Book

Vehicle-to-Grid: A Sociotechnical Transition Beyond Electric Mobility

Authors:

Abstract

This book defines and charts the barriers and future of vehicle-to-grid technology: a technology that could dramatically reduce emissions, create revenue, and accelerate the adoption of battery electric cars. This technology connects the electric power grid and the transportation system in ways that will enable electric vehicles to store renewable energy and offer valuable services to the electricity grid and its markets. To understand the complex features of this emergent technology, the authors explore the current status and prospect of vehicle-to-grid, and detail the sociotechnical barriers that may impede its fruitful deployment. The book concludes with a policy roadmap to advise decision-makers on how to optimally implement vehicle-to-grid and capture its benefits to society while attempting to avoid the impediments discussed earlier in the book. Lance Noel is a postdoctoral researcher at Aarhus University, Denmark, where he is lead researcher on a $1.6 million grant on the sociotechnical benefits and barriers of electric vehicles and vehicle-to-grid in the Nordic region. Gerardo Zarazua de Rubens is a doctoral fellow at Aarhus University, Denmark, working on energy and transport systems, data analytics and business development. His recent focus has been on Electric Vehicle and Vehicle-to-Grid implementation in Europe. Johannes Kester is a postdoctoral researcher at Aarhus University, Denmark, working on sociotechnical transformations in electricity and alternative transport systems, energy policy, and the role of security in these transformations. Benjamin K. Sovacool is Professor of Energy Policy at the School of Business, Management, and Economics, University of Sussex, UK. He is also Director of the Center for Energy Technologies and Professor of Business and Social Sciences in the Department of Business Development and Technology at Aarhus University in Denmark.
... The most compelling technical challenge of V1G and V2G systems is the battery degradation as a result of wear from increased use [2]. Battery degradation can cause loss of capacity over time, which impacts an EV's range capability. ...
... The second critical technical challenge is the overall efficiency of V2G sending energy to and from the grid, particularly from the electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) [2]. The aggregators face two central challenges: the first is with implementing algorithms that can handle the growing complexity of the V2G systems, and the second is with the communication system [2]. ...
... The second critical technical challenge is the overall efficiency of V2G sending energy to and from the grid, particularly from the electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) [2]. The aggregators face two central challenges: the first is with implementing algorithms that can handle the growing complexity of the V2G systems, and the second is with the communication system [2]. In addition to the challenges of aggregation, algorithms, and scaling of a V2G system, a related challenge is the communication standard used in the V2G system to transmit messages to and from the EVs/EVSEs and the electric utilities. ...
... Since the fastest electricity markets require reliability within the individual second-time frame, the meter needs to have high precision and granularity. This level of energy metering, sometimes referred to as Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI), provides practically real-time data and information to the aggregator and the electricity grid operator [2]. ...
... First, the EV users (such as the private car users, company and logistics fleets mobility managers, sharing fleets companies, local public transport managers, trucks drivers/owners etc.) play a vital role in the electric mobility ecosystem [17]. Depending on the vehicle capabilities, the owner's driving behaviour and the charging opportunities, the vehicle owner can play an active role in the V1G and V2X markets [2]. Figure 2 shows the data and energy interactions among electric mobility ecosystem actors. ...
... (i.) they invest in the manufacturing of vehicles with uni-and bidirectional charge/discharge capabilities. (ii.) some car manufacturers are participating in the management of their car fleet [2]. For instance, Tesla in the UK, Renault-Nissan alliance in France or Stellantis in Italy among others [14]. ...
Technical Report
This report analyses the topology, ecosystem, opportunities, and challenges (economic and technical) of electric mobility.
... Monitoring and control equipment: As the technology (V2G charging unit) already has all the monitoring and control equipment built-in, the cost, in this case, will be zero. • Operation and Maintenance: This is around 5% of the cost of implementation [20]. • Lifetime: There are no conclusive studies regarding the impact of V2G on battery life. ...
... The analysis shows that several thousand driving days/V2G incur substantially less than 10% loss of capacity, regardless of the amount of V2G support used. The extent of the impacts can be less, zero, or even improve the health of the battery [20,22]. Disregarding the battery degradation due to the V2G and only taking into account the useful life of this battery due to the use of the car, the value is about 8 years (or according to the recharge cycle indicated by the manufacturer). ...
... Regarding the social dimension, further studies are still required to better understand how the technology can impact society and, thus, its advantages and disadvantages [7][8][9][10][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][27][28][29]. Social barriers to the penetration of V2G become an important aspect; problems such as high cost, connection to the power grid and problems with cybersecurity are points that require greater attention in future research. ...
Article
Full-text available
This work aims at a comprehensive assessment of the impact of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology on both demand and supply sides, considering integrated resource planning for sustainable energy. By using a computational tool and evaluating the complete potentials, we divide the analysis into four dimensions: environmental, social, technical, economic, and political. Each dimension is further subdivided, allowing for a detailed characterization of the impacts across these various aspects. Our approach employs a simple yet effective algebraic method using matrices to evaluate all the elements involved in the V2G system. This case study focuses on the environmental and technical–economic aspects of integrating V2G technology into a city with industrial parameters. Our findings reveal improvements and future challenges to all four dimensions, including direct and indirect reductions in CO2 emissions. However, the limited availability of specific data in the social and political scopes highlight the need for further research in these areas. This study lays the groundwork for future investigations to explore the social and political implications of V2G technology, offering significant potential for future studies.
... This implicitly demonstrates the essential role of the EV user in the smart charging system. To be successful, smart charging requires the active participation of several actors, which can be characterized as primary and secondary actors [16]. While primary actors directly interact with the smart charging technologythe user is one crucial actor out of three that can be categorized as primary actor -, secondary actors represent the "periphery network" [16]. ...
... To be successful, smart charging requires the active participation of several actors, which can be characterized as primary and secondary actors [16]. While primary actors directly interact with the smart charging technologythe user is one crucial actor out of three that can be categorized as primary actor -, secondary actors represent the "periphery network" [16]. ...
... The articles from the final sample derive from a variety of journals. Most publications are placed in established, international journals in the field of energy economics, such as Energies (25), Energy (22), and Applied Energy (16). Further publications are from journals with a focus on transportation and mobility, such as Transportation Research Part D (9) or those with an interdisciplinary priority, such as Energy Policy (8), Energy Research and Social Science (7), or Transport Policy (2). ...
Article
Many countries worldwide have adopted policies to foster the transformation from internal combustion engine vehicles to electric vehicles (EV) to reach national climate goals. An uptake of EVs however, irrevocably leads to an increased power demand. To meet this problem, smart charging concepts are on the rise. As smart charging implies an active role of the EV user, studying the user in the smart charging system is vital for a successful market ramp-up. Despite the user's primary role, many studies only include a limited set of user characteristics into their research design. We aim to create transparency on how the user is characterized in current research and on how different disciplines deal with and consider the user in their research. Learning how different research strands deal with the user of smart charging is the main objective of this review. This systematic review provides an overview of 183 peer-reviewed journal articles from the past 20 years of research on smart charging. We find that the type of data that is included to characterize the user of smart charging is related to the research focus. While technology-centered research topics typically approach the user in terms of mobility and charging behavior, or smart charging preferences, human-centered research retrieves qualitative as well as quantitative data that enables in-depth knowledge about values, norms and perceptions of smart charging. Finally, we identified two topics that can be characterized as being integrative, as they create an interface for combining human-centered and technology-centered perspectives in a unique manner.
... They explain the relationship between EVs and EVSEs as well [7]. For instance, front-end protocols include communication standards such as IEC 61851, ISO 15118, SAE J2847, and CHAdeMO [8,9]. The back-end protocols describe criteria for communication and cybersecurity and provide links between EVSEs and third-party operators such as charge point operators (CPOs) [9,10]. ...
... For instance, front-end protocols include communication standards such as IEC 61851, ISO 15118, SAE J2847, and CHAdeMO [8,9]. The back-end protocols describe criteria for communication and cybersecurity and provide links between EVSEs and third-party operators such as charge point operators (CPOs) [9,10]. A few examples of back-end protocols include the open charge point protocol (OCPP), IEC 63110, the open automated demand response (ADR), and EE-BUS described in [11]. ...
... Moreover, for the real-time test of V2G technology with Combo CCS type 2, a simple communication unit needs to be added to the EV to regulate the power flow between the EVs and the grid. Designing this communication technology is expensive [9]. Therefore, most (European) EVs are not equipped with this unit, and they require a setup modification or adaptation to successfully establish a bidirectional power flow. ...
Article
Full-text available
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology is viewed as a viable solution to offer auxiliary power system services. Currently, V2G operation is only possible through DC chargers using the CHAdeMO connector with the necessary communication protocol. However, in Europe, for high-power DC charging (>50 kW), the Combined Charging Service (CCS) Type 2 is preferred over CHAdeMO. Therefore, this work presents the development of a V2G testing system with a Combo CCSType 2 charger including communication via the ISO 15118-2 protocol. The BOSCH passenger car with a 400 V battery pack is used to test and validate the technical feasibility of V2G charging via a Combo CCS Type 2 connector standard. The V2G feature is characterized in terms of efficiency, signal delay, response proportionality, magnitude accuracy and noise precision. A data driven V2G charger simulation model based on the real-time data is also developed in MATLAB/Simulink. The performance under various operating settings is presented in the outcomes, emphasizing the need for appropriate hardware calibration, and understanding while delivering standard-compliant grid control services using V2G technology. Finally, the results of the simulation model are compared with the real hardware results in terms of error, noise level and data magnitude accuracy.
... According to Kaur et al. (2019) and Liu et al. (2019), V2G technology has the potential to transform EVs into a distributed energy resource with multiple benefits for smart grid integration. According to Noel et al. (2019), V2G technology implemented on EVs can provide several advantages in technical, economic, and environmental benefits. Technical benefits are related to the power grid operator. ...
... They include voltage regulation (Rogers et al., 2010), spinning reserve (Pavic et al., 2015), load peak shifting (Dallinger et al., 2011), and frequency regulation (Kolawole and Al-Anbagi, 2019). Among the environmental benefits, V2G technology can incentivize the electricity sector decarbonization if combined with renewable power sources (i.e., solar photovoltaic and wind energy) in terms of higher flexibility and backup storage (Noel et al., 2019;Saber and Venayagamoorthy, 2010). Finally, the economic benefits obtained by V2G technology can be classified according to the different stakeholders: EV owners, grid operators, and society. ...
... For example, Uddin et al. (2017) have demonstrated that extending EV Li-ion batteries lifetime through a smart grid algorithm is possible. For a review on V2G batteries capacity losses, see Noel et al. (2019). The proposition of a smart grid algorithm for managing battery lifetime in a CSS with V2G technology is beyond the scope of this work. ...
Article
Full-text available
Electric car-sharing systems have attracted large attention in recent years as a new business model for achieving both economic and environmental benefits in urban areas. Among different types, the one considered in this paper is the so-called one-way car-sharing system whereby a user can begin and end a trip at any station of the system. At the same time, the Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) concept is emerging as a possible innovative solution for smart power grid control. A management system that combines car-sharing system operations and V2G technology is a recent challenge for academia and industry. In this work, a mixed integer linear programming formulation is proposed to find the optimal management of electric vehicles in a one-way car-sharing system integrated with V2G technology. The proposed mathematical model allows finding the optimal start-of-day electric vehicles distribution that maximizes the total revenue obtained from system users and V2G profits through daily electric vehicles charging/discharging schedules. These schedules are based on mean daily users' electric vehicles requests and electricity prices. The model can be applied to evaluate the possible average daily profitability of V2G operations. In order to test the model performance, we applied it to a small-size test network and a real-size test network (the Delft network in the Netherlands). Under the model assumptions, the adoption of V2G technology allows to fully cover the daily charging costs due to users’ trips and to obtain V2G profits by taking advantage of electric vehicles unused time without significantly reducing the satisfied car-sharing system demand. Most of the energy purchased to charge the electric vehicles batteries is provided back to the grid during energy peak load demand, creating benefits also for energy providers.
... 6) Distribution System Operator (DSO): DSO is the system or organization responsible for distributing electricity to the end-users. The DSO allows or prohibits the power flow to the charging site, and, based on the EV's data feedback, ensures balance and decongestion in the grid [24]. At least one edge system of the operator is considered a third-party component in the EV charging system. ...
... illegitimate EV charging with another EV's credentials) or by the slightly different impersonation attacks (e.g. an EV driver charging his EV and billing another EV driver) [100]. The main entry points for both these attacks are the EV, the EV driver (e.g. the credentials of his credit card, the access account for the reservation/billing application), and the CS [24], [39], [62]. The masquerading attacks are mostly used to disrupt and to affect the integrity of the charging service, while the impersonation attacks are used by the malicious party so that the service's control will be taken over and the service's availability will be disrupted [143]. ...
... So, finding the best trade-off for a scalable and comprehensive cross-layer IDS is key to investing in the right technology and deploying sensors at optimal locations. 24 ...
Preprint
Full-text available
The increased use of smart Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEV) opened a new area of research and development. The number of EV charging sites has considerably increased in residential as well as in public areas. Within these EV charging sites, various entities need to communicate in a secure and efficient way. The Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) offers a way to coordinate this communication and is already being used in many implementations. However, only the latest OCPP 2.0 version of the protocol includes certain security features. In this article, we present the entities that take part in an OCPP-based smart charging scenario, we identify security issues and threats and present solutions that have been proposed by scholars.We identify open security issues for OCPP and propose future research directions for the security enhancement of the protocol.
... D r a f t 4 6) Distribution System Operator (DSO): DSO is the system or organization responsible for distributing electricity to the end-users. The DSO allows or prohibits the power flow to the charging site, and, based on the EV's data feedback, ensures balance and decongestion in the grid [24]. At least one edge system of the operator is considered a third-party component in the EV charging system. ...
... illegitimate EV charging with another EV's credentials) or by the slightly different impersonation attacks (e.g. an EV driver charging his EV and billing another EV driver) [100]. The main entry points for both these attacks are the EV, the EV driver (e.g. the credentials of his credit card, the access account for the reservation/billing application), and the CS [24], [39], [62]. The masquerading attacks are mostly used to disrupt and to affect the integrity of the charging service, while the impersonation attacks are used by the malicious party so that the service's control will be taken over and the service's availability will be disrupted [143]. ...
... So, finding the best trade-off for a scalable and comprehensive cross-layer IDS is key to investing in the right technology and deploying sensors at optimal locations. D r a f t 24 ...
Article
Full-text available
The increased use of smart Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEV) opened a new area of research and development. The number of EV charging sites has considerably increased in residential as well as in public areas. Within these EV charging sites, various entities need to communicate in a secure and efficient way. The Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) offers a way to coordinate this communication and is already being used in many implementations. However, only the latest OCPP 2.0 version of the protocol includes certain security features. In this article, we present the entities that take part in an OCPP-based smart charging scenario, we identify security issues and threats and present solutions that have been proposed by scholars.We identify open security issues for OCPP and propose future research directions for the security enhancement of the protocol.
... • Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) -the use of energy stored in an EV battery to feed another EV. • Vehicle-to-Community (V2C) -the aggregation of EV batteries for local use in a residential community (Noel et al., 2019b;Yamagata et al., 2014). • Vehicle-to-Neighbor (V2N) -refers to energy transition from one's EV to one's neighbor (Saldaña et al., 2019). ...
... The introduction of the V2G technology in the EV charging business ecosystem (see Fig. 3) implies the simultaneous collaboration of multiple entities forming a new value chain Goncearuc et al. (2022). According to Noel et al. (2019b), the operation of the V2G-related service value chain requires four types of interactions between its participants: financial flow, bidirectional power flow, communication and regulations. The longer the value chain, the more complex these interactions become. ...
Article
Full-text available
A R T I C L E I N F O Keywords: Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) Electric Vehicle (EV) Barriers Risk matrix Cross-impact analysis A B S T R A C T The remarkable growth of electric vehicles (EV) popularity in recent years has significantly pushed the EV charging demand, potentially causing significant pressure on the electricity grid. The Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology, allowing for bidirectional energy flow between the EV battery and the grid, is able to mitigate this pressure, by unlocking the energy flexibility, inherently available in the EV battery. However, despite its potential, V2G technology has not yet reached the mass market due to a number of barriers hampering its adoption. The current study has identified and analyzed 23 barriers potentially hampering the adoption of V2G technology, including technical, business, and EV user-related challenges. The results of the performed analysis define the risk of non-adoption of V2G technology associated with every barrier, along with the interrelations between the barriers. These research findings allow to understand the relative importance of the barriers, structuring and facilitating the necessary efforts of the involved stakeholders toward the adoption of V2G technology.
... Managed charging also allows utilities to regulate the rate of charge and can thus provide frequency and regulation services to the grid (Weis et al. 2014). Finally, in bidirectional charging or vehicleto-grid (V2G), EVs are generally subject to managed charging, but an extension provides the ability to export electricity from the vehicle's battery back to the building and/or wider electricity grid (Ercan et al. 2016;Noel et al. 2019;Jochem et al. 2021 10 Jochem et al. 2021), reduce the uncertainty in forecasts of daily and hourly electrical loads (Peng et al. 2012), and allow greater utilisation of generation capacity (Hajimiragha et al. 2010;Madzharov et al. 2014). ...
... V2G-capable EVs can result in even lower total emissions, particularly when compared to other alternatives (Reddy et al. 2016). Noel et al. (2019) analysed V2G pathways in Denmark and noted that at a penetration rate of 75% by 2030, USD34 billion in social benefits could be accrued (through things like displaced pollution). These social benefits translate to USD1,200 per vehicle. ...
Chapter
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This Working Group III contribution to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report provides a comprehensive and transparent assessment of the literature on climate change mitigation. The report assesses progress in climate change mitigation options for reducing emissions and enhancing sinks. With greenhouse gas emissions at the highest levels in human history, this report provides options to achieve net zero, as pledged by many countries. The report highlights for the first time the social and demand-side aspects of climate mitigation, and assesses the literature on human behaviour, lifestyle, and culture, and its implications for mitigation action. It brings a wide range of disciplines, notably from the social sciences, within the scope of the assessment. IPCC reports are a trusted source for decision makers, policymakers, and stakeholders at all levels (international, regional, national, local) and in all branches (government, businesses, NGOs). Available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
... After the natural disasters that occurred in Japan in 2011, such as the tsunami and earthquake, many areas were left isolated from a power supply. To address this, Nissan and Mitsubishi deployed EVs with CHAdeMO plug systems to provide energy for emergency backup [28][29][30]. Since then, development in the field of backup power supply has intensified. ...
Conference Paper
E-mobility has undergone a remarkable transformation in recent years. It has progressed from the early days of a few electric vehicles (EVs) to widespread acceptance and integration into society. In the effort to address climate change, it has also become a necessity. The advancement in battery technology has enabled these EV not only to have better performance and longer ranges but also the capability to function as energy storage units for both households and businesses. This feature can prove valuable in industrial fleets, contributing substantially to grid stability and financial savings through temporary renewable energy storage and peak load balancing. DC grids provide the most flexible, efficient, and environmentally friendly charging architecture. Ideally, they are supplied directly from renewable energy generators. While bidirectional charging station prototypes for AC networks are emerging, solutions for future DC grids are still lacking.This publication evaluates the potential of this novel supply architecture and derives requirements for the regulatory-compliant design and commissioning of DC-coupled bidirectional direct current (DC) charge points (CPs). Furthermore, a proposal for the selection, dimensioning and interconnection of the electrical components, as well as the associated control and communication architecture of a corresponding power scalable charger is presented. This also includes the meaningful integration into an industrial DC grid, including the backend communication with the associated energy management system (EMS), which also plays a decisive role in the exploitation of the potential of the technology. In the first test phase of the charging station, a power-hardware-in-the-loop EV simulation will be carried out in conjunction with a regeneratively fed industrial low voltage direct current grid until standardized solutions for bidirectional EVs are actually available on the market.
... The privacy concerns expressed by the users mainly relate to the risk of data misuse and hacking, and thus, an attack on their privacy. Potential users fear that private data could be transmitted and traced back as well as that involved energy companies could gain access to private household data (Döbelt, Kämpfe & Krems, 2014;Geske & Schumann, 2018;Noel et al., 2019). Further, users also fear that unauthorized persons could take control of energy use and the charging process and thereby, could gain unauthorized access to the vehicle and its location (Geske & Schumann, 2018;Milchram et al., 2018;Sovacool et al., 2018). ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
As the availability of electricity from renewable sources in the power grid can fluctuate greatly, smart charging of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is an effective approach to balance the grid. However, user centred smart BEV charging requires detailed settings of the BEV drivers’ mobility and consumption needs as well as the collection and processing of personal data. This may lead to privacy concerns among users and reduce their willingness to use smart BEV charging. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate the role of users’ privacy concerns in the decision for smart BEV charging. To this end, an online questionnaire study with N = 103 participants was conducted in Germany in 2023. The sample consisted of 62 women and 41 men, with an average age of 31 years (SD = 15.52; Min = 18 years; Max = 67 years). Participants were well educated and had on average 3,625 km driving experience with BEVs (SD = 7,397.13; Min = 0 km; Max = 38,000 km) within the last 12 months. Results revealed that smart BEV charging was perceived as significantly more critical in terms of data disclosure as conventional charging (p ≤ .043). The possibility of unauthorized persons gaining access to personal data was rated as the highest risk followed by the identity of possible data recipients compared to the possibility of data loss (p < .01). Further, participants’ perceived criticality of data disclosure significantly predicted their willingness to participate in smart BEV charging when controlling for participants BEV driving and charging experience (Radj2 = .075, F(3,102) = 3.8, p = .013). Within this study, we provided first empirical evidence that participants’ concerns regarding privacy emerged as a potential obstacle to their willingness to engage in smart BEV charging practices. Finally, we show strategies for reducing privacy concerns and increasing the willingness to participate in smart BEV charging.
... Nevertheless, already in the power spectrum that is relevant e.g. for the operation of heat pumps in residential buildings (2 kW -5 kW power input), acceptable efficiencies in the region of 80% are achieved for combined charging and discharging. Interestingly, this would make Vehicle-to-Grid or Vehicle-to-Home systems with an efficiency of 70% -80% [21] similar in efficiency to dedicated pumped storage power plants, which have an efficiency of 70% for older plants and 83% for the newest ones [22]. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
The transition of the transport sector to e-mobility poses various challenges, but also provides great flexible load and supply potential and thus enables a stronger coupling of the transport sector with other sectors. If emerging opportunities such as bidirectional charging in the context of Vehicle-to-Home and Vehicle-to-Grid applications are utilised, a previously unimagined load management and storage potential can be tapped. This can transform e-mobility from an additional burden to the grid to a grid-supporting factor that enables greater integration of renewable energies and reduces additional investments in infrastructure like grid expansion and stationary storage systems. In order to investigate this potential, within this work we examine simulation based various Vehicle-to-Home (PV self-consumption, load shifting due to flexible electricity tariff) and Vehicle-to-Grid (secondary reserve) scenarios for different driving profiles for a residential building with heat pump, PV system and optionally with small wind turbine. In addition, a charge load optimisation is carried out using a genetic algorithm. The energy quantities, saving potential and the additional number of battery cycles are quantified. The results show that, despite additional battery degradation, significant financial incentives can be achieved.
... yield several benefits such as saving costs of EV owners, and enhancing the flexibility and stabilization of grid (Noel et al., 2019;Liao et al., 2021). ...
Preprint
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Shared electric vehicles (SEVs) have emerged as a promising solution to contribute to sustainable urban mobility. However, ensuring the efficient operation and effective battery management of SEV systems remains a complex challenge. This challenge stems from factors such as slow plug-in charging, the potential role of SEVs in balancing grid load pressure, and the optimization of SEV operations to ensure their economic viability. To tackle these challenges, this paper introduces an integrated strategy for optimizing various aspects of SEV systems, encompassing strategies like Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G), Battery-to-Grid (B2G), and battery swapping. This approach is built on a space-time-energy network model that facilitates the optimization of battery charging and discharging scheduling, SEV operations like relocations and battery swapping, battery swapping station selection and the number of batteries. The objective of this approach is to maximize profits while addressing operational constraints and the complexities of energy management within SEV systems. Given the substantial complexity that arises with large-problem scales, the paper introduces a column generation-based heuristic algorithm. Extensive experimental validation is conducted, including sensitivity analysis on different charging speeds and fleet sizes. The results illuminate the impact of varying charging rates and fleet sizes on performance indicators. Notably, it is observed that battery swapping is particularly effective as an auxiliary charging method when the number of vehicles is limited. Conversely, in scenarios with a large fleet, the necessity for battery swapping diminishes. Moreover, results show the effectiveness of V2G and B2G technologies in grid load balancing.
... Therefore, vehicle-to-grid (V2G) services have emerged as a promising technology in the field of smart grids [10], where they can improve frequency [11] and voltage regulations while providing benefits to the EV users [12], and this depends on the number of available EVs [13,14]. Additionally, such services can enhance power quality and promote the integration of renewable energy with developed smart control algorithms [15][16][17]. In [18], the benefits are highlighted for V2G service participants, as these services can decrease the total ownership cost of EVs. ...
Article
Full-text available
Satisfying the increased power demand of electric vehicles (EVs) charged by clean energy sources will become an important aspect that impacts the sustainability and the carbon emissions of the smart grid. A photovoltaic (PV)-powered charging station (PVCS) formed by PV modules and a stationary storage system with a public grid connection can provide cost-efficient and reliable charging strategies for EV batteries. Moreover, the utilization of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) service is a promising solution, as EVs spend most of their time idle in charging stations. As a result, V2G services have the potential to provide advantages to both public grid operators and EV users. In this paper, an energy management algorithm of a PVCS formulated with mixed-integer linear programming is presented to minimize the total energy cost of the participation of EV users in V2G service. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed optimization method satisfies EV user demands while providing V2G service and highlights the benefits of the V2G service where the determined costs of the proposed algorithm perform significantly better compared to the baseline scenario (simulation without optimization).
... 3 Aggregators can be defined as a third party, combining individual EVs to participate in the electricity market (Das et al., 2020;Noel et al., 2019b). By doing so, EVs can provide complex electricity grid services (Noel et al., 2021). ...
Article
Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) could be a cornerstone to ensure the efficient integration of a large number of electric vehicles (EVs) and the resulting electricity demand into the energy system. However, successful V2G adoption requires direct interaction with the EV user. To explore user preferences and requirements in the context of a V2G charging tariff, we conducted a survey (N = 1196). We assess users' minimum range requirements and willingness to pay for a V2G charging tariff and relate them to users' experience with EVs. By building a mediation model, we evaluate the importance of three charging strategies to guide users' minimum range requirements and expected monetary savings. The results reveal EV owners' preference for a climate-neutral charging strategy, leading to a higher readiness to accept lower minimum ranges and lower monetary savings. These results are especially important to aggregators, aiming to design profitable business models, while accounting for user requirements and preferences.
... V2G provides substantial flexibility for combining renewable energy without dispersing the electrical grid reliance. Renewable energy is a separate element of energy generation [72]. The V2G offers complete elasticity as well as backup storage services. ...
Article
Full-text available
Owing to the continually rising energy demand, internal combustion engine (ICE)-equipped vehicles are being replaced with electric vehicles (EVs). Apart from commute purposes, EVs batteries can be utilized as energy storage devices for renewable energy sources and their availability can be improved using vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology. A bidirectional technique was used to enable power transfer between the grid and EV batteries. Moreover, bidirectional wireless power transfer (BWPT) can assist consumers in automating the power-transfer process without human intervention. However, effective bidirectional power transfer requires proper coordination between the vehicle and grid with suitable control and compensation networks. Various compensation techniques have been proposed in the literature, both on the transmitter and receiver sides. Among the four traditional topologies, series compensation is considered the most successful in BWPT. The selection of suitable compensation techniques is a critical task that affects various design parameters. In this study, fundamental compensation topologies of Series-Series (SS), Serial-Parallel (SP), Parallel- Parallel (PP), Parallel-Series (SP) and hybrid compensation topology design requirements. In addition, typical control techniques for bidirectional converters, like as Proportional-Integral Derivative (PID), sliding mode, fuzzy, model predictive, and digital control, as well as different switching modulation schemes, including Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control, PWM+Phase shift control, single-phase shift, dual-phase shift, and triple-phase shift are discussed. The characteristics and control strategy of each topology are presented with respect to common applications.
... As a result, these innovations need government support, and complex political dynamics often constrain the ambition of policies that are crucial for technology development [83][84][85]. At the same time, the decentralized nature of renewables, combined with opportunities to integrate EVs, charging systems, and connected buildings [61,[86][87][88], offer attractive options to expand energy transitions in ways that can leapfrog the need for difficult-to-finance infrastructure investments associated with centralized power systems [83]. ...
Article
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... Finding such mechanisms is however difficult as aggregators are unaware of individual user preferences [94] (this problem is addressed in chapter 5). It should be noted that financial incentives may not be limited to direct payments for V2G services but could also take the form of free parking [95] (valuable especially in urban environments) or discounted EV-charging. ...
Thesis
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) describes an energy storage concept in which the built-in battery packs of parked electric vehicles (EVs) are aggregated and connected to bi-directional chargers to provide various services to the electric power grid (such as frequency regulation or load balancing). Applications of this type of energy storage can vary widely in scale and purpose. This project explores a novel application for V2G in which the aggregated storage potential of parked EVs is used to support nearby electric rail infrastructure. Connected battery packs can be discharged, thereby providing traction power to accelerating electric trains, or charged to accept power from the regenerative braking of arriving trains. The latter is of particular value for low voltage, direct current (DC) rail systems which typically do not support regeneration into the grid. This novel concept is referred to as Road-to-Rail Energy Exchange (R2REE). It represents a large-scale energy storage application in which power demands can change rapidly by several megawatts, thus requiring fast and dynamic aggrega- tor control, capable of managing hundreds of connected EVs. This is achieved by separating aggregator control into several smaller, independently operational tasks and by exploiting the predictable and repetitive power demand patterns of timetabled rail traffic. A novel modular high-level aggregator control structure is presented that addresses these challenges of R2REE through dynamic, real-time aggregator operation along with suitable communications and data management strategies. Furthermore, a novel method of event-based V2G scheduling is proposed that is applicable in deterministic systems where the network provides or receives electricity in reoccurring and predictable patterns or ’events’. Within the scope of this project, an event represents either the arrival of an electric train at a station (a train of known type provides power from regenerative braking to be dissipated over EV population) or a train’s departure (where power is drawn from parked EVs to support train acceleration).<br/
... Storage of energy is also an issue for EV adoption; however, the increasing global uptake of EVs facilitated by technological advances, such as cheaper batteries, has initiated new business models to exploit the potential of EVs for electric storage. V2G technology is one such development, and it enables EVs to be charged and to return stored electricity to the grid through a connection to a domestic, commercial, or public charging station [37]. Vehicle batteries are charged at a low tariff when demand on the grid is low and excess unused power is available, then partially discharged at a higher tariff during peak demand, when the grid is short of supply, allowing owners to make a profit [38]. ...
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The gradual shift towards cleaner and green energy sources requires the application of electric vehicles (EVs) as the mainstream transportation platform. The application of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) shows promise in optimizing the power demand, shaping the load variation, and increasing the sustainability of smart grids. However, no comprehensive paper has been compiled regarding the of operation of V2G and types, current ratings and types of EV in sells market, policies relevant to V2G and business model, and the implementation difficulties and current procedures used to cope with problems. This work better represents the current challenges and prospects in V2G implementation worldwide and highlights the research gap across the V2G domain. The research starts with the opportunities of V2G and required policies and business models adopted in recent years, followed by an overview of the V2G technology; then, the challenges associated with V2G on the power grid and vehicle batteries; and finally, their possible solutions. This investigation highlighted a few significant challenges, which involve a lack of a concrete V2G business model, lack of stakeholders and government incentives, the excessive burden on EV batteries during V2G, the deficiency of proper bidirectional battery charger units and standards and test beds, the injection of harmonics voltage and current to the power grid, and the possibility of uneconomical and unscheduled V2G practices. Recent research and international agency reports are revised to provide possible solutions to these bottlenecks and, in places, the requirements for additional research. The promise of V2G could be colossal, but the scheme first requires tremendous collaboration, funding, and technology maturation.
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Chapter
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Over the past few decades, there has been a growing concern about the social and environmental risks which have come along with the progress achieved through a variety of mutually intertwined modernization processes. In recent years these concerns are transformed into a widely-shared sense of urgency, partly due to events such as the various pandemics threatening livestock, and increasing awareness of the risks and realities of climate change, and the energy and food crises. This sense of urgency includes an awareness that our entire social system is in need of fundamental transformation. But like the earlier transition between the 1750's and 1890's from a pre-modern to a modern industrial society, this second transition is also a contested one. Sustainable development is only one of many options. This book addresses the issue on how to understand the dynamics and governance of the second transition dynamics in order to ensure sustainable development. It will be necessary reading for students and scholars with an interest in sustainable development and long-term transformative change.
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The study models a large regional transmission organization, with various amounts of renewable energy. The cost of 86 million iterations of energy systems is calculated, with and without externalities. When including externalities, society should implement 50% renewable energy. a b s t r a c t The goal of this research is to understand the economics of anticipated large-scale changes in the electric system. 86 million different combinations of renewable generation (wind and solar), natural gas, and three storage types (hydrogen storage, electric vehicles equipped with vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology, and building heat) are modeled within the PJM Interconnection. The corresponding electric systems are then operated and constrained to meet the load every hour over four years. The total cost of each energy system is calculated, both with and without externalities, to find the least cost energy systems. Using today's costs of conventional and renewable electricity and without adding any externalities, the cost-minimum system includes no renewable generation, but does include EVs. When externalities are included, however, the most cost-effective to system covers 50% of the electric load with renewable energy and runs reliably without need for either new conventional generation or purpose-built storage. The three novel energy policy implications of this research are: (1) using today's cost of renewable electricity and estimates of externalities, it is cost effective to implement 240 GW of renewable electricity to meet 50% of the total electric load; (2) there is limited need to construct new natural gas power plants, especially from a system-wide perspective; and (3) existing coal plants may still be useful to the energy system, and instead of being retired, should be repurposed to occasionally provide generation.
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In this paper, we demonstrate the role of electricity storage for the integration of high shares of variable renewable energy sources (VRES) in the long-term evolution of the power system. For this, a new electricity module is developed in POLES (Prospective Outlook on Long-term Energy Systems). It now takes into account the impacts of VRES on the European power system. The power system operation relies on EUCAD (European Unit Commitment and Dispatch), which includes daily storage and other inter-temporal constraints. The innovative aspect of our work is the direct coupling between POLES and EUCAD, thus combining a long-term simulation horizon and a short-term approach for the power system operation. The storage technologies represented are pumped-hydro storage, lithium-ion batteries, adiabatic compressed air energy storage (a-CAES) and electric vehicles (charging optimisation and vehicle-to-grid). Demand response and European grid interconnections are also represented in order to include, to some extent, these flexibility options.
Article
The electrification of transportation in Germany has failed so far, but the disappointment has given way to more radical visions and new coalitions. Utilities, grid operators, and ICT companies have started to challenge the traditional image of the car. In their future scenarios, transportation, energy, and communication infrastructures must be aligned in order to achieve a sustainable society. This paper explores the co-production and enactment of this technological vision using the analytical framework of sociotechnical imaginaries. First, I describe how the idea of the electric vehicle as energy infrastructure was able to take hold within the German expert community. To understand how this approach might transform the existing mobility and energy practices, I examine two of the first R&D experiments that have enacted this vision in two radically different ways. Both reflect unarticulated assumptions about social life, including implicit cultural notions of self-determination, ownership, living arrangements, privacy, and control.
Article
Based on 25 years of involvement in a number of important and representative political decision-making processes in Denmark and other countries, this paper presents the unified learning of some of the institutional barriers one will meet when radical technological changes such as the replacement of fossil fuel with renewable energy are to be implemented, and how to overcome such barriers. On the one hand, the cases reveal the lack of ability of organisations and institutions linked to existing technologies to produce and promote proposals and alternatives based on radical changes in technology. On the other hand, the stabilisation of the Danish primary energy supply over more than three decades shows that the ability to act as a society has been possible despite conflicts with representatives of the old technologies. In Denmark, the description of concrete technological alternatives and alternative energy plans has played an important role.
Book
Getting an innovation adopted is difficult; a common problem is increasing the rate of its diffusion. Diffusion is the communication of an innovation through certain channels over time among members of a social system. It is a communication whose messages are concerned with new ideas; it is a process where participants create and share information to achieve a mutual understanding. Initial chapters of the book discuss the history of diffusion research, some major criticisms of diffusion research, and the meta-research procedures used in the book. This text is the third edition of this well-respected work. The first edition was published in 1962, and the fifth edition in 2003. The book's theoretical framework relies on the concepts of information and uncertainty. Uncertainty is the degree to which alternatives are perceived with respect to an event and the relative probabilities of these alternatives; uncertainty implies a lack of predictability and motivates an individual to seek information. A technological innovation embodies information, thus reducing uncertainty. Information affects uncertainty in a situation where a choice exists among alternatives; information about a technological innovation can be software information or innovation-evaluation information. An innovation is an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or an other unit of adoption; innovation presents an individual or organization with a new alternative(s) or new means of solving problems. Whether new alternatives are superior is not precisely known by problem solvers. Thus people seek new information. Information about new ideas is exchanged through a process of convergence involving interpersonal networks. Thus, diffusion of innovations is a social process that communicates perceived information about a new idea; it produces an alteration in the structure and function of a social system, producing social consequences. Diffusion has four elements: (1) an innovation that is perceived as new, (2) communication channels, (3) time, and (4) a social system (members jointly solving to accomplish a common goal). Diffusion systems can be centralized or decentralized. The innovation-development process has five steps passing from recognition of a need, through R&D, commercialization, diffusions and adoption, to consequences. Time enters the diffusion process in three ways: (1) innovation-decision process, (2) innovativeness, and (3) rate of the innovation's adoption. The innovation-decision process is an information-seeking and information-processing activity that motivates an individual to reduce uncertainty about the (dis)advantages of the innovation. There are five steps in the process: (1) knowledge for an adoption/rejection/implementation decision; (2) persuasion to form an attitude, (3) decision, (4) implementation, and (5) confirmation (reinforcement or rejection). Innovations can also be re-invented (changed or modified) by the user. The innovation-decision period is the time required to pass through the innovation-decision process. Rates of adoption of an innovation depend on (and can be predicted by) how its characteristics are perceived in terms of relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability. The diffusion effect is the increasing, cumulative pressure from interpersonal networks to adopt (or reject) an innovation. Overadoption is an innovation's adoption when experts suggest its rejection. Diffusion networks convey innovation-evaluation information to decrease uncertainty about an idea's use. The heart of the diffusion process is the modeling and imitation by potential adopters of their network partners who have adopted already. Change agents influence innovation decisions in a direction deemed desirable. Opinion leadership is the degree individuals influence others' attitudes
Article
This article investigates transitions at the level of societal functions (e.g. transport, communication, housing). Societal functions are fulfilled by socio-technical systems, which consist of a cluster of aligned elements, e.g. artefacts, knowledge, user practices and markets, regulation, cultural meaning, infrastructure, maintenance networks and supply networks. To understand how transitions from one socio-technical system to another come about, the article describes a conceptual multi-level perspective. The perspective is illustrated with a historical case study: the transition from horse-drawn carriages to automobiles in the USA (1860–1930). The case study shows that technological substitution approaches to this transition are too simple, because they neglect the electric tram and bicycle, which acted as important stepping stones. The case study also corrects another mistake, namely that the gasoline car won by chance from steam and electric automobiles. It will be shown that particular niches played a crucial role in this competition, as well as the wider socio-technical context. The case study deviates on three points from the multi-level perspective. These deviations are used to conceptualize a particular transition pathway, called ‘de-alignment and re-alignment’.
Article
This paper explores both the promise and the possible pitfalls of the plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) concept, focusing first on its definition and then on its technical state-of-the-art. More originally, the paper assesses significant, though often overlooked, social barriers to the wider use of PHEVs (a likely precursor to V2G) and implementation of a V2G transition. The article disputes the idea that the only important barriers facing the greater use of PHEVs and V2G systems are technical. Instead, it provides a broader assessment situating such “technical” barriers alongside more subtle impediments relating to social and cultural values, business practices, and political interests. The history of other energy transitions, and more specifically the history of renewable energy technologies, implies that these “socio-technical” obstacles may be just as important to any V2G transition—and perhaps even more difficult to overcome. Analogously, the article illuminates the policy implications of such barriers, emphasizing what policymakers need to achieve a transition to a V2G and PHEV world.
Article
In the last decade ‘sectoral systems of innovation’ have emerged as a new approach in innovation studies. This article makes four contributions to the approach by addressing some open issues. The first contribution is to explicitly incorporate the user side in the analysis. Hence, the unit of analysis is widened from sectoral systems of innovation to socio-technical systems. The second contribution is to suggest an analytical distinction between systems, actors involved in them, and the institutions which guide actor’s perceptions and activities. Thirdly, the article opens up the black box of institutions, making them an integral part of the analysis. Institutions should not just be used to explain inertia and stability. They can also be used to conceptualise the dynamic interplay between actors and structures. The fourth contribution is to address issues of change from one system to another. The article provides a coherent conceptual multi-level perspective, using insights from sociology, institutional theory and innovation studies. The perspective is particularly useful to analyse long-term dynamics, shifts from one socio-technical system to another and the co-evolution of technology and society.
Article
This paper addresses the question of how technological transitions (TT) come about? Are there particular patterns and mechanisms in transition processes? TT are defined as major, long-term technological changes in the way societal functions are fulfilled. TT do not only involve changes in technology, but also changes in user practices, regulation, industrial networks, infrastructure, and symbolic meaning or culture. This paper practices ‘appreciative theory’ [R.R. Nelson, S.G. Winter, An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change, Bellknap Press, Cambridge, MA, 1982] and brings together insights from evolutionary economics and technology studies. This results in a multi-level perspective on TT where two views of the evolution are combined: (i) evolution as a process of variation, selection and retention, (ii) evolution as a process of unfolding and reconfiguration. The perspective is empirically illustrated with a qualitative longitudinal case-study, the transition from sailing ships to steamships, 1780–1900. Three particular mechanisms in TT are described: niche-cumulation, technological add-on and hybridisation, riding along with market growth.
Article
As the light vehicle fleet moves to electric drive (hybrid, battery, and fuel cell vehicles), an opportunity opens for “vehicle-to-grid” (V2G) power. This article defines the three vehicle types that can produce V2G power, and the power markets they can sell into. V2G only makes sense if the vehicle and power market are matched. For example, V2G appears to be unsuitable for baseload power—the constant round-the-clock electricity supply—because baseload power can be provided more cheaply by large generators, as it is today. Rather, V2G's greatest near-term promise is for quick-response, high-value electric services. These quick-response electric services are purchased to balance constant fluctuations in load and to adapt to unexpected equipment failures; they account for 5–10% of electric cost—$ 12 billion per year in the US. This article develops equations to calculate the capacity for grid power from three types of electric drive vehicles. These equations are applied to evaluate revenue and costs for these vehicles to supply electricity to three electric markets (peak power, spinning reserves, and regulation). The results suggest that the engineering rationale and economic motivation for V2G power are compelling. The societal advantages of developing V2G include an additional revenue stream for cleaner vehicles, increased stability and reliability of the electric grid, lower electric system costs, and eventually, inexpensive storage and backup for renewable electricity.
Article
Electric-drive vehicles, whether fueled by batteries or by liquid or gaseous fuels generating electricity on-board, will have value to electric utilities as power resources. The power capacity of the current internal combustion passenger vehicle fleet is enormous and under-utilized. In the United States, for example, the vehicle fleet has over 10 times the mechanical power of all current U.S. electrical generating plants and is idle over 95% of the day. Electric utilities could use battery vehicles as storage, or fuel cell and hybrid vehicles as generation. This paper analyzes vehicle battery storage in greatest detail, comparing three electric vehicle configurations over a range of driving requirements and electric utility demand conditions. Even when making unfavorable assumptions about the cost and lifetime of batteries, over a wide range of conditions the value to the utility of tapping vehicle electrical storage exceeds the cost of the two-way hook-up and reduced vehicle battery life. For example, even a currently-available electric vehicle, in a utility with medium value of peak power, could provide power at a net present cost to the vehicle owner of $955 and net present value to the utility of $2370. As an incentive to the vehicle owner, the utility might offer a vehicle purchase subsidy, lower electric rates, or purchase and maintenance of successive vehicle batteries. For a utility tapping vehicle power, the increased storage would provide system benefits such as reliability and lower costs, and would later facilitate large-scale integration of intermittent-renewable energy resources.
Article
Vehicle-to-grid power (V2G) uses electric-drive vehicles (battery, fuel cell, or hybrid) to provide power for specific electric markets. This article examines the systems and processes needed to tap energy in vehicles and implement V2G. It quantitatively compares today's light vehicle fleet with the electric power system. The vehicle fleet has 20 times the power capacity, less than one-tenth the utilization, and one-tenth the capital cost per prime mover kW. Conversely, utility generators have 10–50 times longer operating life and lower operating costs per kWh. To tap V2G is to synergistically use these complementary strengths and to reconcile the complementary needs of the driver and grid manager. This article suggests strategies and business models for doing so, and the steps necessary for the implementation of V2G. After the initial high-value, V2G markets saturate and production costs drop, V2G can provide storage for renewable energy generation. Our calculations suggest that V2G could stabilize large-scale (one-half of US electricity) wind power with 3% of the fleet dedicated to regulation for wind, plus 8–38% of the fleet providing operating reserves or storage for wind. Jurisdictions more likely to take the lead in adopting V2G are identified.
Pope Francis drives an electric car-Vatican to become the 1st zero-emission state
  • L May
May L. Pope Francis drives an electric car-Vatican to become the 1st zero-emission state [Internet]. The Mobility House. 2017 [cited 2018 Jun 28]. Available from: http://www.mobilityhouse.com/en/ pope-francis-drives-electric-car-vatican-become-1st-zero-emission-state/.
V2G-101: a text about vehicle-to-grid, the technology which enables a future of clean and efficient electric-powered transportation
  • L J Beck
Beck LJ. V2G-101: a text about vehicle-to-grid, the technology which enables a future of clean and efficient electric-powered transportation. Newark, DE: Leonard Beck; 2009. 332 p.