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Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria with Activated and Diversified MDR Genes in Kolkata Water: Ganga Action Plan and Heterogeneous Phyto-Antibiotics Tackling Superbug Spread in India American Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics 2

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Abstract

Multidrug-resistant infections have created a horror in society as common antibiotics like ampicillin; streptomycin, ciprofloxacin, cefotaxime and azithromycin are no longer useful to cure bacterial infections. G-20 Nations have declared AMR Action Plan to combat MDR calamity and WHO has advised for the development of alternate to antibiotics. Indian medicinal plants have long tradition to cure many diseases as described in Charaka Samhita, Sasruta Samhita and Veda. We have demonstrated here to use heterogenous phyto-antibiotics (MDR-Cure) to combat superbugs. Kolkata Ganga River has been polluted with MDR bacteria and mdr genes like β-lactamases (blaTEM, blaCTX-M, blaOXA and blaNDM-1), acetyl-, phospho-and adenyl-transferases (aacC1/A2, aphA4, aadA2) as well as mcr, tet, acr and mexAB/CD/EF types drug efflux genes. Isolated superbugs are also resistant to advanced drug derivatives like imipenem, colistin, amikacin, linezolid, vancomycin, ceftriaxone and lomofloxacin. Ganga Action Plan has been initiated by Indian Government with estimated > Rs 40000 crores with mission 2020, when all industrial and domestic effluents will be treated before reach river as such contaminants generate multidrug-resistant bacteria. However, no immediate control on MDR bacterial contamination in river possible and many Indian still drink raw Ganga River water and also all bath in Kumbh Mela (Sangam of Allahabad) in religious occasions. We have also proposed that mdr genes are created and transmitted to save 2 × 10 12 diverse species of gut microbiota that synthesize 20 vitamins and other bio-molecules absolutely needed for human metabolosome. We believe, if we continue oral dose of antibiotics, all bacteria will be drug resistant for two reasons: (1) mdr genes combined with conjugative plasmids and (2) a message has generated to protect symbiotic relation between intestinal bacteria and luminal cells for vitamin synthesis which is needed for >30000 enzymatic reactions. Our research indicated that Indian medicinal plants like Suregada multiflora and Cassia fistula were useful and would give a new dimension to combat MDR pathogenesis and may help to prepare cheap effective drugs for poor nations.

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Chapter
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Seasonal variations in bacterial populations and their antibiotic sensitivity were surveyed in the water of the river Gomati at Lucknow. Most of the bacteria showed an increase in their densities in sewage-contaminated downstream of the river during summer. In contrast, Aeromonas sp. count was found to be higher in upstream during winter. Vibrio cholerae non-01 was substantially found in downstream only. More than half of the bacterial isolates exhibited antibiotic resistance. The maximum resistance was shown by the winter isolates (36%), particularly from downstream (77.7%). Among the resistant isolates, resistance for ampicillin was predominant (42%), followed by tetracycline (40%). Single and multiple antibiotic resistances were the highest among 32% and 47% of aeromonads, respectively. The double resistance was exhibited to be maximum by the vibrio non-01 isolates. Disposal of municipal sewage with fecal wastes seems to be mainly responsible for deterioration of water quality along with increased population of pathogenic and antibiotic resistant bacteria in river.
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Coliform and faccal coliform were isolated from drinking water samples obtained from tap water (TW) and storage tanks (ST) in Baghdad city. All isolates were identified and tested for their resistance to twelve antibiotics. Bacterial identification revealed that Ent. cloacae and Kl. pneumoniae were the predominant organisms from TW and ST water samples, respectively. Overall, 66% of the isolates from TW and 38% from ST were resistant to one or more of the drugs tested. Ampicillin, Carbenicillin, Cefalotin and Colistin resistance in particular were more frequent among bacterial isolates. The overall frequency of multiple antibiotic resistance among bacterial isolates in TW and ST samples were 47% and 33%, respectively. All bacterial strains isolated from drinking water were sensitive to Rifampicin. Results demonstrated the need for periodical bacteriological examination of drinking water and restriction in the use of antibiotics in this country.
Chapter
This compendium of techniques coverage of state-of-the-art developments in molecular biology, with over 600 pages of information contributed by a wide range of authorities.
Article
Polyphenols are secondary metabolites produced by higher plants, which play multiple essential roles in plant physiology and have potential healthy properties on human organism, mainly as antioxidants, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antihypertensive, and antimicrobial agents. In the present review the antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal activities of the most active polyphenol classes are reported, highlighting, where investigated, the mechanisms of action and the structure-activity relationship. Moreover, considering that the microbial resistance has become an increasing global problem, and there is a compulsory need to find out new potent antimicrobial agents as accessories to antibiotic therapy, the synergistic effect of polyphenols in combination with conventional antimicrobial agents against clinical multidrug-resistant microorganisms is discussed.
Article
A new method for determining nucleotide sequences in DNA is described. It is similar to the "plus and minus" method [Sanger, F. & Coulson, A. R. (1975) J. Mol. Biol. 94, 441-448] but makes use of the 2',3'-dideoxy and arabinonucleoside analogues of the normal deoxynucleoside triphosphates, which act as specific chain-terminating inhibitors of DNA polymerase. The technique has been applied to the DNA of bacteriophage varphiX174 and is more rapid and more accurate than either the plus or the minus method.
Article
A total of 2,445 gram-negative bacteria belonging to fecal coliform, Pseudomonas, Moraxella, Acinetobacter, and Flavobacterium-Cytophaga groups were isolated from the rivers and bay of Tillamook, Oregon, and their resistances to chloramphenicol (25 microgram/ml), streptomycin (10 microgram/ml), ampicillin (10 microgram/ml), tetracycline (25 microgram/ml), chlortetracycline (25 microgram/ml), oxytetracycline (25 microgram/ml), neomycin (50 microgram/ml), nitrofurazone (12.5 microgram/ml), nalidixic acid (25 microgram/ml), kanamycin (25 microgram/ml), and penicillin G (10 IU/ml) were determined. Among fecal coliforms the bay isolates showed greater resistance to antibiotics than those from tributaries or surface runoff. No such well-defined difference was found among other bacterial groups. The antibiotic resistance patterns of gram-negative bacteria from different sources correlated well, perhaps indicating their common origin. The antibiotic resistance patterns of gram-negative bacteria of different general also correlated well, perhaps indicating that bacteria which share a common environment also share a common mode for developing antibiotic resistance.
Article
Competitive relationships between antibiotic-producing marine bacteria and other non-producers were studied in seawater mixed cultures. Producer strains showed a competitive advantage against non-producers as the latter were inhibited after a short time. Inhibition was also noted in mixed cultures of two producer strains. The inhibitory effect was not observed in a mixed culture with two non-producers, which indicates that an amensalist interaction occurred between populations of antibiotic-producing and non-producing marine bacteria. The results suggest that antibiotics could play an important role in the competitive relationships between marine bacterial populations.
Article
It is well established that the rumen microbial flora are a rich source of vitamins to the ruminant, and that the faecal bacterial flora are a major vitamin source for coprophagic rodents. There is also good evidence that the gut bacterial flora are a significant source of a range of vitamins to the human. In this paper evidence is presented that gut bacteria are a significant source of a range of vitamins, particularly those of the B group and vitamin K.
Article
The use of and search for drugs and dietary supplements derived from plants have accelerated in recent years. Ethnopharmacologists, botanists, microbiologists, and natural-products chemists are combing the Earth for phytochemicals and "leads" which could be developed for treatment of infectious diseases. While 25 to 50% of current pharmaceuticals are derived from plants, none are used as antimicrobials. Traditional healers have long used plants to prevent or cure infectious conditions; Western medicine is trying to duplicate their successes. Plants are rich in a wide variety of secondary metabolites, such as tannins, terpenoids, alkaloids, and flavonoids, which have been found in vitro to have antimicrobial properties. This review attempts to summarize the current status of botanical screening efforts, as well as in vivo studies of their effectiveness and toxicity. The structure and antimicrobial properties of phytochemicals are also addressed. Since many of these compounds are currently available as unregulated botanical preparations and their use by the public is increasing rapidly, clinicians need to consider the consequences of patients self-medicating with these preparations.
Article
During the second half of the 20th century, the Ganga River ecosystem has been continuously altered by several ongoing anthropogenic processes, accommodating multi-dimensional pressure due to increase of nearly four-fold human population. For solution of any environmental issues of the river, the Earth System Science approach is required to have maximum socio-economic benefits to millions of people living in Indian and Bangladesh. A bibliography containing more than 250 references on environmental studies of the Ganga River was prepared to preserve its ecosystem by providing the baseline support in this regard.
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