derived from literature is given and the risks and benefits of entomophagy are discussed. Although the data were subject to a large variation, it could be concluded that many edible insects provide satisfactorily with energy and protein, meet amino acid requirements for humans, are high in MUFA and/or PUFA, and rich in several micronutrients such as copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorous, selenium, and zinc as well as riboflavin, pantothenic acid, biotin, and in some cases folic acid. Liabilities of entomophagy include the possible content of allergenic and toxic substances as well as antinutrients and the presence of pathogens. More data are required for a thorough assessment of the nutritional potential of edible insects and proper processing and decontamination methods have to be developed to ensure food safety.
As part of research on mass-rearing the cricket Acheta domesticU0.21 for the NRC chick diet compared with $2.55 for Patton's no. 16; these costs exclude the cost of labor for mixing the diets. Performance of crickets on the laboratory-prepared diets was somewhat better than performance on the commercial diets. The food conversion efficiency of crickets at 30"C or higher was found to be higher than reported for broiler chicks and pigs and much higher than those reported for sheep and cattle.
Current predictions regarding the ecological consequences of climate change on animal populations are generally autecological and species-specific, and/or non-mechanistic extrapolations of recent short-term patterns. To better understand and predict the effects of climate change on the distribution of species and the abundance of populations we offer a novel, broad theoretical framework. Climate-induced changes in trophic structure may actually be more predictable than effects on individual species. The logic is that there are general differences in climatic sensitivity among trophic levels – specifically, that as one moves up trophic levels, there is an increase in the temperature sensitivity of vital rates. More precisely, we provide: (1) a formal mathematical definition of distribution limits that is both operational and conceptual, introducing the concept DL50, defined as the geographic and climatic isoline representing an equilibrium occupancy of half of the suitable habitats; (2) a matrix of the possible changes in trophic structure from climate change and the general theoretical consequences; and (3) a new idea that predicts broad effects of climatic warming on trophic systems. Our intention is to help meet the challenge of developing and testing general theoretical models that can predict which species will be winners and losers in ecological time, which evolutionary traits will be favoured or selected against, and what will be consequences for ecosystem structure and function.
Insect pests destroy approximately 14% of all potential food production despite the yearly application of more than 3000 million kilograms of pesticides. This contributes to rising human malnutrition which in 2004 was estimated by the World Health Organization to have reached 3700 million - the largest number in history. Several major insect pests of crops and livestock are effectively controlled using area-wide pest management practices. As an example, the New World screwworm fly Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel) that attacks livestock, especially cattle, was successfully eradicated by releasing radiation-sterilized screwworm flies over large areas. Area-wide insecticide treatments in the USA have also proved effective in the control of the boll weevil, while timed crop-planting over wide areas enables crops like wheat to evade major pests and has also been proven highly successful against rice pests in the USA and Asia. Yet, when the basic ecology of the insect pests and crops are ignored, major crop losses can occur, as illustrated by the manipulation of corn production in the USA. Damages caused by invading insect pests that attack established crop, forest, and natural ecosystems continue to be challenges to pest management specialists. Approximately 40% of the insect and mite pests of crops grown in the USA are introduced species and they cause about USD 100 000 million in damage and control costs each year. The most recent introductions include the long-horned beetle Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky) and the emerald ash borer Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire that were both accidentally introduced from Asia. Areawide strategies to control these destructive forest pests are being implemented.
KEYWORDS insecticides, invasive species, economics, area-wide programmes, wheat, cotton, New World screwworm
Global food demand is increasing rapidly, as are the environmental impacts of agricultural expansion. Here, we project global demand for crop production in 2050 and evaluate the environmental impacts of alternative ways that this demand might be met. We find that per capita demand for crops, when measured as caloric or protein content of all crops combined, has been a similarly increasing function of per capita real income since 1960. This relationship forecasts a 100-110% increase in global crop demand from 2005 to 2050. Quantitative assessments show that the environmental impacts of meeting this demand depend on how global agriculture expands. If current trends of greater agricultural intensification in richer nations and greater land clearing (extensification) in poorer nations were to continue, ~1 billion ha of land would be cleared globally by 2050, with CO(2)-C equivalent greenhouse gas emissions reaching ~3 Gt y(-1) and N use ~250 Mt y(-1) by then. In contrast, if 2050 crop demand was met by moderate intensification focused on existing croplands of underyielding nations, adaptation and transfer of high-yielding technologies to these croplands, and global technological improvements, our analyses forecast land clearing of only ~0.2 billion ha, greenhouse gas emissions of ~1 Gt y(-1), and global N use of ~225 Mt y(-1). Efficient management practices could substantially lower nitrogen use. Attainment of high yields on existing croplands of underyielding nations is of great importance if global crop demand is to be met with minimal environmental impacts.
A fairly high activity of a relatively heat-resistant thiaminase was detected and characterized from the pupae of an African silkworm Anaphe spp. which had been the putative cause of a seasonal ataxia and impaired consciousness in Nigerians. The thiaminase in the buffer extract of Anaphe pupae was type I (thiamin: base 2-methyl-4-aminopyrimidine methyl transferase EC 2.5.1.2), and the optimal temperature and pH were 70 degrees C and 8.0-8.5, respectively. Based on gel filtration chromatography, the molecules were estimated to be 200 kDa. Second substrates which could be utilized by the thiaminase were pyridoxine, amino acids, glutathione, taurine and 4-aminopyridine. Thiamin phosphate esters were inactive as substrates. This is the first report describing an insect thiaminase. Our results indicate the necessity of thorough heat treatment for the detoxification of the African silkworm, making the worm a safe source of high-quality protein.
Appetite for Destruction
World Wide Fund for Nature, UK (2017) Appetite for Destruction,
WWF. https://www.wwf.org.uk/sites/default/files/2017-10/
WWF_AppetiteForDestruction_Summary_Report_SignOff.pdf