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233
16 Universal Design:
Empathy and Affinity
George Edward Torrens
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Why is it important for a designer to realize products and services for people who are elderly and/
or disabled? The answer to this question may be provided by the author’s own decision to work in
this eld. As a young designer in the 1980s, he wanted to make a difference to the quality of life
of those in his society. On review of areas within which one could work, it was clear that medical
CONTENTS
16.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................233
16.1.1 Denitions Relating to Function and Disability .......................................................234
16.1.2 Denitions Relating to Design ..................................................................................234
16.2 Know Your Market: Some of the Challenges ....................................................................... 235
16.2.1 Market Size and Implications for a New Product Development .............................. 236
16.2.2 Implications of Market Characteristics for a New Product Development ................ 236
16.3 Know Your User: Ways of Gaining Empathy and an Afnity .............................................237
16.3.1 Identifying Your Target User .................................................................................... 237
16.3.2 Empathic Modeling of Your End User .....................................................................238
16.3.2.1 Predictive Modeling ................................................................................... 239
16.3.2.2 Empathic Modeling....................................................................................239
16.3.2.3 Mixed Methods Research ..........................................................................240
16.3.2.4 Product/Cultural Probes ............................................................................240
16.3.2.5 Product “Champion” .................................................................................. 241
16.3.3 Stakeholders .............................................................................................................. 241
16.3.3.1 Grounded Theory ....................................................................................... 242
16.3.3.2 Focus Group ...............................................................................................242
16.3.3.3 Participatory Research ...............................................................................242
16.3.4 Ethics ........................................................................................................................242
16.3.5 Strategies for Design .................................................................................................242
16.3.6 Participatory Design .................................................................................................243
16.3.7 Co-designing ............................................................................................................. 243
16.3.8 Design Heuristics ...................................................................................................... 243
16.3.8.1 Persona Footprint ....................................................................................... 244
16.3.8.2 Adaptability and Flexibility (Standardization and Modularity) ................244
16.3.8.3 Use of Original Equipment Manufacturer Parts ........................................ 245
16.3.8.4 Customized Interfaces and Rapid Manufacturing .....................................245
16.3.8.5 Minimize Financial and Liability Risk ..................................................... 245
16.3.9 Increasing Your Target Market: Matching Product Design Specication ................245
16.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................246
References ...................................................................................................................................... 247
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234 Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Product Design: Methods and Techniques
or rehabilitation technology/assistive technology (RT/AT) product design would make the greatest
impact on the target user’s quality of life. Papanek (1974) advocated these areas as ones in which
designers should aspire to work; he was many years ahead of the design establishment. From a
societal viewpoint, using technology to enable people to be more independent and engage with
society increases the potential help that nite resources can provide within a provision of care. It
also facilitates the empowerment of an individual, enhancing their personal esteem, and supporting
well-being. Over the last 20 years, the author has designed enabling products for people who are
elderly and those who have some form of impairment.
16.1.1 Definitions Relating to function anD Disability
It may be worthwhile, at this point, dening impairment, disability, and handicap. Within the index
of USERt, Poulson et al. (1996) dened the three terms as:
• Impairment: A loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological or anatomical structure or
function.
• Disability: A restriction or lack (resulting from impairment) of the ability to perform an activity
in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being.
• Handicap: A disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from an impairment or disability,
which limits the fullment of a role that is normal (depending on age, sex and social and cultural
factors) for that individual. (sic)
The World Health Organization (WHO) has now redened its method of classication into
a more comprehensive, but complex system of classication. The International Classication of
Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) uses three separate health and health-related domains
within which detailed classication is dened. The reason for the change to a more complex deni-
tion may be, in part, indicated through the following quote from the WHO website:
Disability is not something that only happens to a minority of humanity. The ICF thus ‘mainstreams’
the experience of disability and recognises it as a universal human experience. (WHO 2010)
It would seem that the WHO is trying to remodel both the philosophy and terminology they
use to help facilitate a more inclusive perception of people with an impairment or who may be
elderly. The denitions stated in USERt are those dened by the WHO from 1980; while now
superseded, they offer a simplied introduction to the basic terminology used within this eld
of design.
In this chapter, strategies and methods are discussed by which designers may work viably and
effectively in this challenging, yet rewarding eld of product design. The focus of the information
given will be around human-scale product design; however, most of the strategies and methods
advocated are applicable to interior, architecture, and engineering design. The main discussion and
examples will be around more severely impaired people, to highlight the efcacy of the research
methods and design processes advocated. The same methods and processes may be applied to
mainstream product design.
16.1.2 Definitions Relating to Design
The suggested ways of working and the examples provided are from the context of health and social
care given within the UK. Additional comments may be given to highlight that the supports systems
and nancial structures of other countries will affect how the suggested methods may be applied.
The overarching principles within which these strategies and design methods are used are that
they are both user centered (centric), and evidence-based decision making. Based on the author’s
46284_C016.indd 234 14/12/10 8:20 PM
Universal Design: Empathy and Affinity 235
experience, the nal outcome is dependent on the quality of the information used to make design
decisions.
Before explaining further about the specic demands and challenges facing designers, a working
denition is required of the terms product designer, industrial designer, and universal design. The
denition used for many years by the author with undergraduate students is given as:
An industrial designer produces the social and cultural functionality of a product within the constraints
of manufacture and cost.
This denition clearly places the responsibility for the realization of desirability and or accep-
tance of a product by the stakeholders and target user onto the industrial designer. The constraints
within which a product design may be realized include “tness for purpose” and applies to the
more complete product design specication (PDS). The PDS includes safety and industry standards
alongside other constraints such as sustainability of the design.
The term universal design has been dened by Christophersen and Norske stats husbank (2002) as:
The Design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible,
without adaption or specialized design (sic).
In addition, there are seven principles promoted by Christophersen, together with the denition
of inclusive design; they are:
1. Equitable use
2. Flexibility in use
3. Simple and intuitive use
4. Perceptible information
5. Tolerance for error
6. Low physical effort
7. Size and space for approach and use
Inclusive design is predominantly used within the UK to describe similar aspirations for the
values underpinning a chosen design process. Internationally, there are many other titles given to
this eld of new product development (NPD): design for all; transgenerational design; design for the
third age; and barrier-free design.
Now that denitions are in place within which the principles described may be applied, attention
should be turned to the strategies and design tools available for use within this eld, highlighting
those that the author has found to provide effective results and to be most cost effective. Efcacy is
often considered within healthcare and for a designer or team to provide metrics and evidence of
efcacy of the new product or service is vital for success in this conservative market. These tools
are applied within an activity pattern constrained by time and resources, as shown in Figure 16.1.
Although only one route for an iterative cycle has been shown, reection and revisiting will happen
throughout the process. The number of iterative cycles that may be undertaken is constrained by
time and resources.
16.2 KNOW YOUR MARKET: SOME OF THE CHALLENGES
The author’s experience is that the quality of information available to a designer will have a direct
inuence on the quality of decisions and subsequent design outcomes produced, no matter how
thorough and rigorous a design process may be applied. To paraphrase a commonly used statement
within design circles: the quality of the information will lead to the design of the “right” thing. The
latter half of this chapter will exemplify how to design the thing “right.”
46284_C016.indd 235 14/12/10 8:20 PM
236 Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Product Design: Methods and Techniques
16.2.1 MaRket size anD iMplications foR a new pRoDuct DevelopMent
As a starting point for any NPD, a designer must know the size and characteristics of their target
market; these will inuence the choice of manufacturing processes and materials constraints. For
example, if a one-off customized seat unit is produced for an individual, vacuum forming of poly-
mer sheet and hand nishing may be used; cutlery for people with a weak grip and limited dexterity,
which is a much larger market, would require large batch quantity production methods such as steel
pressing and polymer injection molding. The size of a target market can be gained from a number
of sources: social science and ethnographic academic surveys; charitable support groups; market
research surveys; and government census.
UK statistics from the Ofce for National Statistics (OSN) indicate that the population is get-
ting older, with the proportion of the population over the age of 65 being more than 14% by 2011
(Her Majesty’s Government 2010a). The current population has risen to over 60 million. In the mid
1990s, Sandhu et al. reported that the proportion of people within European countries who are reg-
istered as disabled is approximately 11% of the total population (Sandhu 1995). Figure 16.2 shows
the proportion of adults and children in 2007 that were registered as disabled in the UK against
the total population. The chart was compiled from data available from the OSN (Her Majesty’s
Government 2010b, 2010c) and the Ofce for Disability Issues (Her Majesty’s Government 2010d).
These current gures indicate that the percentage of the population who have a recognized disabil-
ity is now over 16% of the population. However, based on part of the European statistics collated by
Sandhu et al., the breakdown of different groups within the UK population shows that most target
markets are “niche.” Although the target end users may be potentially in the hundred thousands,
they are spread across the UK.
What must be kept in mind is that population demographics change, often rapidly. Regular
updates of source data are vital to ensuring that the optimum information relating to a population is
available against which a target user is matched.
16.2.2 iMplications of MaRket chaRacteRistics foR a new pRoDuct DevelopMent
The allure for companies to exploit this large proportion of their market is offset by the challenges
faced. The utopian ideals of the seven principles of universal design are difcult to implement. The
RT/AT market is fragmented, with people having a wide range of very individual needs. While most
people in this target market have common human aspirations to engage with everyday activities of
Time
Choices
focused
Expand
investigate
Brief Research
Resources
Evaluation
Reflection
Product
Design
Specification
Design
development
Design
solution
Optimum
compromise
Challenging
conventions
FIGURE 16.1 The double diamond of research and design activity within an NPD; constrained by time and
resources.
AU: ‘Sandhu et al’
Not listed i n refer-
ence sect ion. AU: ‘Sandhu’ Not
listed i n reference
section.
AU: ‘against the
total po pulation’
delete?
AU: ‘Sandhu et
al.,’ Not listed i n
reference se ction.?
46284_C016.indd 236 14/12/10 8:20 PM
Universal Design: Empathy and Affinity 237
daily living (ADLs), their needs for physical or cognitive support from technology are very specic
and wide ranging. The resulting niche markets often do not provide a viable return on the invest-
ment required to effectively undertake research and development of new RT/AT products. There
may also be a perceived higher risk of litigation with possible unforeseen consequences of a new
product in this marketplace, due to the end user/consumer’s already vulnerable physical or cogni-
tive state.
There is the added complexity of state or charitable support that may augment any funds that
the individual or family may have, in order to purchase and access the product. Multiple stakehold-
ers, who inuence the purchasing decision, are often healthcare professionals or state budget hold-
ers. These supporting professionals, who are also advocates of the end user of the product, have
demanding measures that the product has to attain before they will agree to release funds. New
product suppliers may also have to be registered with the state or non-government organization
(NGO) involved before their product may be purchased.
Characterization of the target market and the context within which products or services will be
purchased may be considered as user, task, and environment (UTE) (see Figure 16.3). The example
shown is of a “UTE mind-map” of the factors concerning the redesign of a powered wheelchair for
a young woman with cerebral palsy.
Some of the challenges faced by new product developers have been detailed. Strategies and meth-
ods will now be described that enable designers to provide viable new products for this market. These
processes may be considered to be just good design practice. They apply principles from human fac-
tors and ergonomics; address specic medical constraints for that associated condition; and satisfy
the end users aspirations that may be in the form of desires for, or acceptance of, the product design.
16.3 KNOW YOUR USER: WAYS OF GAINING EMPATHY AND AN AFFINITY
This section will signpost the reader toward resources that will enable a designer to populate the
contextual landscape, shown in Figure 16.3. It will also describe how able-bodied designers can
gain some empathy with their end user along with an afnity with their more subtle emotional
needs, values, and aspirations.
16.3.1 iDentifying youR taRget useR
It has been identied that a good working knowledge of the context within which purchasing deci-
sions are made, as well as market size are required. While a literature review is a good starting point,
identifying the associated medical denition of a target users’ condition will enable a designer to gain
some insight into the generic issues associated with it; which will then focus the proposed research
Adults
0.8
Population UK 2007 60.9 million
13.1084
9.8
47.8773
Adults
registered
disabled
Children
registered
disabled
Children
FIGURE 16.2 The prevalence of adults and children within the UK that are registered with a disability.
(Based on data from the Ofce of National Statistics, and Ofce for Disability Issues, 2010). AU: ‘Based on
data’ thi s source
is not include d in
the referen ce list.
46284_C016.indd 237 14/12/10 8:20 PM
238 Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Product Design: Methods and Techniques
questions that drive a literature review. In the UK, there are associated support groups alongside
dened medical conditions. The medical diagnosis and care regimes published in healthcare jour-
nals; characterization of the condition and associated information produced by support groups pro-
vides good background knowledge to the functional and physiological requirements of this target
market. There may be associated medical conditions that present themselves within the end user as a
compound impairment or disability. The detail within the information about a given medical condi-
tion also provides an awareness of the liability implications when considering product usage.
For example, a relatively large population of those registered in the UK as disabled with upper
limb impairment, limited grip, or mobility have a form of arthritis. Understanding the characteristics
of the condition, whether rheumatoid or osteoarthritis for example, will affect the nal design. Each
condition has a particular prole or persona associated with it. In the UK, osteoarthritis is often
associated with older people, over 65 years old; with a larger proportion being female; and wear
related. Rheumatoid arthritis affects a much wider age range, even children, and is characterized
by episodic inammation of the joints. The former will result in physically “stiff” joints; the later in
“loose” joints. The optimum grip and associated characteristics of the product will be different for
each condition, i.e., the optimum handle shape and covering material will be different. The challenge
of widening the market for a niche market product will be addressed at the end of this chapter.
Dening a target market via the medical condition does enable cross-referencing world-wide
cross-referencing; many of the associated support groups have equivalent organizations to those
in the UK; and government statistical surveys may have equivalent data to those provided by the
National Statistics Ofce (NSO).
16.3.2 eMpathic MoDeling of youR enD useR
Once focused on a target market and the related medical condition is identied, it will be possible to
dene the associated lifestyle and user characteristics of people within the target market. Gaining
Carers
Family?
drinking
eating mobility
hygiene
entertainment
secondary teaching
Carers tasks
24 hr socialising
likes/dislikes
sleep
1/2
USER
FEMALE
24 hr care/
assistance
17
GCSE EDUCATION
Compulsory?
Mobility
how?
feeding
ISSUES RELATED
TO USER
teaching
aid
Her tasks
communication
difficult education
specific
training
lifestyle
change
Parents
tasks
provide
constant
support
educate
themselves
Parents
access
access
Rest bite
for carees
space
Facilities
getting out
feeling
secure
day &
night Wheelchair
Wheelchair
Transportation
xxxx for
her need
not
crowded
College
Home
Does she
stay here?
Teachers
tasks
TASK ENVIRONMENT
FIGURE 16.3 A mind map of the relationship between the user, task, and environment within the context of
daily living activities of a wheelchair user. (Produced by S.M.D. Allen, J.L. Day, R. Rishikesh Hanumant, L.
Gallimore, D. Johnson, and D. Milner, Loughborough University, 2010.)
AU: ‘cross-refer-
encing world-wid e
cross-refe rencing’
or ‘world-wide
cross-referencing’?
AU: Text not clea r
in review ar t
AU: ‘Produced’
This sou rce is not
included i n the
reference l ist.
46284_C016.indd 238 14/12/10 8:20 PM
Universal Design: Empathy and Affinity 239
an afnity with the emotional needs and aspirations of a target user is then possible from the dened
age, gender, and lifestyle. Methods by which a designer or team may gain empathy with some of the
constraints on ADL are:
• Predictive modeling
• Empathic modeling (replicating the physical elements of a medical condition)
• Mixed methods research
• Product/cultural probes
• Product champion
16.3.2.1 Predictive Modeling
Predictive modeling is applying existing knowledge about a target UTE, accessed through both
generic and specic databases and design guides.
There are many such modeling databases that often include descriptions of research methods by
which the data may be updated. Paper-based tools and databases include USERt (Poulson 1995)
and Inclusive guidelines (Keates 2004). Computer-based predictive modeling has also been devel-
oped to enable more intuitive use. The Inclusive Design Tool Kit (Engineering Design Centre 2010),
an internet database and methods guide is an intermediate to the software-based analysis tools
shown in USERt. Generic anthropometric databases, such as PEOPLEsize (Open Ergonomics
2010), support specic guidelines and tools. Software tools such as SAMMIE (Loughborough
University 2010) provide physical ergonomics-based data, mainly for spatial accessibility and
usability, the specication for which is imported into the software. HADRIAN (Porter et al. 2004)
is an advance on the anthropometric-based design tools and databases such that it integrates the best
of these elements. The software provides an information-rich interface for performance information
collected from real people with dened medical conditions. Other chapters in this book provide
more in-depth detail about SAMMIE and HADRIAN.
While these databases provide a very useful starting point to gain empathy with a target user,
they are limited in the number of components they capture. An advantage that systems such as
HADRIAN have is that they enable a cost-effective way for designers to match a target market with
a clear population size and associated characteristics envelope.
16.3.2.2 Empathic Modeling
Empathic modeling is a well-used method through which designers can gain some experience of
the constraints of a dened medical condition that manifests itself in a form of impairment. There
are a number of proprietary “suits,” such as the Third Age suit (Ergonomics and Safety Research
Institute 2010) that can be manipulated to restrict movement, sight, or hearing. A low cost way in
which designers can replicate such impairments through the use of hockey goalkeeper’s protective
equipment and modication of protective goggles has been documented by the author (Torrens
2000) (see Figure 16.4). This form of empathic modeling can also be used to gain insight into the
role of carers and the emotional and physical demands on them during ADL.
Limitations for this way of gaining empathy with the end user are that the designer will not
have the same emotional afnity or the insight into the aspirations of someone who has a long-term
impairment or disability. The life perspective of someone born without an arm will be different
from someone who has multiple sclerosis (a degenerative neuromuscular disease); and, different
again to someone who has a broken leg. Each will want something different in terms of aesthetics
and usability from a product that would provide a similar function.
Afnity with your end user, aligning with their emotional aspirations and values, is critical for a
product designer to effectively provide the basis for product desirability or acceptance. This afn-
ity may be considered to be a form of empathic modeling; it can be achieved through a number of
strategies and methods that shortcut the need for extensive market or social sciences-based research.
AU: ‘Keates 2004’
Please prov ide
full refe rence
AU: ‘Poulson
1995’ not listed i n
reference l ist
AU: ‘2010’ Year
mismat ch with
reference l ist
46284_C016.indd 239 14/12/10 8:20 PM
240 Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Product Design: Methods and Techniques
One of the main objectives when collecting information from this target market is getting to
know the current coping strategies associated with the product or service used by the end user;
this is vital as it enhances the designer’s awareness of the end user’s decision making within a task
performance.
Where possible, the most direct and information-rich way for a designer to understand their tar-
get user is to be within the end user’s environment; observing, or watching, the tasks associated with
the product or service being performed. From the author’s experience, issues of lifestyle, cultural
background, personal preferences of product, “taste,” coping strategies, and emotional response to
the activity are all intuitively noted. These images and scenes are recreated in the designer’s mind
when they are making design decisions about options within the proposed product or service. The
intuitive practice of a designer may be more formally replicated through the use of mixed methods.
16.3.2.3 Mixed Methods Research
Mixed research methods provide a more comprehensive set of data on which to make design deci-
sions. This method is a combination of qualitative research strategies complementing quantitative
research activities, which together provide a more complete body of valuable data.
Formal research methods of observation and interview have been found to offer the most cost-
effective “snap-shot” of the needs and aspirations of the end user. Task analysis, alongside inter-
view, will provide the designer with much of the information required to gain enough insight to
propose a design solution. The observation may be remotely from a video tape or key moments in
a task recorded via photographs or even annotated stick gures. Teleconferencing, email, or social
chat software, such as Skype, may be used to discuss issues. It should be noted that ethical use
of social networks as a focus for research is an up and coming issue, as it has not been rigorously
“policed”; being such a recent phenomenon.
16.3.2.4 Product/Cultural Probes
Product/cultural probes have been used successfully by a number of researchers eliciting informa-
tion from individuals and groups over a longer time period (see Figure 16.5). Probes often consist
of a diary that may be recorded in a number media. Written, drawn, photographic, and video-
recorded evidence provides the NPD team with information-rich evidence into the daily living
activities of individuals or social groups. It may also contain activities, tasks, or questionnaires to
be lled in periodically by the participants. This form of ethnographic inquiry is less intrusive than
a researcher being a “y on the wall”; however, it would require a pilot study to ensure the balance
FIGURE 16.4 A low-cost method of producing dened physical impairments to gain empathy with the end
user.
46284_C016.indd 240 14/12/10 8:20 PM
Universal Design: Empathy and Affinity 241
between media recording formats, tasks, and questions was appropriate and viable to obtain from
the target user group. Supporting site visits by designers (when participants are not at the location)
are essential as they help them construct and better interpret the probes. These visits will also
enhance the understanding of the environment in which their product will be used, without needing
to gain ethical approval to meet with participants directly.
Based on the author’s experience, a combination of physical characterization and past experience
are part of the cost-effective snap-shot. Physical characterization is in the form of specic anthro-
pometric dimensions related to the product and stature (as a reference measure; grip strength; and,
some range of motion [ROM] measurements). A screening questionnaire can also lead to gaining
more information about the participant’s past experience of the product or service and dene their
associated medical condition.
16.3.2.5 Product “Champion”
Choosing a product representative, or “champion,” has been found to be an effective way of identi-
fying most of the issues relating to social and cultural functionality. It is critical that the chosen indi-
vidual matches and reects the larger population as closely as possible. The prole of the individual
should match the dened medical condition, gender, and age. The socio-economic background has
been found to be less important; the impairment and resulting disability has often inhibited the
persona and lifestyle of the individual. The choice of product champion may be limited, due to the
small market size, locally, nationally, and internationally. The value judgment of the appropriate-
ness of an individual to be the product champion against accessibility, in terms of time and distance,
has to be made by the designer or team. From the author’s experience, it is better to have a local
product champion and be aware that the individual’s opinions may be skewed due to age, gender,
or lifestyle.
16.3.3 stakeholDeRs
When investigating the professional characteristics and opinions of other fund holders and stake-
holders, a group participatory approach is required. This group is inuential in the purchase deci-
sion making, particularly in the UK where care service provision is predominantly provided by the
government.
FIGURE 16.5 Product/cultural probes ready to go out to special needs schools; they contain a camera,
directed drawing activities, and a short questionnaire.
46284_C016.indd 241 14/12/10 8:20 PM
242 Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Product Design: Methods and Techniques
16.3.3.1 Grounded Theory
A grounded theory approach (Creswell 2009) is a participatory approach to gaining consensus of opin-
ion within a group of experts. In this eld, the experts may be consultant surgeons, general practitio-
ners, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, speech therapists, bioengineers, social workers, NGOs,
and charitable budget holders. Each group will have a different perspective on the balance of the PDS
and realized product. A derivative of grounded theory is the Delphi method (Cohen, Mannion, and
Morrison 2007). This method involves remote communication between the research operator and
individual experts, via questionnaire and given tasks, to arrive at a consensus achieved in grounded
theory. This method enables the closest approximation of a face-to-face discussion with multiple par-
ticipants without using a focus group strategy (Morgan 1997; Langford and McDonagh 2003).
16.3.3.2 Focus Group
In the author’s experience, focus groups are both time and resource consuming and difcult to man-
age for the quality and quantity of data obtained. Additional factors include the vulnerable nature of
the users involved and the increased opportunity for bias due to the involvement of carers.
16.3.3.3 Participatory Research
Participatory research instills a sense of ownership in the end user and stakeholders. It empow-
ers end users to be more outspoken about their needs and aspirations. Involving all parties at an
early stage enables a designer to cost-effectively recruit participants and support for the longer-term
design and evaluation of a new product. The term “mixed research methods” advocated in this
chapter are a collection of methods where quantitative (grip strength, anthropometry) and quali-
tative data (opinions, comments, emotional responses) are collected from within the context of a
“happening” or phenomenon (e.g., a design process). Case study is a good example of the application
of mixed methods research within an NPD. It is considered by many to be primarily a qualitative
recording of an “instance” (observed activities); however, it can have other quantitative metrics,
such as task performance outcomes and physical measurements (such as increase the co-efcient of
friction at a handle interface).
16.3.4 ethics
Ethical protocols should be followed with any design research inquiry. There are a number of
detailed references that provide guidance on the ways in which both participant and research opera-
tors can be safe guarded, and provide templates for an ethical approach to mixed research methods
(Creswell and Plano-Clark 2006; Wilson and Corlett 1995).
16.3.5 stRategies foR Design
Earlier in the chapter the need to dene a market size in order to choose the manufacturing process
and associated materials was described. The generic processes involved in any NPD are constrained
by similar elements that match particular design choices within the PDS. While these will be acknowl-
edged, the focus of the remaining section of this chapter will discuss the pros and cons of methods
and tools specic to the design of products or services in the eld of universal and inclusive design.
The aim of any commercial designer is to produce an optimum design solution within the short-
est development time and effort. There are many good reasons to get the product to market as soon
as possible: from the moment research data are collected, they are “decaying” in validity. Society
and culture can change in minutes. A good example is the eld of fashion design within which
trends change quarterly, if not weekly. The shorter the time period from inception to the realization
of an NPD reduces overall costs and the time to start generating a return on funds invested. The
market for enabling products and services is more driven by return on investment, due to the small
market size and the often smaller investors who are involved at a personal level.
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Universal Design: Empathy and Affinity 243
16.3.6 paRticipatoRy Design
A participatory design strategy provides an opportunity to minimize the number of development
cycles and get the product to market.
The iterative cycle of design development that includes end users, proposed by Papanek so many
years ago, is still valid in current design practice. The data collected from the mixed methods
approach should provide a detailed prole of the UTE. The design methods to be used within an
iterative cycle of development include:
• Co-designing (blacksmith approach)
• Design heuristics (rules of thumb)
16.3.7 co-Designing
Co-design is a form of participatory design activity, originating from a systems engineering
approach; in this case, it refers to a one-to-one design activity with the designer. It is also known
as co-discovery (Kemp and van Geldren 1996). The term “blacksmith approach” comes from a
traditional way that people in the UK would have had things made. Blacksmiths may be considered
the product designers of the pre-industrial age. A villager would ask the blacksmith to make a new
gate, for example; possibly standing by while it was fabricated. Designing for and with an individual
who represents a larger population of end users has been found to be useful when considering niche
markets. This approach has a number of advantages:
• The direct link between designer and end user ensures that the design decision-making
process results in the minimum of iterative cycles of development.
• The less well dened, qualitative areas of aspirations for the product and desirability are
also addressed.
• There is an opportunity for end users to be made aware of design solutions they may not
have previously considered.
• Iterative design cycles, in the form of co-design, enable the optimum compromise to be
achieved quickly.
• The end user has a sense of ownership with the nal design solution.
A product design, or service, may be evaluated with a larger sample group once the design
solution has been developed with the “product champion,” with the condence that investment in
this activity is cost effective. The methods used to elicit information from the champion user are
repeated with a larger sample group at an individual level. The efcacy of information gathering
has been found to diminish when obtaining feedback within a group situation, such as when using
a focus group strategy.
16.3.8 Design heuRistics
Design heuristics (rules of thumb) effectively facilitate the interpretation of the functional needs
and aspirations of the target user, while satisfying the standards set by the stakeholders. The design
heuristics include:
• Persona footprint
• Adaptability and exibility (standardization and modularity)
• Use of original equipment manufacturer (OEM) parts
• Customized interfaces and rapid manufacturing (RM)
• Minimize nancial and liability risk
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244 Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Product Design: Methods and Techniques
16.3.8.1 Persona Footprint
The persona footprint is the visual balance between the enabling technologies associated with an
individual and the presence of that person. This design heuristic enables a practitioner to quickly
assess the area of visible technology compared with that of the person. The objective is to mini-
mize the perceived technology and emphasize the personality of the individual. Strategies for this
include:
• Minimize the volume of the technology (compact electronics, body contoured supports
and seating, fold-away items)
• Break the technology into smaller elements (battery pack on a belt, not part of the com-
munication device)
• Use of color to make technologies recessive (dark colors, matt textures)
• Customizing the technology to the individual’s personality and value system, branding
(symbols and colors of a favorite football team)
An example of a persona footprint is shown in Figure 16.6, where students have endeavored to
reduce the technology footprint around a powered wheelchair user who also uses a communication aid.
16.3.8.2 Adaptability and Flexibility (Standardization and Modularity)
Adaptability and exibility (standardization and modularity) embody the application of the seven
principles of universal design. Good examples include “plug and play” computer technology; and
applications, “apps,” for i-Pod touch and other hand-held computer products.
SHE NEEDS
TO BE FOCAL
POINT, NOT
THE CHAIR!
SLIM SCREEN
DOWN
FOLD DOWN
BY THE SIDE?
JRO
WHEEL
IS ALL THE
ARM REST
NEEDED?
COULD BE
SHORTENED...
CONNECTABLE
PANNELS.
CHANGEABLE
WHEEL COVERS
- PERSONALISATION
- HIDES PARTS
DESIGN NEEDS
TO BE MORE
SUBTLE THAN
INDUSTRIAL
CLIP ON SIDE
PANELS TO HIDE
INTERNAL PARTS
REPLACE
TWO FRONT WHEELS
WITH ONE
BETWEEN
FEET
WHEEL
CONCEALED
STORAGE
- UNDER?
FIGURE 16.6 The reduction in technology footprint on the persona of the user. (Produced by S.M.D. Allen,
J.L. Day, R. Rishikesh Hanumant, L. Gallimore, D. Johnson, and D. Milner, Loughborough University, 2010.)
AU: ‘Produced’
This sou rce is not
included i n the
reference l ist.
46284_C016.indd 244 14/12/10 8:20 PM
Universal Design: Empathy and Affinity 245
Standardization and modularity are engineering conventions that enable adaptability and ex-
ibility of functions. Using a standardized physical or electronic interface reduces costs and offers
the maximum options within a product (Burkitt et al. 1995; Torrens et al. 1996). The same principles
may be applied to a product service. There are many good references that describe both modularity
and standardization (Ulrich and Eppinger 2000).
16.3.8.3 Use of Original Equipment Manufacturer Parts
Use of OEM parts has a number of advantages:
• Complex functions of a new product design may be bought rather than manufactured (e.g.,
USB connectors, electronic subassemblies, gear boxes, electric motors, switches).
• Safety critical items can be purchased that are to a known manufacturing and performance
standard (e.g., switches, sensors, hydraulic cylinders, brakes, bearings).
• Prototypes may be constructed cost effectively that represent the nal production version.
An important point to consider when applying this particular heuristic or strategy is that it is
employed from the start of a design process. Once a PDS has been produced, the identication of
suitable OEM parts should be the rst task. Some accommodation of the specication for the OEM
part may be needed within the overall design.
16.3.8.4 Customized Interfaces and Rapid Manufacturing
Customized interfaces and RM are a recent addition to the options available to a product designer.
Previously used for rapid prototyping, the industry has evolved to such a level that RM in polymers
and sintered metals are already used to tailor high-end products to a customer’s preference. They
can also be used to tailor garments to individuals. Examples include, switch or control interfaces,
orthotic supports and grips. High-end refers to the high cost and high value of the product. RM
components can cost effectively provide customized physical interfaces for more severely physi-
cally impaired individuals that link with standardized components within the product assembly.
Examples include seating through to a geared drive train or a wheelchair chassis.
16.3.8.5 Minimize Financial and Liability Risk
Minimizing nancial risk may be considered an overarching generic objective of any business.
Most of the elements of an NPD described in this chapter lead to reduced cycles of development
by providing evidence of the potential need and desirability of the realized product. Threats from
litigation can be minimized through rigorous, iterative cycles of evaluation and that products are
tested through independent test houses or laboratories to ensure the design audit trail. Following the
guidelines of BS EN ISO 7000-1: 2008 (British Standards Institute 2008) for design and engineer-
ing management, in whatever simplied form, is good working practice. There is also a sub-section
relating to design for inclusivity BS EN ISO 7000-6: 2005 (British Standards Institute 2005).
Advantages of this practice include:
• Evidence-based, transparent decision making within the NPD documented
• Enables other or new design team members to have empathy with past design decisions
• Demonstrates all due care has been taken in the design, if litigious action is taken at a later date
• Provides proof of originality in the event of a dispute over intellectual property rights (IPR)
• Enables potential investors to assess the products in which they may invest
16.3.9 incReasing youR taRget MaRket: Matching pRoDuct Design specification
Papanek (1974) indicated how to increase your market; design for one very well and look for others
who share the same needs. Increasing your target market may be achieved by nding other UTEs
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246 Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Product Design: Methods and Techniques
that require the same or very similar PDS. A powered drinking device, the Autosip (Figure 16.7),
designed for the Motor Neurone Disease Association by the author in 1992 (Burkitt 1996) provides
a good example of this principle.
Designed and developed for members of the association who had limited ability to swallow, it
delivered 2 mL of uid to the mouth in a controlled speed and feed. This avoided the likelihood
of the end user choking on the uid. At the time, variations on the design were aligned with other
markets, including racing drivers, military drivers, and extreme outdoor activities, such as rock
climbers. All may need uid replacement, hands-free.
The design heuristics described above have been used within product design developments over
the last 20 years. The following is a reection on the strategies and methods discussed.
16.4 CONCLUSION
To conclude this description of strategies and methods, a checklist of strategies and methods that
may be used within an NPD has been dened to provide the reader with a structure for reection.
The checklist includes:
• Seven principles of universal design
• Predictive modeling
• Empathic modeling (replicating the physical elements of a medical condition)
• Product champion designing (blacksmith approach)
• Persona footprint
• Standardization and modularity (application of universal design principles)
• Use of OEM parts
• Customized interfaces and RM
• Minimize nancial and liability risk
• Matching PDS
FIGURE 16.7 An automated drinking device, the Autosip, being tested by the author in 1992 at the Brunel
Institute for Bioengineering.
AU: ‘Burkitt
1996’ not liste d in
reference l ist
46284_C016.indd 246 14/12/10 8:20 PM
Universal Design: Empathy and Affinity 247
The strategies and methods described here are not all encompassing; however, they are the ones
found to be useful by the author as a practicing designer. The bibliography contains many of the
references found useful by the author. It is hoped that the methods and resources mentioned here
will be of equal use to the reader.
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