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The Strategic Agility Gap: How Organizations Are Slow and Stale to Adapt in Turbulent Worlds

  • July 2018
DOI:10.1007/978-3-030-25639-5_11
  • In book: Human and Organisational Factors
Authors:
David D Woods at The Ohio State University
David D Woods
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Abstract and Figures

How can organizations cope with accelerating change in more complex worlds? The growth of capabilities produces expanded scales of operation, extensive interdependencies, new vulnerabilities, and puzzling failures. The result is the Strategic Agility Gap where organizations are slow and stale in recognizing changing risks and fall behind the pace of change. The chapter addresses what factors drive the gap and what adaptive capabilities allow organizations to flourish in the gap. The result is a new paradigm for continuous adaptability illustrated in web-powered enterprises.
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... L'activité des équipes de première ligne est donc essentielle pour gérer le travail quotidien et les perturbations potentielles qui peuvent affecter l'organisation. Dans des contextes perturbés, ces équipes peuvent même être contraintes d'agir rapidement et de s'organiser pour faire face à l'émergence de perturbations existantes (Hollnagel, 2006 ;Macrae, 2019 ;Woods, 2020 ...
... rupture du stock de masques et de matériel clinique) ou pour obtenir du personnel de renfort pendant les périodes critiques de la crise (ex. demandes excessives auprès des agences d'intérim, concurrence généralisée, etc.).La crise sanitaire actuelle a donc réaffirmé l'idée que les organisations devront s'habituer à fonctionner dans un monde de plus en plus incertain et complexe, dans lequel, en plus de gérer les pressions quotidiennes, elles devront être capables de faire face à des crises de diverses natures (financières, informatiques, naturelles, sanitaires, etc.)(Beck, 2001 ;Woods, 2020 ; Paries, 2011). Des phénomènes tels que la mondialisation, le financement du marché, la révolution numérique, le changement climatique, entre autres, amènent les organisations à fonctionner dans des environnements turbulents et instables avec des ressources de plus en plus limitées(Woods, 2020 ;. ...
... demandes excessives auprès des agences d'intérim, concurrence généralisée, etc.).La crise sanitaire actuelle a donc réaffirmé l'idée que les organisations devront s'habituer à fonctionner dans un monde de plus en plus incertain et complexe, dans lequel, en plus de gérer les pressions quotidiennes, elles devront être capables de faire face à des crises de diverses natures (financières, informatiques, naturelles, sanitaires, etc.)(Beck, 2001 ;Woods, 2020 ; Paries, 2011). Des phénomènes tels que la mondialisation, le financement du marché, la révolution numérique, le changement climatique, entre autres, amènent les organisations à fonctionner dans des environnements turbulents et instables avec des ressources de plus en plus limitées(Woods, 2020 ;. L'augmentation de la capacité de performance des organisations apporte de nouvelles opportunités, mais accroît également la complexité, et avec elle apparaissent de nouvelles menaces(Carlson & Doyle, 2000 ; Decker, 2018).Ces dernières années, de nombreux efforts déployés dans les domaines des sciences sociales et de l'ingénierie pour comprendre la gestion des risques dans les organisations complexes se sont 87 concentrés sur les idées et les idéaux de résilience. ...
De la gestion prévisionnelle des ressources humaines à leur gestion réelle à l’hôpital : le cas du personnel soignant en neurologie
Thesis
Full-text available
  • Dec 2021
Cette thèse s'intéresse à l'étude des mécanismes et des conditions qui permettent aux systèmes de soins de s'adapter aux perturbations en termes de personnel pour maintenir une performance acceptable. La performance de toute organisation dépend de sa capacité à disposer d'un nombre suffisant de travailleurs qualifiés et à les déployer judicieusement dans un environnement de travail propice. Cette étude ethnographique a été menée dans sept secteur d'hospitalisation du département de neurologie d'un grand hôpital parisien qui subit un déficit constant de personnel soignant. La recherche se concentre sur l'analyse des solutions adoptées par l'organisation pour configurer les équipes de soins face à la réalité des ressources humaines effectivement disponibles et sur la manière dont les équipes de soins, dans ce contexte, s'efforcent de fournir des soins de qualité et sûrs. Trois études empiriques ont été menées du côté du personnel soignant (AS et IDE) et des cadres de santé. Les résultats donnent matière à réflexion sur les types de pratiques et de conditions nécessaires pour assurer une gestion durable des ressources humaines à court et à long terme.
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... The situation is exacerbated by the historically fragmented governance of critical infrastructures spanning several government departments (Oughton et al., 2018). Future strategies to strengthen the capability of critical infrastructures to cope with disruptions should therefore build on the principles of resilience and adaptation (Hollnagel, Woods, and Leveson, 2006;Schulman, 2022;Woods, 2020). ...
... This is important because it is not feasible to prescribe, describe and risk assess all possibilities for action that are available in complex sociotechnical systems such as critical infrastructures, especially when dealing with unforeseen events. Efforts to strengthen the capability of critical infrastructures to cope with disruptions should therefore build on the principles of resilience and adaptation (Hollnagel et al., 2006;Schulman, 2022;Woods, 2020). ...
Abstraction-decomposition space for critical infrastructure systems: A framework for infrastructure planning and resilience policies
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2022
The objective of this work has been to propose a framework that will aid governments with the development of more coherent and effective infrastructure planning and resilience policies through a system-of-systems approach that is grounded in theory for complex sociotechnical systems. The framework has been developed by using a work domain analysis (WDA). The WDA consists of an abstraction hierarchy analysis and a part-whole decomposition. Together, the abstraction hierarchy and the part-whole description form the abstraction-decomposition space (ADS) for which the system constraints apply. By imposing constraints, the WDA promotes design for adaptation where actors within the system are allowed to adapt their behaviour as they find appropriate without violating the system’s constraints. The proposed ADS consists of five levels of abstraction and four levels of decomposition. By applying the ADS, it will aid decision making related to the overall purposes of the critical infrastructure system, the values and priority measures that are used to assess the system’s progress towards the functional purposes, as well as formulation of infrastructure needs that are necessary to achieve the functional purposes. The framework is formative in the sense that it reveals how work can be done in the critical infrastructure system. This is important because it is not feasible to prescribe, describe and risk assess all possibilities for action that are available in complex sociotechnical systems, especially when dealing with unforeseen events. Future research should focus on finding science-based yet useful in practice ways for establishing values and priority measures that encompass sustainability issues and resilience standards.
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... That is, our findings show that organizations can (and did) rapidly adjust their communication patterns in anticipation of formal policy requirements or response to local environmental conditions (e.g., the increasing spread of the virus in workplaces.) This degree of responsiveness is surprising when juxtaposed with the literature showing that many organizations can be slow to adapt and change, especially as they become large or are required to respond to rapid political and regulatory change (Woods, 2020;Wright et al., 2004). ...
The impact of COVID-19 on digital communication patterns
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2022
We explore the impact of COVID-19 on employees’ digital communication patterns through an event study of lockdowns in 16 large metropolitan areas in North America, Europe, and the Middle East. Using de-identified, aggregated meeting and email meta-data from 3,143,270 users, we find, compared to pre-pandemic levels, increases in the number of meetings per person (+12.9 percent) and the number of attendees per meeting (+13.5 percent), but decreases in the average length of meetings (−20.1 percent). Collectively, the net effect is that people spent less time in meetings per day (−11.5 percent) in the post-lockdown period. We also find significant and durable increases in length of the average workday (+8.2 percent, or +48.5 min), along with short-term increases in email activity. These findings provide insight into how formal communication patterns have changed for a large sample of knowledge workers in major cities. We discuss these changes in light of the ongoing challenges faced by organizations and workers struggling to adapt and perform in the face of a global pandemic.
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... Studies of AARs to date have focused on how reports restore order, but scholarship can do more to understand how multiple organizations make sense of the same crisis and even promote healing or renewal after the crisis (Ulmer et al., 2007). AARs are likely to be written more frequently in the coming decades as natural disasters escalate (Woods, 2020) and multiple organizations must respond to them. To contribute to our understanding of AARs and the ways they make sense of crises, we use two rhetorical concepts by Kenneth Burke that center decision-making and symbolic choices. ...
Commemorating Disorder in After Action Reports: Rhetorics of Organizational Trauma after the Las Vegas Shooting
Article
  • Mar 2022
After-action reports are important texts that make sense of moments of crisis and restore organizational order. We add to existing research on these reports by incorporating the rhetorical concepts of terministic screens and the pentad to understand how reports commemorate disorder and organizational trauma. Analyzing the multiple reports created after the 2017 Las Vegas Shooting, we find that reports from different professional fields commemorate crises in disparate ways that select and deflect memories of trauma. This study extends risk and crisis studies of crisis documentation by highlighting the emotional role reports play in making sense of organizational trauma and considering how professional fields influence post-crisis rhetoric of renewal.
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... La gestión del cambio se ha convertido en la responsabilidad última de la dirección, pues las organizaciones continuamente se enfrentan a la necesidad de la implementación de algún tipo de cambio (Kanter, Stein y Jick, 1992) y tienen el reto de captar un cambio que no diseñaron (Balogun y Johnson, Las organizaciones se enfrentan al reto de cómo adaptarse al creciente ritmo de cambio en mundos más complejos. Los contextos de incertidumbres o de sorpresa impulsan procesos de enseñanza dirigidos hacia la adaptabilidad de las organizaciones y se requiere que éstas sean ágiles estratégicamente (Woods, 2020). ...
La gestión del cambio, la colaboración virtual y la agilidad estratégica organizacional de empresas mexicanas ante los impactos por el COVID-19
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2021
¿Cómo enfrentar una crisis mundial médica? ¿Cómo enfrentarla, si además se generó también una crisis económica mundial nunca antes vista? ¿Gestionar el cambio implica gestionar lo absurdo? Ante la pandemia, las organizaciones debieron hacer frente a la tensión y considerar que la estabilidad debe asumir los procesos de cambio, al ser éste inevitable y formar parte de la vida de la organización. La continuidad y el cambio no deben gestionarse como estados alternativos sino como estados coexistentes. Fue fundamental llevar a cabo estrategias tales como la colaboración virtual, la transformación digital y la agilidad estratégica organizacional. Método: El objetivo de este artículo consistió en determinar en qué medida la gestión del cambio influye en la colaboración virtual, en la transformación digital y en la agilidad estratégica organizacional ante los impactos por la crisis por COVID-19. Con la revisión de literatura y apoyados en la Teoría de la Contingencia se formularon las hipótesis. La fuente de información fue mediante una encuesta de muestreo no probabilístico a 109 empresas de México y la unidad de análisis fue en su mayoría mandos directivos y medios. La metodología utilizada fue un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales (SEM). Resultados: Los resultados indican que las empresas mexicanas emplearon estrategias asociadas con la gestión del cambio como: el teletrabajo en línea, la optimización del negocio, la inversión en tecnología y la diversificación como respuesta a la crisis derivada del COVID-19. Aunque no es posible establecer una relación de causalidad entre las variables en estudio, ya que la interpretación de la causalidad en el mundo real no se garantiza, sí fue posible establecer con estos resultados una discusión acerca de la influencia de la gestión del cambio en la colaboración virtual, en la transformación digital y en la agilidad estratégica organizacional ante la crisis por el Covid-19. Discusión: Ante este entorno emergente las empresas replantearon sus estrategias para enfrentarse a la crisis generada por los impactos del COVID-19. La capacidad de adaptarse rápidamente a los cambios y de gestionarlo de la mejor manera es una capacidad importante y fundamental para mantener y a la vez, transformar a las organizaciones; al ser los cambios rápidos e intensos, es necesario que se gestione el cambio para que las organizaciones sean competitivas a corto plazo y sobrevivan a largo plazo. Los hallazgos de la investigación comprueban e indican que la gestión del cambio predice la colaboración virtual, la transformación digital y la agilidad estratégica organizacional; el análisis empírico de esta investigación ha puesto de manifiesto la importancia de ésta para generar capacidades necesarias que las organizaciones requieren ante respuestas prontas y necesarias para garantizar su supervivencia y competitividad.
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... It is already argued by complexity theorists that adaptation and resilience must be the new fundamental principles for successful organizational management (Hollnagel et al., 2011;McDaniel & Driebe, 2005;Woods, 2020). In a future with shifting background conditions such as climate change, the concept of reliability may well be superseded by conditions so surprising that its usefulness as either an organizing strategy or an evaluation criterion for policy and management may well disappear. ...
Reliability, uncertainty and the management of error: New perspectives in the COVID‐19 era
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2022
This essay argues for the importance of error as an organizing concept in the management of hazardous technical systems to high levels of reliability and safety. The concept of “error” has been essential to the development of high reliability organizations (HROs). As practiced in HROs, error management has also been an important strategy for the management of uncertainty. “Uncertainty” has been conceived by some analysts as a condition that can convey little or no reliable information about its own boundary conditions or its specific threat to the operation of complex systems. The argument here is that uncertainty is differentiated and specified in HROs and provides important information in relation to error. Uncertainty does not, in the special context of HROs, end the possibility and practice of reliable management. In fact, error in HROs can be a starting point for the further analysis of ways in which uncertainty itself can be managed reliably. But the argument offered here does not mean that uncertainty does not challenge reliability in other settings. The COVID‐19 pandemic is offered as an example of how uncertainties may invalidate even the application of "reliability" as a performance standard in certain domains of management and policy.
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Are you resilient? Machine learning prediction of corporate rebound out of the Covid‐19 pandemic
Article
  • Nov 2022
We use the Covid‐19 crisis to assess how four capability domains that traditionally support corporate performance (agility, innovation, ecosystem play and digitization) can also predict corporate resilience, among global firms. Our results are based on a blend of advanced machine learning techniques that capture the complementarities among capabilities. We confirm that dynamic capabilities boost recovery, but especially when linked with aggressive leadership posture, e.g. rebound is more likely when firms are the main player/orchestrator of their business ecosystems as well as when they invest in disruptive, as opposed to incremental innovations.
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Surprise is inevitable: How do we train and prepare to make our critical infrastructure more resilient?
Article
  • Feb 2022
While current practices for infrastructure currently follow principles of reliability and risk, these are—by necessity—based on knowledge of past events. They are not suited to adapt infrastructure to dramatic change and/or future surprises. In this paper, we propose a research agenda for the development of novel training exercises that complement current approaches by drawing upon a theory of resilience that emphasizes adaptive response to surprise. We argue that experience with surprise in ‘realistic, yet fictitious’ infrastructure systems simulations can improve the capacity of infrastructure managers to sense, anticipate, adapt to, and learn from surprise in virtual crises gaming scenarios when trainees successfully integrate their experiences from simpler to more complex stages of expertise. Virtual platforms that are shareable and extensible to classroom and operational settings might speed this process of integration of experience, and improve success rates among infrastructure managers confronted with surprise.
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Competitive advantage in algorithmic trading: a behavioral innovation economics approach
Article
  • Jan 2022
Purpose This paper investigates the strategic behavior of algorithmic trading firms from an innovation economics perspective. The authors seek to uncover the sources of competitive advantage these firms develop to make markets inefficient for them and enable their survival. Design/methodology/approach First, the authors review expected capability, a quantitative behavioral model of the sustainable, or reliable, profits that lead to survival. Second, they present qualitative data gathered from semi-structured interviews with industry professionals as well as from the academic and industry literatures. They categorize this data into first-order concepts and themes of opportunity-, advantage- and meta-seeking behaviors. Associating the observed sources of competitive advantages with the components of the expected capability model allows us to describe the economic rationale these firms have for developing those sources and explain how they survive. Findings The data reveals ten sources of competitive advantages, which the authors label according to known ones in the strategic management literature. We find that, due to the dynamically complex environments and their bounded resources, these firms seek heuristic compromise among these ten, which leads to satisficing. Their application of innovation methodology that prescribes iterative ex post hypothesis testing appears to quell internal conflict among groups and promote organizational survival. The authors believe their results shed light on the behavior and motivations of algorithmic market actors, but also of innovative firms more generally. Originality/value Based upon their review of the literature, this is the first paper to provide such a complete explanation of the strategic behavior of algorithmic trading firms.
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Barriers towards Resilient Performance among Public Critical Infrastructure Organizations: The Refugee Influx Case of 2015 in Sweden
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2021
During the autumn of 2015, Europe experienced a sharp increase in refugee influx, and many refugees arrived in the European Øresund Region. Refugees travelled through Denmark and over the Øresund Bridge, arriving in the third largest city in Sweden, Malmö. Private, public and voluntary organizations in Malmö had to change the way they worked to meet the new entry demands. Flexible adaptations to changing circumstances can be described as resilient performance and are supported or hindered by societal and organizational drivers and barriers. Qualitative interview data from Swedish organizations managing the refugee reception in Malmö were analyzed through the theoretical lens of Resilience Engineering (RE). The analysis results showed that necessary adaptations were not supported by the managerial design of the responsible public organizations. The analysis also showed that preconditions created from societal steering hinders value responsiveness at the public management level, i.e., the public management level has barriers towards becoming familiar with the organization’s value structures. Familiarity with the system value and goal structure is essential for an efficient prioritizing of conflicting goals, which is why it is suggested that this aspect be explicitly included in RE principles.
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The Theory of Graceful Extensibility: Basic rules that govern adaptive systems
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2018
The paper introduces the theory of graceful extensibility which expresses fundamental characteristics of the adaptive universe that constrain the search for sustained adaptability. The theory explains the contrast between successful and unsuccessful cases of sustained adaptability for systems that serve human purposes. Sustained adaptability refers to the ability to continue to adapt to changing environments, stakeholders, demands, contexts, and constraints (in effect, to adapt how the system in question adapts). The key new concept at the heart of the theory is graceful extensibility. Graceful extensibility is the opposite of brittleness, where brittleness is a sudden collapse or failure when events push the system up to and beyond its boundaries for handling changing disturbances and variations. As the opposite of brittleness, graceful extensibility is the ability of a system to extend its capacity to adapt when surprise events challenge its boundaries. The theory is presented in the form of a set of 10 proto-theorems derived from just two assumptions-in the adaptive universe, resources are always finite and change continues. The theory contains three subsets of fundamentals: managing the risk of saturation, networks of adaptive units, and outmaneuvering constraints. The theory attempts to provide a formal base and common language that characterizes how complex systems sustain and fail to sustain adaptability as demands change.
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Trade-Offs Under Pressure: Heuristics and Observations Of Teams Resolving Internet Service Outages
Thesis
Full-text available
  • Sep 2015
The increasing complexity of software applications and architectures in Internet services challenge the reasoning of operators tasked with diagnosing and resolving outages and degradations as they arise. Although a growing body of literature focuses on how failures can be prevented through more robust and fault-tolerant design of these systems, a dearth of research explores the cognitive challenges engineers face when those preventative designs fail and they are left to think and react to scenarios that hadn’t been imagined. This study explores what heuristics or rules-of-thumb engineers employ when faced with an outage or degradation scenario in a business-critical Internet service. A case study approach was used, focusing on an actual outage of functionality during a high period of buying activity on a popular online marketplace. Heuristics and other tacit knowledge were identified, and provide a promising avenue for both training and future interface design opportunities. Three diagnostic heuristics were identified as being in use: a) initially look for correlation between the behaviour and any recent changes made in the software, b) upon finding no correlation with a software change, widen the search to any potential contributors imagined, and c) when choosing a diagnostic direction, reduce it by focusing on the one that most easily comes to mind, either because symptoms match those of a difficult-to-diagnose event in the past, or those of any recent events. A fourth heuristic is coordinative in nature: when making changes to software in an effort to mitigate the untoward effects or to resolve the issue completely, rely on peer review of the changes more than automated testing (if at all.)
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Basic patterns in how adaptive systems fail
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2011
This chapter provides one input to resilience management strategies in the form of three basic patterns in how adaptive systems fail. The three basic patterns are (1) decompensation – when the system exhausts its capacity to adapt as disturbances / challenges cascade; (2) working at cross-purposes – when roles exhibit behaviour that is locally adaptive but globally mal-adaptive; and (3) getting stuck in outdated behaviours – when the system over-relies on past successes. Illustrations are drawn from urban fire-fighting and crisis management. A working organisation needs to be able to see and avoid or recognise and escape when the system is moving toward one of the three basic adaptive traps. Understanding how adaptive systems can fail requires contrasting diverse perspectives.
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How Adaptive Systems Fail
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Jan 2011
This chapter provides one input to resilience management strategies in the form of three basic patterns in how adaptive systems fail. The three basic patterns are (1) decompensation – when the system exhausts its capacity to adapt as disturbances / challenges cascade; (2) working at cross-purposes – when roles exhibit behaviour that is locally adaptive but globally mal-adaptive; and (3) getting stuck in outdated behaviours – when the system over-relies on past successes. Illustrations are drawn from urban fire-fighting and crisis management. A working organisation needs to be able to see and avoid or recognise and escape when the system is moving toward one of the three basic adaptive traps. Understanding how adaptive systems can fail requires contrasting diverse perspectives.
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The ETTO Principle: Efficiency-Thoroughness Trade-Off. Why Things That Go Right Sometimes Go Wrong
Article
  • Jun 2009
Accident investigation and risk assessment have for decades focused on the human factor, particularly 'human error'. Countless books and papers have been written about how to identify, classify, eliminate, prevent and compensate for it. This bias towards the study of performance failures, leads to a neglect of normal or 'error-free' performance and the assumption that as failures and successes have different origins there is little to be gained from studying them together. Erik Hollnagel believes this assumption is false and that safety cannot be attained only by eliminating risks and failures. The ETTO Principle looks at the common trait of people at work to adjust what they do to match the conditions – to what has happened, to what happens, and to what may happen. It proposes that this efficiency-thoroughness trade-off (ETTO) – usually sacrificing thoroughness for efficiency – is normal. While in some cases the adjustments may lead to adverse outcomes, these are due to the very same processes that produce successes, rather than to errors and malfunctions. The ETTO Principle removes the need for specialised theories and models of failure and 'human error' and offers a viable basis for effective and just approaches to both reactive and proactive safety management.
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