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CHAPTER 1. Introduction to Coffee Plant and Genetics: Production, Quality and Chemistry
Abstract
The coffee beverage that we know and appreciate results from roasted seeds from trees belonging to the botanical family Rubiaceae, genus Coffea. Although over 100 species within the genus Coffea have been catalogued, only two are actually of great importance in the world market, C. arabica L. and C. canephora Pierre. Even though the great complexity in the taxonomic classification of coffee makes it difficult to unveil the paths followed by the Coffea genus on its way from Africa to being cultivated worldwide, the present chapter briefly introduces this journey. Since knowledge of the coffee plant and its characteristics is fundamental for understanding coffee growing and related agronomic aspects, this will also be discussed.
... is an allotetraploid (2n = 4x = 44), amphidiploid, mainly autogamous, fairly recent (665,000 years ago) natural hybrid of diploid ancestors species C. canephora and C. eugenioides [21,22]. It is the most important species for the global coffee beverage market [23] representing about 60% of the global production [24]. ...
... Coffee cultivation on Haitian soil dates back to the French colonial era, when the Typica line was introduced and established on the mountainous island in 1735 [43]. By the end of the XVIII th century, the then-colony of St-Domingue had become the first coffee producer in the world, accounting for half of the global supply [23,44]. When Haiti became independent in 1804, C. arabica 'Typica' remained an important agricultural resource, though multiple crises throughout the country's history reduced its productivity and contribution to the nation's economy [45,46]. ...
... One farm in the North was also found to contain C. canephora, a species whose presence in Haiti had not been previously recorded to our knowledge. C. canephora, or "Robusta coffee", is the second most economically important Coffea species [23]. In Haiti, it was identified as Kafé Brezil ("Brazil Coffee"), potentially pointing to an introduction from this country where it is widely cultivated. ...
Though facing significant challenges, coffee (Coffea arabica) grown in Haitian agroforestry systems are important contributors to rural livelihoods and provide several ecosystem services. However, little is known about their genetic diversity and the variety mixtures used. In light of this, there is a need to characterize Haitian coffee diversity to help inform revitalization of this sector. We sampled 28 diverse farms in historically important coffee growing regions of northern and southern Haiti. We performed KASP-genotyping of SNP markers and HiPlex multiplex amplicon sequencing for haplotype calling on our samples, as well as several Ethiopian and commercial accessions from international collections. This allowed us to assign Haitian samples to varietal groups. Our analyses revealed considerable genetic diversity in Haitian farms, higher in fact than many farmers realized. Notably, genetic structure analyses revealed the presence of clusters related to Typica, Bourbon, and Catimor groups, another group that was not represented in our reference accession panel, and several admixed individuals. Across the study areas, we found both mixed-variety farms and monovarietal farms with the historical and traditional Typica variety. This study is, to our knowledge, the first to genetically characterize Haitian C. arabica variety mixtures, and report the limited cultivation of C. canephora (Robusta coffee) in the study area. Our results show that some coffee farms are repositories of historical, widely-abandoned varieties while others are generators of new diversity through genetic mixing.
... Les fleurs sont généralement de couleur blanche et composées d'un calice, d'une corolle à cinq pétales, de cinq étamines, d'un pistil et d'un ovaire contenant deux ovules (Wintgens, 2004b). Le système racinaire du caféier, quant à lui, est hautement plastique et son architecture dépend de nombreux paramètres tels que les caractéristiques du sol, le génotype, l'âge et l'état physiologique de la plante (pour revue voir DaMatta et al. (2007) et Ferreira et al. (2019)). Malgré cette plasticité, les caractéristiques communes sont la présence de racines pivotantes, axiales, latérales, et nourricières, ainsi que la présence de poils racinaires ( Figure 2E) (Ferreira et al., 2019 ;Wintgens, 2004b). ...
... Le système racinaire du caféier, quant à lui, est hautement plastique et son architecture dépend de nombreux paramètres tels que les caractéristiques du sol, le génotype, l'âge et l'état physiologique de la plante (pour revue voir DaMatta et al. (2007) et Ferreira et al. (2019)). Malgré cette plasticité, les caractéristiques communes sont la présence de racines pivotantes, axiales, latérales, et nourricières, ainsi que la présence de poils racinaires ( Figure 2E) (Ferreira et al., 2019 ;Wintgens, 2004b). ...
... (E), un système racinaire. Photos A, B, C et D : Coffea canephora (courtoisie de Pierre Marraccini) ; Photo E : C. arabica(Ferreira et al., 2019). ...
Vietnam is the second largest coffee producer worldwide. It is also the leading producer and exporter of Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora). Over the past decades, Vietnamese coffee cultivation has greatly intensified at the expense of the environment. In addition to deforestation, land degradation and the depletion of water resources, coffee growing is the source of environmental pollutions generated by the excessive use of agrochemical inputs. Moreover, nematodes in association with fungal pathogens are recognized as highly damaging for Vietnamese coffee growing. When replacing the less productive aging coffee trees, they are responsible for a mortality rate of up to 70 %. Therefore, this thesis aimed at studying the cultivable endophytic bacterial microbiota naturally associated with coffee trees in order to highlight its potential for use in the framework of a more sustainable Vietnamese coffee cultivation. During this work, eighty strains of endophytic bacteria from roots and seeds of coffee trees were isolated, identified and characterized. It has been shown that some strains are able (i) to express in vitro several plant growth promoting and antagonistic capacities towards pathogens and pests, (ii) to display some antifungal and nematicidal effects during direct confrontations with the phytopathogenic fungus Fusarium oxysporum, as well as the plant parasitic nematodes Pratylenchus coffeae and Radopholus duriophilus, and (iii) to reduce the harmful impact of nematodes on young coffee trees grown in nursery conditions by significantly reducing the number of nematodes in the roots.
Keywords: Bacterial endophytes; Biocontrol; Biofertilizers; Biopesticides; Coffee; Plant parasitic nematodes; Phytopathogenic fungi
... The tradition of people drinking coffee in daily life has become an important part of modern life today. Moreover, many people complete their work starting by drinking coffee (2) because it utilizes the essential properties of stimulating the body that causes people to stay awake, not feel tired, and relaxed. The coffee plant has a botanical classification in the Rubiaceae family, the genus Coffea, and more than 100 species have been cataloged. ...
... The coffee plant has a botanical classification in the Rubiaceae family, the genus Coffea, and more than 100 species have been cataloged. However, only two species are known commercially in the international market because of their aroma, namely Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora or Robusta coffee (2). Coffee is considered unique as a beverage and functional food (3) because of the characteristically active chemical compounds contained in coffee. ...
... Coffee metamer (basic architectural segment in tree construction) is characterized by internode, two leaves, and two serial buds (up to 5-6 buds formed in each leaf axil). Buds may differ in either inflorescence (up to 4 flowers from each bud in C. arabica), or more plagiotropic branches [7]. Therefore, the maximum possible flower/fruit number produced by one metamer is 40. ...
... When the number of daylight hours begins to decrease, such photoperiod changes can induce the differentiation of the reproductive buds [10]. These buds grow and enter in dormancy, matching with the dry season in most growing regions [7]. After the first rainfalls, the break of bud dormancy initiates anthesis, or floral opening. ...
Water availability, light, management practices, and harvest time impacts on Coffea arabica L. yield and bean quality remain uncertain. It was hypothesized that the soil water and light availability could impact berry distribution, yield, and bean chemical attributes within the plant canopy. Therefore, it was aimed to study berry yield, berry distribution, and bean chemical traits along the canopy strata of four coffee genotypes (Iapar 59, Catuaí 99 and two Ethiopian wild accessions, 'E083′ and 'E027′), cultivated with (IRR) and without irrigation (NI) in the two initial harvest years. The maximum height of berry occurrence was lower in NI than in IRR plants in both harvest years. In the 2nd harvest year, higher leaf-to-fruit ratio was found under NI than under IRR for all genotypes, except for Catuaí 99, while the most regular berry distribution among canopy strata was obtained in IRR 'E083′, the highest bean yield in IRR 'E083′ and Iapar 59, and the highest percent of useful bean biomass in NI Catuaí 99. The reduced lipid content under IRR was more important in the 1st (all genotypes) than in the 2nd harvest year (Iapar 59 and 'E027′). As a novelty, chemical bean composition was additionally impacted by light availability along the canopy strata. Proteins declined from bottom (shaded) to upper (highly light exposed) strata, regardless of genotype and harvest year. Similar stratification was observed in caffeine in the 2nd year. Although some traits were somewhat changed among strata, no substantial quality changes occurred, thus allowing that harvest might include the entire plant and not only some specific strata. Iapar 59 and 'E083′ showed chemical composition usually associated with high bean quality, with the highest lipid, sucrose, and soluble sugar contents, and the lowest caffeine, chlorogenic acids, and phenolic components among four genotypes, but Iapar 59 plants were less affected in their yield under NI. Based on additional responses from space occupation and yield only under IRR, the wild accession 'E083′ must be considered in future breeding programs as promising material for intensive input conditions. High bean quality and the less variated yield under lower soil water availability qualified the Iapar 59 as the most prominent among the four genotypes.
... arabica L.) and robusta (C. canephora Pierre ex A. Froehner), have commercial value [1,2]. C. arabica originated in Ethiopia and was propagated and dispersed all over the world from a limited number of plants, a fact that, in addition to the autogamous reproduction of the species, led to a narrow genetic base within Arabica coffee cultivars [3][4][5]. ...
... Each accession was given a code starting with the acronym "KSA" (e.g., KSA-1), but, for the sake of simplicity, we dropped the acronym in the figures. The letter "R" was added to the code of accessions [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]45, and 51 to indicate that they were sourced from a small, local coffee germplasm collection established in the Fayfa district. ...
Coffea arabica, a member of the Rubiaceae family, is the most commercially important species of the genus Coffea. It has been grown on the mountain terraces of southwestern Saudi Arabia for centuries. At present, the species is subject to increased genetic erosion due to the abandonment of many gardens by their owners and the increasingly dry climate. The current study was carried out to determine the genetic diversity of 56 local coffee accessions collected from the southern regions of Saudi Arabia using 30 sequence-related amplified polymorphism (SRAP) markers. Six SRAP markers showed polymorphism among the 56 accessions. A total of 1125 bands, with an average of 187.5, was produced from all six SRAP primers. The polymorphic information content (PIC) ranged from 74.8 to 97.7, with an average of 91.4 for all studied SRAP markers. The high polymorphism percentage seen in this study, along with the high number of alleles produced and the high PIC values of the primers used, demonstrate that the SRAP approach was an effective molecular technique for assessing genetic diversity in the studied populations. The structural analysis showed a sharp peak, with no ambiguity, demonstrating the highest delta K value at K = 3 and K = 6, and the coffee accessions could be grouped into three and six main populations, respectively. The PCoA, cluster analysis, and structural population analysis results suggest considerable genetic diversity among coffee populations growing on the southwestern mountain terraces of Saudi Arabia. The 56 accessions were segregated into five groups, mostly according to geographic distribution. The accessions from the southern districts of Jazan region mostly clustered in groups 2 and 4, while the accessions from the northern districts of Al-Baha and Assir regions formed separate groups. Based on these analyses, accessions KSA1R, KSA6R, KSA21, KSA25, KSA37, KSA38, KSA42, KSA59, KSA60, KSA62, and KSA63 were the most divergent. The genotypes should be conserved for use in coffee-breeding programs to improve the agronomic value of the crop, broaden the genetic base of C. arabica in Saudi Arabia and increase environmental resilience. Additional molecular and functional genomics studies are necessary to further elucidate how this germplasm has evolved and enhance the value of local Arabica coffee diversity in the Kingdom.
... Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) and Coffee (Coffea spp.) are important perennial crops belonging to the family of Malvaceae (de Souza et al. 2018) and Rubiaceae (Ferreira et al. 2019), respectively. Cacao beans are mainly used for the production of chocolate and other cocoa products (de Souza et al. 2018), whereas coffee beans are mainly used to produce coffee beverages with unique taste and aroma (Ferreira et al. 2019). ...
... Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) and Coffee (Coffea spp.) are important perennial crops belonging to the family of Malvaceae (de Souza et al. 2018) and Rubiaceae (Ferreira et al. 2019), respectively. Cacao beans are mainly used for the production of chocolate and other cocoa products (de Souza et al. 2018), whereas coffee beans are mainly used to produce coffee beverages with unique taste and aroma (Ferreira et al. 2019). In 2020/21, a global record production of 5.024 million tons of cacao products is forecasted, with Africa contributing the largest cocoa output (77%), followed by the Americas (17%) and Asia-Oceania (6%) regions (International Cocoa Organization 2021). ...
Agricultural farming systems for cacao and coffee crops usually depend on chemical fertilization; however, the excessive use of fertilizers poses environmental threats. Alternative farming inputs are exploited to maintain soil fertility using renewable, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective farming practices. Biological nitrogen fixation is an essential alternative mechanism to chemical fertilization to achieve sustainable agricultural production and healthy ecosystem functioning. Nitrogen fixation is facilitated by diazotrophic rhizobacteria that establish mutual relationships with plants as either associative, endophytic, or symbiotic. These plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria are isolated and characterized to assess their potential use as a sustainable alternative to agrochemical inputs. Despite the numerous studies that demonstrated the promising nitrogen-fixation capabilities of cacao- and coffee-associated microbes, the present review found the lack of studies on the direct application of diazotrophic bacteria on cacao and coffee plants. Meanwhile, intercropping of N2-fixing trees with cacao and coffee in agroforestry ecosystems is extensively studied due to the beneficial effects of N2-fixing trees for the perennial crops in providing available N sources, shade, and protection from biological agents. Hence, this minireview emphasized the two mechanisms by which cacao and coffee plants can acquire N sources from the environment, which are through: (i) intercropping N2-fixing trees and (ii) inoculation of diazotrophic rhizobacteria.Keywords
Biological nitrogen fixation
Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteriaCacaoCoffee
... Finally, the coffee was spread throughout the world from South America. Ferreira et al. 2019 [43] precisely illustrate the origin and dispersion of C. arabica (Figure 1). ...
... Origin and dispersion course of Coffea arabica all the way through the world. Image reproduced from reference [43] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC). ...
Coffea arabica L. is a native coffee species probably originated in Abyssinia, now Ethiopia. The genetic diversity of C. arabica has economic implications directly related to profits by breeding for developing new varieties to a global market. The economic value of C. arabica genetic resources are estimated at US$ 420 million, considered a 10% discount rate. Understanding the extent of traits variability and genetic diversity is essential to guide crosses between genotypes, targeting the development of new varieties with high economic value. This chapter will present the C. arabica economic importance, primarily to Brazil, the most significant world producer; we will outline the origin and dispersion of arabica coffee and briefly show the leading germplasm banks. We will also point out contribution of genetic diversity studies based on morphological, agronomic traits, and molecular markers supporting the development of new varieties. Finally, we present an outline for the future.
... Coffee (Coffea sp.) is the most representative plant of the family Rubiaceae, presenting different species such as Coffea arabica L. and Coffea canephora Pierre, which are the most well-known species of the genus. 1 Coffee production is highly relevant socially and economically and, considering both main varieties grown in the country, Brazil produced 3 Gkg in 2019the highest production and exportation volume in the world. 2 Although it is known that coffee can form fruits without pollinators, both fruit quality and quantity may be increased by the presence of bees. [3][4][5][6] Among pollinators, bees are already known worldwide for their prominent role in the ecosystem service of pollination, and several authors have already shown their efficiency in increasing coffee productivity. ...
... Considering the pollination ecosystem services, it is important to highlight that most crops are ephemeral, especially coffee (flowering), offering superabundant resources during very short time frames. 1 This dynamic of production systems forces pollinators, especially those with life cycles that last longer than the flowering of crops (most pollinator species), to forage for other food sources. 15,16 In addition, crops also seem to homogenize or suppress nesting niches, which leads bees to seek and depend on nesting sites outside plantation areas. ...
BACKGROUND
Natural environments within agricultural landscapes have been recognized as reservoirs of biodiversity and, therefore, providers of fundamental ecosystem services to human beings. Bees are the main providers of pollination and thus contribute to the production of food consumed worldwide. In this work, we evaluated the distribution of bees in an agricultural landscape of coffee plantation before and after coffee flowering. We aimed at understanding how richness, abundance and composition of bee communities vary among the different vegetation types within and around the coffee crops.
RESULTS
A total of 638 bees were collected – 312 in the dry season and 326 in the rainy season – totaling 85 species. The sampling methods collected different species, which provided complementary sampling. Only Euglossa leucotricha and Eulaema nigrita were recurrent in both seasons and vegetation types. There was no temporal difference in richness or abundance; however, both varied in relation to the vegetation type and were higher in the coffee‐native transition area. Diverging from richness or abundance, the composition of the communities differed regarding season and vegetation types.
CONCLUSION
We reinforce the importance of maintaining native vegetation in areas surrounding coffee plantations since the crop poorly hosts pollinators when it is not flowering. Natural and semi‐natural areas may act as reservoirs of floral visitors, thus maintaining potential cross‐pollination services available to coffee production. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry
... arabica L.) and Robusta (C. canephora Pierre ex A. Froehner) (Ferreira et al., 2019). Arabica Coffee is one of the most important agricultural commodities in international trade; more than 125 million people in Asia, Africa and Latin America depend on coffee growing and processing for their livelihoods (Osorio, 2002). ...
Coffee (Coffeaarabica L.) is one of the most important agricultural commodities traded worldwide. The livelihoods of millions of households in Asia, Africa and America depend on it. The sustainability of the supply chain of this crop is increasingly under threat due to the impact of climate change in the main producing countries in the tropics and sub-tropics. The resilience of these agro-ecosystems will depend on the ability of breeders to develop new coffee varieties that can better adapt to changing environmental conditions. Therefore, studying the diversity of coffee populations in the Arabian Peninsula could reveal agronomically interesting genotypes that can be exploited in breeding programs. The objective of the study was to evaluate the diversity among coffee populations in southwestern Saudi Arabia using quantitative morphological, pomological and agronomic traits. The analysis of variance of the data showed differences among the accessions for most of the measured quantitative traits. The accessions varied in growth habit, canopy shape and cherry, bean and leaf dimensions. Cherry fresh mass ranged from 96.5 to 234.8 g in 100 cherries while 100-bean dry mass varied from 9.3 to 22.5 g. The hierarchical cluster analysis divided the accessions into four main groups. The study revealed considerable variability among the 61 accessions. Based on this investigation, accessions KSA-7R, KSA-8 and KSA-9R from Tallan valley, KSA20, KSA21 and KSA52 from Fayfa, KSA38 from Eddayar district, KSA10 and KSA60 from Assir region and KSA61 from Jebel Shada are recommended for further investigationfor their promising agronomic traits.
... Cofee belongs to the genus Cofea and the family Rubiaceae [1]. Cofea arabica (arabica cofee) and Cofea canephora (robusta cofee) are the most popular cofee species, comprising 70% and 24% of worldwide commercial production, respectively [2]. Cofea arabica is tetraploid (2n � 4x � 44) and self-fertile, whereas other Cofea species are diploid (Cn � 2x � 22) and generally selfincompatible [3]. ...
Cofee is the most popular beverage containing numerous phytochemical components that have antioxidant activity capable of scavenging free radicals. Antioxidant and phenolic contents have considerable benefts for human health. Te aim of this study was the molecular identifcation of 9 cofee samples from the Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Lalitpur, Nepal, and the determination of the antioxidant activity and total phenolic content of green and roasted cofee beans. Molecular identifcation was performed using ITS-specifc PCR followed by sequencing and phylogenetic tree construction using the maximum parsimony method. Te DPPH assay was used to determine the antioxidant activity, and the Folin-Ciocalteu (F-C) assay was used to determine the total phenolic content. All the samples belonged to the taxa Cofea arabica. Te antioxidant activity in roasted beans varied from 2.49 to 4.62 AAE mg/g and from 1.4 to 3.9 AAE mg/g in green beans. Te total phenolic content varied from 2.58 to 3.38 GAE mg/g and from 4.16 to 5.36 GAE mg/g for the roasted beans and green beans, respectively. Te data revealed that the highest antioxidant content (4.62 AAE mg/g) was found in roasted cofee and that the highest phenolic content (5.36 GAE mg/g) was found in green cofee. Te study concludes that roasting increases the antioxidant activity but decreases the phenolic content of cofee.
... On the other hand, in relation to SCGs extracts, temperature substantially influences its organoleptic characteristics (i.e., aroma, flavor, color). While an increase in temperature promote the extraction of organic compounds during coffee brewing [57], exposure to medium-high temperatures during long-term filtration can cause the loss of volatile and bioactive compounds of coffee extracts, thus compromising the quality of the final concentrate [58]. PYC is the main component of the phycocyanin extract while SCGs extract is a heterogeneous matrix, from which both CAF and TFC were selected as representative indicators of the stream quality. ...
... Coffea arabica L. belongs to the family Rubiaceae (Noir et al., 2004). It was widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, and Latin America (Ferreira T. et al., 2019). C. arabica is an essential agricultural crop mainly grown as a cash crop in tropical countries (Vidal et al., 2010). ...
Background
Coffea arabica L. is one of the most important crops widely cultivated in 70 countries across Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Mitochondria are essential organelles that play critical roles in cellular respiration, metabolism, and differentiation. C. arabica’s nuclear and chloroplast genomes have been reported. However, its mitochondrial genome remained unreported. Here, we intended to sequence and characterize its mitochondrial genome to maximize the potential of its genomes for evolutionary studies, molecular breeding, and molecular marker developments.
Results
We sequenced the total DNA of C. arabica using Illumina and Nanopore platforms. We then assembled the mitochondrial genome with a hybrid strategy using Unicycler software. We found that the mitochondrial genome comprised two circular chromosomes with lengths of 867,678 bp and 153,529 bp, encoding 40 protein-coding genes, 26 tRNA genes, and three rRNA genes. We also detected 270 Simple Sequence Repeats and 34 tandem repeats in the mitochondrial genome. We found 515 high-scoring sequence pairs (HSPs) for a self-to-self similarity comparison using BLASTn. Three HSPs were found to mediate recombination by the mapping of long reads. Furthermore, we predicted 472 using deep-mt with the convolutional neural network model. Then we randomly validated 90 RNA editing events by PCR amplification and Sanger sequencing, with the majority being non-synonymous substitutions and only three being synonymous substitutions. These findings provide valuable insights into the genetic characteristics of the C. arabica mitochondrial genome, which can be helpful for future study on coffee breeding and mitochondrial genome evolution.
Conclusion
Our study sheds new light on the evolution of C. arabica organelle genomes and their potential use in genetic breeding, providing valuable data for developing molecular markers that can improve crop productivity and quality. Furthermore, the discovery of RNA editing events in the mitochondrial genome of C. arabica offers insights into the regulation of gene expression in this species, contributing to a better understanding of coffee genetics and evolution.
... The coffee plant genus, Coffea, encompasses over 100 species, but for widespread consumption, two species hold prominence: Coffea arabica (commonly known as Arabica coffee) and Coffea canephora (often inaccurately referred to as Robusta coffee) [4]. Arabica coffee, known for its nuanced flavors and higher acidity, is generally considered superior in quality. ...
Coffee is one of the most popular beverages in the world. It is made from roasted and ground beans of the coffee plant. There are over 100 species of coffee plants, but only 2 are widely available: Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora. There are many different ways to prepare coffee. The most common method is to brew the coffee with hot water. However, there are also many other methods, such as those employed to produce cold brew, espresso, and Turkish coffee. The brewing method can affect the flavor of the coffee. The identification of coffee species, varieties, origins and processing and preparation methods is important for a number of reasons. First, it can help to ensure that coffee is of the highest quality. Second, it can help to track the origin of coffee, which can be important for marketing and sustainability purposes. Third, it can help to develop new coffee products and to improve the quality of coffee. There are a number of different methods that can be used to identify coffee species, varieties, origins, and processing and preparation methods. One method requires the use of molecular biology techniques. Molecular biology techniques can be used to identify the genetic markers that are unique to each species of coffee plant. Another method is chemical analysis. Chemical analyses, such as NMR or GC/MS, can be used to identify the hundreds of compounds that are present in coffee, which can be used to determine the origin and processing and preparation methods of the coffee. This introductory lecture will summarize the current state of the art in coffee identification techniques and introduce the audience to the following specialized talks.
... Coffee is mainly grown in tropical and subtropical regions (Berthaud & Charrier, 1988). The three species of coffee with primary importance for worldwide commercial production are Coffea arabica, C. canephora, and C. liberica (Farah & Dos Santos, 2015), (Ferreira et al., 2019). C. arabica is the only tetraploid (2 n = 4x = 44) and self-fertile species in the genus, whilst the others are diploid (2 n = 2x = 22) and genetically self-incompatible (Clarindo & Carvalho, 2008). ...
Problems of Chinese Citrus Fly (CCF), Bactrocera minax (Enderlein) in citrus
orchards have been increasing in Nepal. The reason behind the failure in CCF control is the lack of a clear and thorough understanding of the adult emergence period in different altitudes. Therefore, the pupae of CCF were collected from the soil below the infested sweet orange trees in Sunapati Rural Municipality, Ramechhap, Nepal and reared in containers of height 5 cm and diameter 6 cm (10 pupae per container) in randomized complete block design selecting different locations as treatments, viz. 1247 masl (Bethan), 1354 masl (Nagsiwa), 1443 masl (Aarukharka), 1561 masl (Sadi), 1650 masl (Dimipokhari) replicating four times. Early peak emergences of adult CCF (four weeks earlier in 4th week of April) occurred at lower altitudes as compared to the higher altitudes (in 4th week of May), where peak emergence was recorded. Male: female ratio (range 1.05-1.37) did not differ significantly at different altitudes, while pupal mortality (25%) was found to be the highest in upper elevations. The study concludes that fly management strategy should be made according to the date of emergence at least two weeks earlier at lower elevations than in higher elevations.
... The average area harvested during that period was 40 000 hectares. In 2019 the yield rate was 1.35 tonnes/hectare while the average between 2010 and 2019 was 0.78 tonnes per hectare [39][40][41][42][43][44][45]. The average global yield rate between 2010 and 2019 was 0.87 tonnes per hectare and that for Africa was 0.44 tonnes per hectare however, there still remains a lot that can be done to ensure that Rwanda reaches the full economic potential of its coffee production and export. ...
Coffee contributes significantly to the economy of Rwanda as a major export product and the livelihood of thousands of Rwandans. As such, the government of Rwanda has taken great strides to develop the coffee production sector particularly in developing infrastructure impacted by the genocide and implementing policies to ensure sustainable growth. This study aimed to give an economic analysis of the coffee market in Rwanda. It examined the factors affecting the coffee market and identified the major in the market globally and regionally and used them as a benchmark for comparison. The study showed various measures being taken to increase the quantity of coffee produced including increasing the area of harvested coffee following a drop in area from a high of 55 000 hectares in 2014 to 21 700 hectares in 2019. Rwanda’s National Agricultural Export Board implemented measures to improve yields and production quality through providing fertilizers, improving management of wash stations and engaging private stakeholders and NGOs to train farmers in smart agriculture techniques. Consequentially the quantity of coffee produced and exported improved between 2014 and 2019.
... During the dry processing method, coffee cherries are sun-dried, and the outer layers of the coffee cherry are mechanically separated from the green beans [7]. Knowledge of the anatomical parts of the cherry is vital for accurately characterizing the individual parts of the coffee cherry and comparing the content compositions of these parts [8]. The definition and composition of cascara depend on the type of processing employed: the wet or dry method [9]. ...
Coffee processing is a major contributor to the creation of food and product waste. Using coffee co-products can play an essential role in addressing environmental problems and issues with nutritionally unbalanced foods, population growth, and food-related diseases. This research aimed to determine the quality and sensory parameters (aw, pH, dry matter, TAC, TPC, fat, fatty acids profile, fiber, caffeine, chlorogenic acids, color, and sensory analysis) of different botanical origins of cascara (coffee husks) and silverskin (thin layer). The results of this study show that silverskin and cascara are a good source of TAC (1S 58.17 ± 1.28%, 2S 46.65 ± 1.20%, 1C 36.54 ± 1.84%, 2C 41.12 ± 2.11%). Cascara showed the presence of polyphenols (2C 49.135 g GAE·kg−1). Coffee co-products are good sources of fiber. Silverskin had higher values of caffeine than cascara. Palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and arachidic acids were the most represented acids in the samples. Given the obtained results, cascara can be considered “low-fat” (1C 4.240 g·kg−1 and 2C 5.4 g·kg−1). Based on the sensory evaluation, no sample reached the acceptable index value of 70%. Understanding the link between the character, identification properties, and composition of coffee co-products of different botanical origins can enable their application in the food industry.
... Caffeine is the most consumed stimulant worldwide due to its various effects and mechanisms of action (Ferreira et al., 2019). In fact, the two most used coffee beans in the genus Coffea are Coffea arabica L. and Coffea canephora Pierre. ...
Obesity affects more than 10% of the adult population globally. Despite the introduction of diverse medications aimed at combating fat accumulation and obesity, a significant number of these pharmaceutical interventions are linked to substantial occurrences of severe adverse events, occasionally leading to their withdrawal from the market. Natural products serve as attractive sources for anti-obesity agents as many of them can alter the host metabolic processes and maintain glucose homeostasis via metabolic and thermogenic stimulation, appetite regulation, pancreatic lipase and amylase inhibition, insulin sensitivity enhancing, adipogenesis inhibition and adipocyte apoptosis induction. In this review, we shed light on the biological processes that control energy balance and thermogenesis as well as metabolic pathways in white adipose tissue browning, we also highlight the anti-obesity potential of natural products with their mechanism of action. Based on previous findings, the crucial proteins and molecular pathways involved in adipose tissue browning and lipolysis induction are uncoupling protein-1, PR domain containing 16, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ in addition to Sirtuin-1 and AMP-activated protein kinase pathway. Given that some phytochemicals can also lower proinflammatory substances like TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1 secreted from adipose tissue and change the production of adipokines like leptin and adiponectin, which are important regulators of body weight, natural products represent a treasure trove for anti-obesity agents. In conclusion, conducting comprehensive research on natural products holds the potential to accelerate the development of an improved obesity management strategy characterized by heightened efficacy and reduced incidence of side effects.
... For example, poplar trees provide many ecosystem services such as phytoremediation, substrate for biofuels, and other bioproducts (Zalesny et al., 2020), but can take 10 years to flower (Hsu et al., 2006). Coffee trees do not flower until the second year, and it is not until the third year that they reach maturity (Santos et al., 2019). Even in annual crops such as maize, where two generations per year are routinely completed using winter nurseries, more generations per year would increase the annual genetic gain significantly. ...
Efforts to increase genetic gains in breeding programs of flowering plants depend on making genetic crosses. Time to flowering, which can take months to decades depending on the species, can be a limiting factor in such breeding programs. It has been proposed that the rate of genetic gain can be increased by reducing the time between generations by circumventing flowering through the in vitro induction of meiosis. In this review, we assess technologies and approaches that may offer a path towards meiosis induction, the largest current bottleneck for in vitro plant breeding. Studies in non-plant, eukaryotic organisms indicate that the in vitro switch from mitotic cell division to meiosis is inefficient and occurs at very low rates. Yet, this has been achieved with mammalian cells by the manipulation of a limited number of genes. Therefore, to experimentally identify factors that switch mitosis to meiosis in plants, it is necessary to develop a high-throughput system to evaluate a large number of candidate genes and treatments, each using large numbers of cells, few of which may gain the ability to induce meiosis.
... The basic function of roots is to improve soil and substrate structure (Ferreira et al., 2019). The stem of the main plant has orthotropic characteristics that grow vertically, and the nature of coffee branches is that when one branch dies, a new branch will be replaced, which strengthens the position of the coffee plant as a perennial plant. ...
p>Critical land in Indonesia is the result of weather disturbances, natural disasters, farming behavior without considering the preservation of nature, and the unwise use of chemical fertilizers. Critical land tends to be acidic and has a soil structure that does not support cultivation. Coffee plants are flexible plants, and their root systems and ecology can improve soil structure. The need for coffee at home and abroad tends to increase along with the development of coffee consumption as a lifestyle for Generation Z (Gen-Z). The economic value of coffee, which tends to increase, opens the insight of farmers to continue to develop this coffee plantation area. In the development of planting areas, knowledge of critical land optimization is needed, which is a principal factor as the basis for implementing critical land extensification. For this reason, the purpose of this study was to determine the level of knowledge of farmers on optimizing critical land into strategic land and efforts to develop coffee agribusiness in critical land. This study used a quantitative descriptive method and used the SmartPLS3 analysis tool. The results showed that internal factors, external factors, and motivation of farmers affect the level of knowledge about optimization of critical land, critical land management must meet ecological conservation and improve the community's economy in a structured manner, the extensification of critical land using coffee plants is one of the strategic steps for critical land optimization, as well as the development of coffee agribusiness, both seeds and waste as an effort to increase farmers' income.</p
... Coffee is the most regularly consumed, pharmacologically active caffeine-containing beverage and the second most traded commodity next to edible oil [1]. It was discovered in Africa and through time distributed to different countries around the globe [2]. ...
... Coffee is among the most consumed beverage globally with a consumption amounting to approximately 166.346 million bags during the 2020/2021 period (ICO, 2021). So far, over 100 species within the genus Coffea have been identified with Coffea arabica (arabica) and Coffea canephora (robusta) being the most widely cultivated from an economic and commercial point of view (Ferreira et al., 2019). There are quality differences between the two species resulting from differences in their genetic make-up, as well as the agronomic conditions for their cultivation. ...
Coffee authenticity is a foundational aspect of quality when considering coffee's market value. This has become important given frequent adulteration and mislabelling for economic gains. Therefore, this research aimed to investigate the ability of a deep autoencoder neural network to detect adulterants in roasted coffee and to determine a coffee's geographical origin (roasted) using near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. Arabica coffee was adulterated with robusta coffee or chicory at adulteration levels ranging from 2.5% to 30% in increments of 2.5% at light, medium and dark roast levels. First, the autoencoder was trained using pure arabica coffee before being used to detect the presence of adulterants in the samples. Furthermore, it was used to determine the geographical origin of coffee. All samples adulterated with chicory were detectable by the autoencoder at all roast levels. In the case of robusta‐adulterated samples, detection was possible at adulteration levels above 7.5% at medium and dark roasts. Additionally, it was possible to differentiate coffee samples from different geographical origins. PCA analysis of adulterated samples showed grouping based on the type and concentration of the adulterant. In conclusion, using an autoencoder neural network in conjunction with NIR spectroscopy could be a reliable technique to ensure coffee authenticity.
... This may become a problem as the new workers often find it challenging to distinguish the Arabica from the Robusta coffee. According to Ferreira et al. (2019), Arabica and Robusta coffee can be classified according to their shapes as they are physically different. Arabica has smaller leaves with a darker and glossy surface, while the leaves of Robusta coffee are lighter, less shiny, more extensive, and slightly wavy. ...
PurposeArabica and Robusta coffee plants are physically distinctive as manifested in their leaves, leaf shape, color, and size. However, for ordinary people or those who have just begun their business in coffee cultivation, identifying the type of coffee plant can be challenging. In this study, we incorporated and evaluated deep learning technology to identify the types of coffee based on leaf image identification.Methods
In this study, we designed a deep learning architecture and compared it with the well-known approaches, including LeNet, AlexNet, ResNet-50, and GoogleNet. A total of 19,980 image datasets were split into training and testing data, consisting of 15,984 images and 3,996 images, respectively.ResultsThe hyperparameters were taken into account where the use of 100 epoch and 0.0001 learning rate provided the highest accuracy. In addition, 10-fold cross-validation and ROC were used for evaluating the proposed architectures. The results show that the developed convolutional neural network (CNN) generated the highest accuracy of 97.67% compared to LeNet, AlexNet, ResNet-50, and GoogleNet with an accuracy rate of 97.20%, 95.10%, 72.35%, and 82,16%, respectively.Conclusions
The modified-CNN algorithm had satisfactory accuracy in identifying different types of coffee. The underlying principles of such classification draw specific attention to the leaf shape, size, and color of Arabica and Robusta coffee. For future works, it is a potential method that can be used to rapidly identify diverse varieties of Robusta and Arabica coffee plants based on leaf tissue and above canopy characteristics.
... The Coffea genus comprises more than 120 species (Davis et al. 2011;Ferreira et al. 2019); however, only two of them are of economic importance, C. arabica and C. canephora. C. arabica covers 60% of the market, while C. canephora has the other 40% (ICO 2022). ...
Somatic embryogenesis (SE) is a biological process by which somatic cells can be differentiated and undifferentiated by epigenetic reprograming. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), considered key regulatory elements during vegetative development, have been identified as essential players in early responses during the induction of SE. However, the role of these small molecules during SE in coffee is poorly understood. In the present work, 16 miRNAs from Coffea canephora were analyzed in detail from a total of 40 miRNAs candidates, and their possible role in the earlier stages of SE was analyzed. We found that miR164, miR168, miR535 and miR2119 were related to differentiation and the formation of the globular stage, while miR166, miR168, miR393, miR397, miR398, miR1524 and miR2119 were observed during the heart stage development. Also, it was revealed that among the target genes of those miRNAs are SQUAMOSA, LACCASE, CUP-SHAPED COTYLEDON, ARFs and other genes involved in cell division and differentiation. Our data suggest a differential and cooperative role for miR535, miR164, miR2119 and miR157a during the earliest stages of SE in C. canephora, supporting their regulatory role in the cellular totipotency of plants.
Coffee is one of the most widely traded commodities worldwide and its popularity is only increasing. The International Coffee Organisation (ICO) reported a 6% increase in global production in 2020 to 10.5 million tonnes. Coffee production is quite involved (from sowing to harvesting, processing, packaging, and storage); consequently, the industry faces major challenges in terms of the assessment of its quality, flavour, and the components which contribute to coffee's characterisation, as well as the sustainability of coffee production and global trade. This has prompted multiple studies on the nature of the aroma and taste of the many varieties of coffee around the world, which has resulted in the identification of approximately 1000 volatile compounds and the development and implementation of upwards of 100 lexicons to describe the specific sensory characteristics of coffee. The complex nature of coffee has necessitated the development and incorporation of new analytical methodologies, such as multidimensional separation technologies and spectroscopy coupled with multivariant analysis, to qualify the essential characteristics of coffee's flavour. This work aims to review the research on coffee's flavour, covering the roasting process of coffee beans, the volatile and non-volatile components generated by this process, and the chemical reactions responsible for their formation, as well as coffee's sustainability, the coffee value chain, and various forms of regulation, particularly the current emphasis on 'fair trade'.
Societal Impact Statement
Despite strong historical declines, Guadeloupe and Haiti's coffee sectors remain important to rural communities' livelihood and resilience. Coffee also holds value as part of the islands' historical legacy and cultural identities. Furthermore, it is often grown in agroforestry systems providing important ecosystem services, which will become more important as these vulnerable islands work to adapt to a changing climate. Current efforts to revitalize coffee farms and target strategically important specialty markets would benefit from understanding existing genetic resources and the historical factors that shaped them. Our study reveals the rich history reflected in current coffee stands on the islands.
Summary
The West Indies, particularly former French colonies like Haiti and Guadeloupe, were central to the spread of coffee in the Americas. The histories of these Islands are shared until the 19th century, where they diverged significantly. Still, both Islands experienced a strong decline in their coffee sector. Characterizing the genetic and varietal diversity of their coffee resources and understanding historical factors shaping them can help support revitalization efforts.
To that end, we performed Kompetitve Allele‐Specific PCR (KASP) genotyping of 80 informative single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers on field samples from across main coffee‐growing region of Guadeloupe, and two historically important ones in Haiti, as well as 146 reference accessions from international collections. We also compared bioclimatic variables from sampled geographic areas and searched for historical determinants of present coffee resources.
At least five Coffea arabica varietal groups were found in Haiti, versus two in Guadeloupe, with admixed individuals in both. The traditional Typica variety is still present in both islands, growing across a variety of climatic environments. We also found Coffea canephora on both islands, with multiple likely origins, and identified C. liberica var. liberica in Guadeloupe.
These differences are explained by the Islands' respective histories. Overall, Guadeloupe experienced fewer, but older introductions of non‐Typica coffee. By contrast, several recent introductions have taken place in Haiti, driven by local and global factors and reflecting the history of Arabica varietal development and spread. Diversity on these islands is dynamic, and our results reveal opportunities and limits to the future of Guadeloupean and Haitian coffee.
This review explores the historical, botanical, sensory, and quality aspects of Coffea canephora, with a focus on Brazil’s rise as a producer of specialty canephora coffees in the Amazon region, Espírito Santo, and Bahia. Brazil has gained global recognition through the first geographical indications for canephora: Matas de Rondônia for robusta amazônico coffee and Espírito Santo for Conilon coffee. Despite this, comprehensive insights into how variety, terroir, environmental conditions, and cultivation practices influence the chemical and sensory attributes of Brazilian canephora remain underdeveloped compared to well-studied arabica coffee. Producers and researchers are working to elevate canephora coffees to higher market levels, despite technological, production, and perception challenges stemming from its historical reputation for poor quality. Ensuring the sustainability of Amazonian canephora coffee without deforestation is particularly challenging due to the need to verify practices across numerous small-scale farms. There is also a critical need for standardized production and tasting protocols for Brazilian canephora, leveraging local expertise and professional cuppers to ensure consistent quality and reliable sustainability claims. Significant opportunities exist in valuing the production chain of geographically unique canephora coffees, which could increase specialty exports, enhance economic prospects for local farmers, and support Amazon preservation. Recognizing and marketing these coffees as premium products with unique flavor profiles can boost their global appeal. Another challenge lies in establishing new specialty standards for soluble coffee from specialty canephora to meet consumer demands for convenience without compromising taste or ethical standards. In such a scenario, several analytical methods have been suggested to identify high-quality variants, combating their stigmatization. The potential of spectroscopy techniques and chemometrics-based data science is highlighted in confirming coffee quality, authenticity, traceability, and geographical origin, enhancing model interpretation and predictive accuracy through synergistic and complementary information. Non-targeted spectroscopic analyses, providing comprehensive spectral fingerprints, are contrasted with targeted analyses. Overall, this review offers valuable insights for the coffee scientific community, exporters, importers, roasters, and consumers in recognizing the potential of Brazilian canephora coffees.
Six popular and widely cultivated arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.) varieties of commercial importance namely Selection 5B, Selection 13, Selection 11, Selection 8, Selection 7.3 and Selection 3 were tested for their genetic identity with ISSR markers. Fifteen ISSR primers were tested using genomic DNA of selected coffee varieties. Pooled genomic DNA of all the six varieties was amplified with each ISSR primer with an average of four loci per primer. The size range of locus amplified by all the fifteen primers was ranging from 100 to 1200 bp depending upon on the ISSR primers. Only three out of fifteen primers, namely ISSR4, ISSR6 and ISSR8, were screened based on the number of amplified locus and size range from low to high. The selective ISSR primers distinguished all the six varieties of coffee with unique markers. ISSR 4 amplified two unique markers with a locus size 1300 bp and 950 bp for Sln.5B and 180 bp and 150 bp for Sln.13. ISSR6 had produced five varietal-specific markers with a locus size of 180 bp in Sln.5B, 1250 bp in Sln.11, 350 bp in Sln.3. ISSR8 had amplified seven unique loci across the coffee varieties with 700 bp and 800 bp in Sln.5B, 200 bp and 500 bp in Sln.11 and one locus each in Sln.7.3 and Sln.3 with 300 bp and 150 bp respectively. Repeated amplification of genomic DNA of all the six varieties of coffee with selective ISSR primers produced consistent ISSR genetic fingerprints. Selective ISSR primers were validated with marker parameters resolving power (RP), effective multiplex ratio (EMR), marker index (MI) and polymorphic information content (PIC). Utilisation of these markers in arabica coffee genetic improvement is discussed.
This study aimed to identify and characterize the coffee varieties cultivated in
Nepal using molecular phylogenetic analysis. The molecular identification and
genetic relationship of twenty five coffee varieties were collected from the Nepal
Coffee Development Center, Gulmi, Nepal. DNA was isolated from leaf tissue, and
Internal Transcribed Spacers Region (ITS)-specific PCR was performed, followed
by sequencing and phylogenetic tree construction. BLASTN was performed to
identify the similarities with the sequences of the National Center for Biotechnology
Information (NCBI) Database. Evolutionary divergence between the sequences was
computed using Maximum Composite Likelihood Model. Sequences were analyzed
using Maximum Likelihood Model and Tamura-Nei model to construct molecular
phylogeny. BLASTN and molecular phylogeny confirm all the samples to be Coffea
arabica. Evolutionary divergence in pairwise comparison was found to be 0% to
4.3%. Divergence of 4.3% was detected between CDC-S21 and CDC-S73. With this,
we identified the coffee samples to be C. arabica and we also computed relatedness
among our varieties.
Coffee is one of the most traded commodities world‐wide. As with 70% of land plants, coffee is associated with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, but the molecular bases of this interaction are unknown.
We studied the mycorrhizal phenotype of two commercially important Coffea arabica cultivars (‘Typica National’ and ‘Catimor Amarillo’), upon Funnelliformis mosseae colonisation grown under phosphorus limitation, using an integrated functional approach based on multi‐omics, physiology and biochemistry.
The two cultivars revealed a strong biomass increase upon mycorrhization, even at low level of fungal colonisation, improving photosynthetic efficiency and plant nutrition. The more important iconic markers of AM symbiosis were activated: We detected two gene copies of AM‐inducible phosphate (Pt4), ammonium (AM2) and nitrate (NPF4.5) transporters, which were identified as belonging to the C. arabica parental species (C. canephora and C. eugenioides) with both copies being upregulated. Transcriptomics data were confirmed by ions and metabolomics analyses, which highlighted an increased amount of glucose, fructose and flavonoid glycosides.
In conclusion, both coffee cultivars revealed a high responsiveness to the AM fungus along their root‐shoot axis, showing a clear‐cut re‐organisation of the major metabolic pathways, which involve nutrient acquisition, carbon fixation, and primary and secondary metabolism.
Roasting is responsible for imparting the main characteristics to coffee, but the high temperatures used in the process can lead to the formation of several potentially toxic substances. Among them, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, acrylamide, furan and its derivative compounds, α-dicarbonyls and advanced glycation end products, 4-methylimidazole, and chloropropanols stand out. The objective of this review is to present a current and comprehensive overview of the chemical contaminants formed during coffee roasting, including a discussion of mitigation strategies reported in the literature to decrease the concentration of these toxicants. Although the formation of the contaminants occurs during the roasting step, knowledge of the coffee production chain as a whole is important to understand the main variables that will impact their concentrations in the different coffee products. The precursors and routes of formation are generally different for each contaminant, and the formed concentrations can be quite high for some substances. In addition, the study highlights several mitigation strategies related to decreasing the concentration of precursors, modifying process conditions and eliminating/degrading the formed contaminant. Many of these strategies show promising results, but there are still challenges to be overcome, since little information is available about advantages and disadvantages in relation to aspects such as costs, potential for application on an industrial scale and impacts on sensory properties.
OBJECTIVE To review researches done on coffee consumption benefits and risks on human health. RESULTS Coffee has many chemical compounds like caffeine, diterpene, alcohols, and chlorogenic acid, that make it valuable for human health when used at per recommended level. Consumption of 3 up to 5 cups as standard daily is believed to prevent different kinds of chronic illnesses. The coffee drink is linked with the prevention of several illnesses, including Parkinson's disease, liver disease, and Diabetes mellitus, helps to burn fat, increases our physical routine, boosts mood, and decreases depression and suicide risk. It also reduces the risk of dementia, stroke, colorectal, and prostate cancer. Side effects are related to overdrinking and it can be controlled by consuming an appropriate amount of coffee in a day. Some groups, including people with hypertension, pregnant women, children, and the elderly are prone to the side effects of coffee and they have to limit their intake. Even though coffee has been associated with a lot of health benefits, more research is needed to identify its effect on health, possible future use as a remedy, and safe level of consumption considering its preparation and factors like age, sex, and different health issues.
The world consumers and companies are facing a shortage of resources of different nature, as well as dealing with a recent pandemic and growing chronic diseases associated with different food products that in their preparation are enriched or added by substances or compounds derived from chemical synthesis; for this reason, the search for food products with biologically active and environmentally friendly properties is increasing in the markets from all over the world. These compounds are derived from plant, animal, and mineral products, especially from agro-industrial by-products that arouse the interest of the scientific community as an available, profitable, and sustainable source of a wide range of biologically active compounds. For this reason, the objective of this review focuses on one of the agricultural sectors with the highest production in the world such as the by-products derived from coffee processing, focusing on the biological potential, and the profile of bioactive compounds, of recent work, carried out by various researchers around the world. This review evaluates previous work done by different researchers on the potential represented by coffee by-products as a source of bioactive compounds such as fiber, carbohydrates, polyphenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, procyanidins, tannins, caffeine, chlorogenic acid, and other organic compounds. These identified compounds are of vital importance to be studied separately so that each molecule has properties according to its biological activity, in addition to some food products that have already been fortified or enriched with compounds derived from the coffee pulp as well as the production of functional drink, honey, tea, syrup, and flours, making clear the high nutritional and nutraceutical value of agro-industrial by-products.
The objective of this work was the development of a green extraction method based on the use of a deep eutectic solvent (DES) to extract caffeine from coffee pulp (CP). Choline chloride and glycerol were used as hydrogen bond acceptor and hydrogen bond donor, respectively. ATR-FTIR and viscosity measurements were conducted for the characterization of DES mixtures. The effects of DES mixtures concentration (CDES), liquid-to-solid ratio (L/S), extraction temperature (T) on caffeine extraction yield (CCaf) and extract antiradical activity (AAR) were studied, and the extraction process was optimized. The optimum of extraction was achieved at a temperature of 55 °C, a solvent/pulp ratio of 47 mL/g, and a DES concentration of 70% w/v in aqueous solution. In addition, a mathematical model to describe the kinetic mechanisms of the extraction was developed, whereas the dependence of the best descriptive model constants on extraction variables was expressed by an appropriate model. These results would offer scientific reference for promoting the valorization of coffee pulp.
The devastating disease Coffee Leaf Rust, caused by Hemileia vastatrix (Hv), has been the major constraint to worldwide coffee production. Recently, Hv populations were shown to be structured into three divergent genetic lineages with marked host specialization (C1, C2 and C3). However, there is yet no overall understanding on the population dynamics and adaptation of the most widespread and epidemiological relevant Hv group (C3). We used RAD sequencing to generate 13,804 SNPs across a worldwide collection of 99 Hv isolates. Phylogenetic analyses uncovered a well-supported structuring within C3, with three main subgroups (SGI, SGII and SGIII), which seem to reflect the historical distribution, breeding and exchange of coffee cultivars. SGI shows a ladder-like diversification pattern and occurs across all 4 continents sampled, SGII is mainly restricted to Africa and SGIII is only observed in Timor, revealing a higher genetic differentiation. Outlier and association tests globally identified 112 SNPs under putative positive selection which impacted population structure. In particular, 29 overlapping SNPs per se seemed to have an extremely strong effect on Hv population divergence. We also found exclusive and fixed alleles associated to the SGs supporting local adaptation. Functional annotation revealed that transposable elements may play a role in host adaptation. Our study provides a higher-resolution perspective on the evolutionary history of Hv on cultivated coffee, showing its strong ability to adapt and the strength of the selective force imposed by coffee hosts, which should be taken into account when designing strategies for both pathogen dissemination control and selective breeding.
The choice of parents is a vital first step in any variety development process. This is particularly imperative in tree crops that require minimally 15–20 years to complete a varietal development. The present study was conducted to determine genetic distances (GDs) between parental clones of Robusta coffee hybrids and assess the relationship between GD and hybrid performance. The experimental material consisted of 64 parental clones and 56 hybrids. The hybrids were evaluated over 11 years, planted in a randomized complete block design with six replications. GD among parental clones was determined based on 120 SNP markers. The results revealed a significant correlation (r = 0.351, p < 0.0082) between GD of parental clones and yield performance of their hybrids. Posterior selection of highest GD hybrids revealed an increase in yield gain over general mean with increasing GD between parental clones of hybrids. Furthermore, comparison of inter‐ and intra‐population hybrids classified using Bayesian clustering analysis revealed consistent outcome where inter‐group hybrids outperformed intra‐group hybrids for cumulative yield. These results supported the hypothesis that GD is related to the yield performance of Robusta coffee hybrids and is an efficient predicator of hybrid performance for yield.
Coffea arabica L. belongs to the Rubiaceae family, and the genus Coffea is believed to have a primary center of origin and genetic variability in the highlands of southwestern Ethiopia. It is a vital beverage commodity across the world and a valuable export product, ranking second in international trade after petroleum. Ethiopia is among the top five major coffee-producing countries and is Africa’s leading producer. However, its full production capacity has not yet been exploited, and research efforts to reduce biotic and abiotic factors through reproduction have been extremely limited. Hence, improvement through different breeding methods is essential to overcome the constraints in its production. Thus, the objective of this study is to review the different breeding methods applied for different traits in Ethiopia. Breeding methods depend on the type and the source of traits and the final breeding objectives. The main breeding objectives are production, resistance/tolerance to diseases, and cup quality. The commonly applied breeding methods are selected and intra-specific hybridization, germplasm enhancement, and the development of improved varieties with wider adaptability. There is also a practice of crossing parental lines selected for certain desirable traits for the development of hybrid varieties. Accordingly, some promising success has been obtained. Forty-one coffee varieties have been released so far. Because conventional breeding methods are time-consuming, integrating conventional breeding methods with biotechnological techniques could have an instrumental role in the rapid development of suitable varieties for the changing climate.
Coffee beverage is one of the most popular beverages worldwide and because of its proved health benefits, it may be regarded as functional food. The potential functional properties of coffee beverage have been associated with its bioactive compounds including caffeine, chlorogenic acids, and melanoidins which are Maillard reaction products. The extraction of coffee soluble from the roasted and ground coffee seed is a complex operation and brewing/cooking method plays an important role on the extraction and amount of the key compounds in the coffee beverage. This review provides how the roasting level and brewing techniques affect the key compounds, physicochemical attributes, and health of coffee beverage. The role of compounds caffeine, chlorogenic acids, melanoidins and the diterpenes cafestol and kahweol in the body are reviewed along with their impact on health by examining the results of the studies involving the coffee consumption. According to the reviewed studies daily intake of 2 to 3 cups of coffee beverage is safe and may support metabolic health, mental health, enhance mood, increase alertness, be effective against hypertension, help us to fight depression, prevent several chronical disease risks including type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases and degenerative diseases, such as cancer like liver cancer, cardiovascular disorders. However, some data implies the negative effects on health that it may be cautious for pregnant women and need to limit coffee consumption no more than 300 mg/d of caffeine.
Coffee (Coffea sp.) is one of the leading commodities in Indonesia for it has a high economic value. In Bangelan Village, Malang Regency, there is a company that manages robusta coffee commodity. The land was converted into a coffee plantation from forest land. The conversion of forest land into a coffee plantation caused the decreasing number of total soil pores lower than the forest land. This will make it difficult for water to absorb into the soil. This research was conducted in Afdeling Besaran, PT. Perkebunan Nusantara XII Kebun Bangelan to elucidate the value of soil permeability and the nature of the relationship between them. The result of this research indicated that the permeability of the soil on each land map unit was in the category of fast permeability class and slightly fast permeability class. The highest soil permeability value was found on land map unit 2 at the 56 years average age of coffee robusta field, with each depth of 6.03 cm hour-1, 7.95 cm hour-1, and 7.82 cm hour-1. Soil permeability is influenced by soil porosity, sand and silt with a positive correlation way. In addition, aggregate stability, soil bulk density and clay also significantly affected the soil permeability with a negative correlation way. Permeability affected the production of robusta coffee plants with a positive correlation way of 16.09%.
The ecophysiological constraints on the production of the arabica and robusta coffee under shading or full sunlight are reviewed. These two species, which account for almost all the world’s production, were originally considered shade-obligatory, although unshaded plantations may out-yield shaded ones. As a rule, the benefits of shading increase as the environment becomes less favorable for coffee cultivation. Biennial production and branch die-back, which are strongly decreased under shading, are discussed. The relationships between gas exchange performance and key environmental factors are emphasized.
Ecophysiological aspects of high density plantings are also examined.
Alphonse de Candolle (1806-93) was a French-Swiss botanist who was an important figure in the study of the origins of plants and the reasons for their geographic distribution. He also created the first Code of Botanical Nomenclature. Despite initially studying law, he took over both the chair of botany at the University of Geneva, and the directorship of Geneva's botanical gardens from his father Augustin de Candolle (1778-1841). He published numerous botanical books, and edited ten volumes of the Prodromus, a seventeen-volume reference text intended to cover the key properties of all known seed plants. This work, reissued in the second edition of the English translation of 1886, is his most famous and influential book, tracing the geographic origins of plants known to have been cultivated by humans. It is one of the earliest studies of the history of crop domestication, and an important contribution to phytogeography.
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