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Emotional Intelligence and Employee Performance: An Intervention Based Experimental Study [Journal of Business & Economics (2075-6909)]

Authors:
  • University of Narowal
  • Punjab University of Technology Rasul

Abstract and Figures

Emotional intelligence (EI) significantly and positively contributes towards employees’ task and contextual performance. Previous studies have explored this relationship in descriptive and/or cross-sectional research designs which did not establish a true causal relationship. Current study used a longitudinal intervention based pretest-posttest experimental design where employees were trained to enhance their emotional intelligence which consequently enhanced employee performance. The study was carried out in a three stage process consisting of pretest, emotional intelligence interventions implementation and posttest. As part of the emotional intelligence interventions, four emotional intelligence skills (Self-awareness, Self-management, Social awareness and Relationship management) were imparted through training for a duration of five months followed by one month of coaching. Thirty-six (36) participants with low level of emotional intelligence had joined the study voluntarily after submitting an informed consent taken for training and coaching interventions. Results of paired sample T-Test showed a significant increase in emotional intelligence scores from pretest stage to posttest with a medium effect size. Results further revealed a significant increase in employee performance scores of the participants after their enhanced level of emotional intelligence. Current study has identified a cost effective way for the organizations to enhance employee performance. This study has also discussed important insights for future research in the field of emotional intelligence enhancement through interventions.
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Journal of Business & Economics
Vol. 9, No. 2 2017, pp, 1-19
a PhD Scholar, University Institute of Management Sciences, PMAS-University of Arid Agriculture,
Rawalpindi. Email: munir.uaar@gmail.com
b Vice Chancellor, University of Education, Lahore
Emotional Intelligence and Employee Performance: An
Intervention Based Experimental Study
Muhammad Munira, Rauf I Azamb
Article History:
Received:
24 Aug, 2017
Revised:
19 Nov, 2017
Accepted:
27 Nov, 2018
Abstract:
Emotional intelligence (EI) significantly and positively contributes
towards employees’ task and contextual performance. Previous studies
have explored this relationship in descriptive and/or cross-sectional
research designs which did not establish a true causal relationship. The
Current study used a longitudinal intervention-based pretest-posttest
experimental design where employees were trained to enhance their
emotional intelligence which consequently enhanced employee
performance. The study was carried out in a three-stage process
consisting of pretest, emotional intelligence interventions’ implementation
and post-test. As a part of the emotional intelligence interventions, four
emotional intelligence skills (Self-awareness, Self-management, Social
awareness, and Relationship management) were imparted through
training for a duration of five months followed by one month of coaching.
Thirty-six (36) participants with a low level of emotional intelligence had
joined the study voluntarily after submitting an informed consent taken for
training and coaching interventions. The results of paired sample T-Test
showed a significant increase in emotional intelligence scores from
pretest stage to posttest with a medium effect size. Results further revealed
a significant increase in employees’ performance scores of the
participants after their enhanced level of emotional intelligence. Current
study has identified a cost-effective way for the organizations to enhance
employees’ performance. This study has also discussed important insights
for future research in the field of emotional intelligence enhancement
through interventions.
Keywords: Emotional Intelligence, Training, Coaching, Self-awareness,
Self-Management, Social Awareness
1. Introduction
Emotional intelligence (EI) is ground-breaking, paradigm-shattering, and one of
the most influential business ideas of the current era (Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee,
2013). Emotional intelligence as the ability of a person to monitor one's own and
other people's emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them
appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior
(Goleman, 1996). Organizations consider emotional intelligence as an important skill
due to its significant impact on various aspects of the business community, especially
employee development, employee performance, and productivity (Goleman et al.,
2013). At present, organizations are focusing on emotional quotient (EQ) rather than
Muhammad Munir, Rauf I Azam
2
a mere focus on intelligent quotient (IQ) of potential job incumbents along with
academic credentials and work experience (Qualter & Pool, 2018). Goleman (2001)
recommended managers to enhance emotional intelligence in employees for getting a
higher level of performance at the workplace. In the similar context, recent studies
found emotional intelligence as a significant skill boosting job performance (Rexhepi
& Berisha, 2017). Therefore, emotional intelligence has caught the attention of the
scholars with respect to the construct, context and impact. As compared to previous
practices in two recent decades, the scholars not only have put greater emphasis on
markers of emotional intelligence but also have developed methods, techniques and
interventions to teach, learn and enhance it.
1.1. Research Problem
With the worldwide embracement of emotional intelligence in the first decade of
21st century, business scholars and practitioners started to put a greater emphasis on
it as an important employee skill during the processes of hiring, promotion, and
employee development. Currently, organizations are facing the problem of relatively
lower level of emotional intelligence in a majority of employees. Although, studies
have recommended various techniques to enhance emotional intelligence of
employees (Goleman & Boyatzis, 2017). But, enhancement of emotional intelligence
techniques remained untapped. Due to this problem, current study has tried to use
training and coaching interventions as an experimental technique to enhance
emotional intelligence and see how it contributes towards enhancement of employee
performance.
1.2. Rationale of the Study
Current study was carried out due to persistent research gaps in the area of the
methodology used to explore association between emotional intelligence and
employee performance. Miao, Humphrey, and Qian (2017) suggested to use a
longitudinal study design rather than a cross-sectional design in measuring a true
causal relationship. They also argued that emotional intelligence was not inherent but
a learnable skill. Another important reason to conduct this study was the presence of
research gaps in the area of emotional intelligence training interventions
development and implementation to enhance the existing level of emotional
intelligence of employees (Goleman & Boyatzis, 2017; Matthews, Zeidner, &
Emotional Intelligence and Employee Performance
3
Roberts, 2017). As the interventions on organizational level are much costly (Sidle,
2008), current study has used individual-focused emotional intelligence
interventions. This study used structured feedback mechanism to evaluate the
transfer of emotional intelligence skills through training as recommended by Sparr,
Knipfer, and Willems (2017) and expanded the use of qualitative research for the
practitioners of emotional intelligence training as recommended by (Baldwin, Kevin
Ford, & Blume, 2017).
Researchers believe that this study is an important contribution towards theory,
practice and methodological advancement in the area of learning and developing
emotional intelligence skills and its significant impact on employee performance.
The current study contributes to the methodological advancement in the study of
emotional intelligence as a learnable skill which can be developed. This study has
used a longitudinal pretest-posttest experimental design rather than using cross-
sectional design which has enabled researchers to cope with the changes occurring
within participants and emotional intelligence phenomenon. The current study has
tried to solve the research problem of enhancing employee performance by finding
out an effective way to enhance employee performance, that is, through developing
emotional intelligence level of employees. After grasping the recommendations for
future research, and analyzing the problem, the objectives were set for this study are,
i) to identify interventions that could enhance emotional intelligence level of
employees, ii) to evaluate effectiveness of emotional intelligence interventions in
enhancing level of emotional intelligence, iii) to evaluate the effect of emotional
intelligence level on employee performance.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Emotional Intelligence
Goleman (2001) defined Emotional intelligence as the ability through which a
person could screen his emotions, other persons’ emotions, differentiate between
various emotions and label them and consequently he might use this emotional
information to guide his thinking and behavior. In the similar context, Mayer,
Roberts, and Barsade (2008) defined emotional intelligence as a skill which could
help a person to accurately perceive, understand, manage and use emotions in
facilitating appropriate thoughts and behaviors. Schutte, Malouff, and Thorsteinsson
(2013) argued that a person was considered to be competent in perception of
Muhammad Munir, Rauf I Azam
4
emotions if he was able to recognize emotions-related voice and facial cues of others
as well as aware of one’s own emotional state and reactions. This is a powerful skill
to understand one’s own emotions, others’ emotions, causes and consequences of
these emotions (Karimi, 2014). An emotionally intelligent person is able to
differentiate between different emotions and devises an accurate and effective plan
of action to respond in different situations and scenarios (Goleman, 1998). He further
argues that an emotionally intelligent person could be an effective handler of others’
emotions by manipulating situations, body language, and conversations to manage
and regulate others’ emotions in a direction, favorable to the situation or goals of the
parties. Being a skill, emotional intelligence can be the competency (Goleman,
1995), ability (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004), and the personality trait (Petrides
& Furnham, 2001) of an employee to perceive, understand, utilize, and manage
emotions effectively (Maul, 2012).
There are three major models which include Ability Model, Trait Model, and
Mixed Model. In the ability model, emotional intelligence is considered as an
individual's ability to process emotional information and use it to navigate the social
environment (Mayer et al., 2004). This model considers emotional intelligence as an
ability that can be initiated, developed and enhanced. The model concludes that an
emotionally intelligent person utilizes this ability to calm one’s own emotions down
in every type of difficult situation in a beneficial way. The Trait Model considers
emotional intelligence as a personality trait encompassing through behavioral
dispositions (Petrides & Furnham, 2001). The Mixed Model considers emotional
intelligence as ability and a trait as well (Goleman, 1998). The model defines
emotional intelligence as an array of skills and characteristics.
Current study has used ability model of emotional intelligence (Mayer et al.,
2004) that treats emotional intelligence as the ability of a person to understand and
regulate one’s own emotions, understand emotions of others, and manage the
relationship with others in a beneficial way. This model is most closely associated
with the set of four skills which were imparted during training and coaching
interventions to enhance emotional intelligence level.
2.2. Emotional Intelligence Skills
In the ability model, there are four (04) basic emotional intelligence skills
including self-awareness; self-management; social awareness; and social
Emotional Intelligence and Employee Performance
5
management (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009). Self-awareness is the ability to
accurately perceive one’s own emotions and becoming aware of the emotions as they
happen. It is the mirror of a person’s tendencies while responding to specific
situations and/or people. Self-management is the ability to use awareness of one’s
own emotions to stay flexible and positively direct his/her behavior. It is the practical
phase in which a person controls his/her emotional reactions to specific situations
and/or people. Social awareness is the ability to accurately understand and focus on
other people’s emotions in a true sense. It enables a person to understand and
evaluate others’ emotions irrespective of his/her own emotion. Relationship
management is the ability to effectively use self-awareness and social-awareness
skills while interacting with other people and/or situations. It enables a person to
effectively communicate and resolve conflicts in difficult situations. The first two
skills are related to a person’s own self while the third and fourth skills are related to
the other persons with which a person has interaction. A later study on this array of
skills (Hutchinson & Hurley, 2013) revealed that all four skills are deemed necessary
in a workplace environment. Therefore, the current study used this set of emotional
intelligence skills.
2.3. Can Emotional Intelligence be Learnt and Enhanced?
Fortunately, emotional intelligence can not only be learnt but also enhanced at
any stage in one’s life. But a strong motivation, structured learning situation and
continuous practice is necessary to do so (Goleman & Boyatzis, 2017). Besides
Danial Goleman and his colleagues, there is general agreement of almost all the
leading researchers and psychologists who published in high quality research
journals of the world, upon the notion that emotional intelligence can be taught,
learnt, and enhanced in all age groups and professions (Côté, 2017; Enríquez,
Ramos, & Esparza, 2017; Matthews et al., 2017; Serrat, 2017). Besides empirical
studies, self-efficacy theory supports the notion that emotional intelligence can be
learnt and enhanced. The underpinning theory provides the notion that a person
having belief in his/her abilities, successfully achieves set behavioral goals
(Lipschitz et al., 2018). The current study found that employees had a strong belief in
their abilities that is why they had enhanced their emotional intelligence skills. The
mechanism developed by the theory supported this study during implementation of
Muhammad Munir, Rauf I Azam
6
emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions to enhance emotional
intelligence level.
Previous studies have recommended complementary approaches of training and
coaching to enhance emotional intelligence level (Goleman & Boyatzis, 2017).
Training is a group-based systematic learning method of transferring skills (Hughes,
Thompson, & Terrell, 2009) while coaching is an individually-focused method of
transferring skills (Parsloe & Leedham, 2009). So, we believe emotional intelligence
to be a skill which can be developed and enhanced through individually focused
interventions. As organizational level interventions are costly and time taking (Sidle,
2008), we have undertaken individually focused interventions. Hence, training
followed by coaching can bring best results by improving weaknesses if left by the
training process. So, the following hypothesis can be asserted:
H1: Emotional intelligence can be enhanced through training and coaching
interventions.
2.4. Employee Performance
Employee performance refers to the achievement of goals in an effective and
efficient manner (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002). It is an individual level variable which
significantly contributes to overall organizational performance (Campbell et al.,
1990). Employee performance is divided into two (02) distinct dimensions of in-role
performance and extra-role performance. In-role performance consists of completing
obligatory job tasks formally required by a job (Williams & Anderson, 1991)
whereas extra-role performance includes organizational citizenship behaviors which
positively contribute in achievement of organizational goals by creating a positive
impact on the social and psychological conditions of an organization (Rotundo &
Sackett, 2002).
2.5. Association between Emotional Intelligence and Employee Performance
Emotional intelligence has direct association with employee performance
(Rexhepi & Berisha, 2017) in almost all types of jobs (Cherniss, 2001). Dulewicz
and Higgs (2000), found emotional intelligence as a key success factor that directly
contributed more than managerial intelligence and intelligence quotient (IQ) in
employee performance. Moreover, emotional intelligence also contributed positively
in overall organizational performance and business success (Bagshaw, 2000).
Emotional Intelligence and Employee Performance
7
Therefore, employers have started to hire employees with a higher level of emotional
intelligence (Cadman & Brewer, 2001). Besides types of jobs, a wide range of recent
studies have also found such direct association in various service and industries such
as hotel industry (Karimi, 2014), marketing (Bande, Fernández-Ferrín, Varela, &
Jaramillo, 2015), retailing (Sony & Mekoth, 2016), hospital/health services
(Samiuddin, Ahmad, & Kazmi, 2017), and education (Zeidner & Matthews, 2017).
Hence, we believe that enhanced level of emotional intelligence results in positive
outcomes, especially employee performance.
This direct relationship has caught the attention of scholars and practitioners to
discover veiled aspects of construct, context and effects of emotional intelligence (as
it is learnable) and, consequently, enhance employee performance. Therefore,
researchers believed that emotional intelligence skills could be learnt and enhanced
through training and coaching interventions. Enhanced level of emotional
intelligence would positively contribute towards enhancement of employee
performance as an outcome. So, the following hypothesis was developed in this
regard:
H2: Enhanced emotional intelligence positively contributes towards
enhancement of employee performance.
3. Research Methodology
Researchers used one group pretest-posttest experimental research design in
current study to achieve set research objectives. This design enabled researchers to
estimate a true causal relationship between the variables and to evaluate the
effectiveness of implemented emotional intelligence training and coaching
interventions. This design also enabled researchers to compare scores of pre-
interventions implementation stage with post-interventions implementation stage.
3.1. Sample
Population of current study consisted of employees working at different levels in
Islamabad based leading private sector hospital of Pakistan. At pretest stage,
Table 1: One Group Pretest-Posttest Experimental Design
Variables
Pre-test
Interventions
Emotional Intelligence
Y1
X1
Employee Performance
Z1
X2
Muhammad Munir, Rauf I Azam
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researchers took two hundred & sixty-six (266) respondents as sample by using
“Sample Size Table for Given Population” for sample size determination provided
by Krejcie and Morgan (1970). Simple random sampling technique was utilized at
this stage. On the contrary, at posttest stage, there were 36 participants in current
study which was an appropriate sample size for current study as desired by its
research design (Creswell, 1998; Morse, 1994). The convenient sampling technique
was utilized at this stage.
3.2. Compliance with Ethical Standards
During the conduct of current study, researchers complied with the ethical
standards/procedures described as under:
i. Researchers had no real/perceived and direct/indirect conflict of interest.
ii. Researchers observed institutional ethical standards and APA's ethical codes
taken from "Ethics in Research with Human Participants" (Sales & Folkman,
2000).
iii. Informed consents were taken from the participants on “Consent Form”.
3.3. Training Program
There were 126 respondents whose emotional intelligence level needed to be
enhanced. Out of these, only 36 respondents took part into emotional intelligence
training interventions. Researchers manipulated emotional intelligence variable by
implementing training interventions in the light of guidance provided by Bradberry
and Greaves (2009) in the emotional intelligence Appraisal-Me Edition Booklet.
Interventions comprised of 2 interactive group sessions of 2 hours per week. The
following details are provided in this regard:
i. Participants were briefed about emotional intelligence, emotional intelligence
skills, its importance with a special focus on life success and performance at
workplace, skills, and phenomenon of learning & enhancing emotional
intelligence in interactive group sessions. Various websites and books were
recommended to be explored by the subjects.
ii. Self-awareness skill was briefed and imparted to the participants. Two action
plans were executed here. In first action plan, “Practice Watching Your
Emotions like a Hawk” principle was utilized while in second action plan,
Emotional Intelligence and Employee Performance
9
“Track your tendencies in different emotionally arousing situations” principle
was utilized.
iii. Self-management skill was briefed and imparted to the participants. Three
action plans executed here. In first action plan, “Take an honest look at when
you are being overwhelmed by your feelings” principle was utilized. In
second action plan, “Take the reins and quit letting your emotions lead you
around” principle was utilized. In third action plan, “Get ready for change
because it is waiting around the corner” principle was utilized.
iv. Social awareness skill was briefed and imparted to the participants. Two
action plans were executed here. In action plan, “When you are with other
people, play anthropologist” principle was utilized while in second action
plan, “Check in with someone to see if you are accurately noticing what
he/she is feeling” was required.
v. Relationship management skill was briefed and imparted to the participants.
Two action plans executed here. In first action plan, “Discover the role
emotions play in every situation” principle was utilized while in second action
plan, “get real feedback on relationships from someone you trust” was
required.
3.4. Coaching
Face-to-face coaching sessions were conducted with the participants. The
participants were coached a broader vision of emotional intelligence skills in group
setting. However, questions, queries and feelings were shared in individual settings.
Coaching intervention ended with an appreciation to the participants.
3.5. Measures
At the end of training and coaching interventions, personality traits, emotional
intelligence and employee performance were measured again to get posttest data.
Researchers used measurement scales in current study after getting permission from
the owners of copy rights. A bi-lingual (English and Urdu) version for each
measurement scale was used in this study. The measures included:
i. Emotional Intelligence Scale by Bradberry and Greaves (2009).
ii. Supervisor rated: In-Role Performance Scale by Williams and Anderson
(1991).
Muhammad Munir, Rauf I Azam
10
iii. Supervisor rated: Extra-Role Performance Scale by Farh, Earley, and Lin
(1997).
iv. Ten Item Personality Measure (TIPI) by Gosling, Rentfrow, and Swann
(2013).
3.6. Control Variables
Previous studies have found a significant difference in employee performance of
male and female (Knez & Enmarker, 1998), young and old (Cleveland & Shore,
1992), marital status (Madjar, Oldham, & Pratt, 2002), education (Berg, 1970), and
job experience (McDaniel, Schmidt, & Hunter, 1988). However, results of ANOVA
(p value <0.05) revealed that only marital status was confounding variable in current
study. Hence, researchers controlled this variable during the whole study.
4. Data Analysis
Out of 266 respondents, 126 respondents had lower emotional intelligence level.
The demographic information is provided in the table given below:
Table 2: Demography of Participants
Variable
Code
Frequency
Gender
Male
96
Female
30
Marital Status
Unmarried
31
Married
91
Separated
1
Didn’t Answer
3
Age Group
18-25
12
26-35
38
36-45
26
46 or above
2
Didn’t Answer
48
Education
Matric
1
Intermediate
11
Bachelors
39
Masters
68
MS/MPhil/PhD
7
Work Experience
Less than 1 Year
18
1-5
40
6-10
46
11 or above
22
Emotional Intelligence and Employee Performance
11
Personality traits of the respondents showed that majority of the respondents had
personality trait of “agreeableness”. Detailed information is provided in the table
given below:
Researchers checked basic assumptions (parametric or non-parametric) of
normally distributed data, homogeneity of variance, interval data, and independence
before applying inferential statistics for comparing pretest and posttest scores.
Table 3: Personality Traits of Participants
Personality Trait
Frequency
Percentage
Extraversion
21
16.67
Agreeableness
42
33.33
Conscientiousness
25
19.84
Emotional Stability
20
15.87
Openness to Experiences
18
14.29
Total
126
100
4.1. Normality Analysis
Results of KolmogorovSmirnov and ShapiroWilk tests are provided in table 4:
Table 4: Normality Analysis
Kolmogorov-Smirnova
Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic
df
Sig.
Statistic
Df
Sig.
PRE_EI
.125
36
.172
.942
36
.057
POST_EI
.130
36
.129
.941
36
.053
a. Lilliefors Significance Correction
P-values of KolmogorovSmirnov test were more than 0.05 (0.172 and 0.129)
which means that the data sets were normally distributed at pretest stage and posttest
stage. Similarly, insignificant results of ShapiroWilk test (p values > 0.05) validated
that the data sets were normally distributed at pretest stage and posttest stage.
4.2. Homogeneity of Variances
Levene's Test for Equality of Variances was used to check the homogeneity of
variance assumption. The results are provided in table given below:
Table 5: Homogeneity of Variances
Levene Statistic
df1
df2
Sig.
0.175
1
70
.677
Muhammad Munir, Rauf I Azam
12
Significance p-value of Leven’s test was greater than 0.05 which means that
variances were same (homogenous) at pretest stage and posttest stage.
Table 6: ANOVA
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Between Groups
2.209
1
2.209
9.809
.003
Within Groups
15.760
70
.225
Total
17.969
71
Results of ANOVA table in Levene's Test further revealed that sum of squares
for between groups was lesser than within groups. Hence, researchers concluded that
assumption of homogeneity of variances at pretest stage and posttest stage was
fulfilled.
4.3 Paired Samples T-Test
By analyzing results of assumptions, paired samples t-test was used to evaluate
effectiveness of emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions and trace
significant change in emotional intelligence from pretest stage to posttest stage. The
results are provided in the tables given below:
Table 7: Descriptive Statistics
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
Pair 1
PRE_EI
2.6697
.49353
.08226
POST_EI
2.8986
.49329
.08221
The results of descriptive statistics showed that level of emotional intelligence
of participants was enhanced from an average level 2.6697 to 2.8986 (an increase of
0.22889 in emotional intelligence mean score). However, statistical significance of
these results is shown in the table given below.
Table 8: Paired Samples T-Test
Paired Differences
t
df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
95% C.I of the
Difference
Lower
Upper
Pair 1
PRE_EI
POST_EI
-.22889
.70443
.11740
-.46723
.00945
-1.950
35
.059
Emotional Intelligence and Employee Performance
13
Results of paired differences showed a significant increase in emotional
intelligence of participants after provision of emotional intelligence training and
coaching interventions. The test [Sig. (2-tailed)] is significant with p-value 0.059 <
0.1 at 90% confidence interval. Researchers also utilized t-value of test statistics to
check the effect size of training and coaching interventions on emotional intelligence
level of the participants.
Effect size =

= 

= 

= 
The resultant eta squared value 0.098 showed that training and coaching
interventions had medium effect on emotional intelligence level of the participants
(Cohen, 1988).
4.4. Regression Analysis
Regression analysis was used to see whether enhanced emotional intelligence
positively contributes towards enhancement of employee performance or not. Pretest
and posttest analyses are depicted in regression Model 1 and regression Model 2
respectively. The results are presented below:
Table 9: Model Summary
Model
R
R Square
Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
1
.479a
.229
.207
.45939
2
.500b
.250
.228
.57634
a. Predictors: (Constant), EI
b. Predictors: (Constant), EI, XEI
The value of R2 (0.229) showed that a total 22.9% of variation took place in
employee performance explained by the model 1. Value of adjusted r-square (0.207)
showed that a variation of 20.7% in employee performance was caused by emotional
intelligence. In model 2, R2 (0.250) showed that 25% of variation took place in
employee performance explained by the model 2. The value of adjusted r-square
Muhammad Munir, Rauf I Azam
14
(0.228) showed that a variation of 22.8% in employee performance was caused by
emotional intelligence.
Table 10: ANOVA
Model
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
1
Regression
2.135
1
2.135
10.119
.003b
Residual
7.175
34
.211
Total
9.311
35
2
Regression
3.767
1
3.767
11.341
.002c
Residual
11.294
34
.332
Total
15.061
35
a. Dependent Variable: XEP
b. Predictors: (Constant), EI
c. Predictors: (Constant), EI, XEI
Significance value was lesser than 0.05 in both the models (0.003 and 0.002)
which showed that the models were statistically significant. Hence, researchers
rejected null hypothesis that emotional intelligence had no impact on employee
performance in pretest and posttest stages. This cause and effect relationship was
further confirmed by the results given below.
Table 11: Coefficients
Model
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig.
Beta
1
(Constant)
1.369
.180
EI
.479
3.181
.003
2
(Constant)
-.187
.853
EI
.500
3.368
.002
a. Dependent Variable: XEP
a. Dependent Variable: XEP
Beta coefficients were 0.479 and 0.500 for model 1 and model 2 respectively.
These coefficients were not zero which showed a significant impact of emotional
intelligence on employee performance of the respondents. These results were further
confirmed by their respective t-values (3.181 and 3.368) which were more than 2 and
significance values lesser than 0.05. Hence, hypothesis two developed by this study
was accepted.
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
This study validates the theory of self-efficacy and provides insights about
positive consequences of improving emotional intelligence. Current study found that
Emotional Intelligence and Employee Performance
15
emotional intelligence could be enhanced through provision of emotional
intelligence training and coaching interventions. This finding is similar to the
previous notions developed by the studies of (Enríquez et al., 2017; Goleman &
Boyatzis, 2017; Matthews et al., 2017). Current study also found a significant direct
relationship between emotional intelligence and employee performance which is
similar to the findings of Rexhepi and Berisha (2017). Current study found marital
status as confounding variable which is similar to the findings of Madjar et al. (2002)
who found that employee performance significantly differed according to the marital
status. Hence, researchers, on the basis of findings, conclude that emotional
intelligence is a learnable skill which can be enhanced through provision of
emotional intelligence training and coaching interventions. However, during such
process, subjects must have strong belief in themselves (self-efficacy theory).
Researchers also conclude that enhancement of emotional intelligence can result in
higher employee performance. Therefore, the organizations should consider
emotional intelligence as a key success factor in enhancement of employee
performance. However, they should also provide appropriate weightage to marital
status of the subjects while considering such mechanism of performance
enhancement.
In identifying and designing interventions that could significantly affect
employee performance, organizations generally find themselves marginalized,
because of significant high costs of organization-wide focused interventions. This
calls for identifying those interventions that are individually focused and employ
relatively lower costs with higher returns (Sidle, 2008). The intervention regarding
improving emotional intelligence as identified in the current study could overcome
such organizational constraint. Moreover, interventions of current study could also
bring immediate results for the organizations rather than waiting for a longer period
of time required in reaping the benefits.
In a nutshell, based on identified effects of emotional intelligence on employee
performance, this study suggests that organization must include training programs
with regard to the improvement of emotional intelligence in their overall training
portfolio. Though this study evaluated the impact of emotional intelligence on
employee performance, yet well-being effects of emotional intelligence are far
reaching.
Muhammad Munir, Rauf I Azam
16
Like all other studies, current study also carries some limitations or possible
directions for future research. Current study has used emotional intelligence as a sole
predictor variable of employee performance in an experimental design. Future
studies may also include variables of employee engagement, motivation, and
commitment in similar research design. Secondly, current study has used ability
model of Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2004) for the purpose of measurement and
implementation of interventions for enhancement of emotional intelligence. Future
studies may use mixed (Goleman, 2011) and/or trait (Petrides & Furnham, 2001)
models of emotional intelligence or with some combination in similar context with
similar research design in order to compare interventions effectiveness. Thirdly,
current study has assessed emotional intelligence training & coaching needs of the
participants by focusing on motivational factor of rewards as a result of enhanced
employee performance. However, positive transfer of training and coaching needs a
comprehensive focus on every motivational factor. Hence, future studies may
explore those motivational factors with similar research design. Although, current
study meets an appropriate level of internal validity by getting non-extreme scores
and least mortality rate. Future studies need to focus on issues of generalizability and
Hawthorne effects of external validity by just carrying forward current study.
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... EI can be defined as the capacity of individuals working at a specific company to be aware of, control, and express one's own emotions while at the same time understanding and taking care of the emotions of others (Munir & Azam, 2017). Organizations depend on human capital in performing most of the critical operations. ...
... To address this research gap, this study delved into emotional intelligence's moderating role in employee job performance, presenting discussions and arguments on the subject. Applying ability model of emotional intelligence and using longitudinal interventionbased pretest-posttest experimental design, Munir and Azam (2017) found emotional intelligence of the employees significantly increased during the six-month time period, which was also reflected in the improvement of employee job performance. Emotional intelligence also affects the relation between HR practices and employee job performance in that having high emotional intelligence will lead to more perceiving of HR practices and enhance employee job performance. ...
... Emotional intelligence (EI) can help avoid any problems that might increase because of not controlling the employees' emotions and then producing strong teams. According to Munir and Azam (2017) emotional intelligence positively and significantly contributes to the employees' contextual and task performance. Even with effective and efficient HR practices, the employees will not be productive if their emotional intelligence is low. ...
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This research examines the moderating role of emotional intelligence and HR digitalization on the relationship between compensation and employee job performance in Johor manufacturing sector. The manufacturing sector, which has contributed significantly to the Malaysian national GDP, was among the most affected sectors during the remote work movement caused by several Covid-19. One of the most critical aspects was managing human resources (HR) in remote work and the challenges faced by the employees working online. Drawing upon the Theory of Social Exchange and Ability model of Emotional Intelligence, this practical study investigated the influence of compensation (COM) on employee job performance (EJP) with the moderation of human resource digitalization (HRDi) and emotional intelligence (EI). A quantitative methodology based on online and hard-copy questionnaires was adopted. The population of this study consisted of management employees, such as directors, managers, executives, and administrators working in Johor manufacturing companies. A total of 318 responses was used in this study. Utilising SPSS and Smart PLS, the researcher analysed preliminary and pilot studies, data screening and cleaning procedures, exploratory factor analysis, as well as partial least squares structural equation modeling to assess the relationships among variables and test the hypotheses. The research findings demonstrated that compensation directly affects employee job performance. Meanwhile, human resource digitalization moderates the relationships between compensation and job performance of employees. In addition, emotional intelligence moderates the relationships between compensation and employee job performance. Policymakers are urged to encourage HR digitalization implementation and training on enhancing emotional intelligence. Besides, organizations should have plans on how to enhance their implementation of HR digitalization and improve emotional intelligence.
... second, while numerous studies have extensively examined the relationship between ei and employee performance in developed countries (akhtar et al., 2017(akhtar et al., , altındağ & Kösedağı, 2015Baksh Baloch et al., 2014;Deshwal, 2016;Kulkarni et al., 2016;Mujanah et al., 2019;Munir & azam, 2017;naz et al., 2019;Pradhan & Jena, 2017;Rexhepi & Berisha, 2017;shahzad et al., 2011), a notable empirical gap exists in research conducted within developing countries, notably ethiopia. the existing literature showcases a scarcity of empirical investigations into how ei influences employee performance in these diverse cultural and socio-economic settings. ...
... ei is the art of keenly perceiving, skillfully assessing, and eloquently expressing emotions, while embracing their role in cognition and adaptive behaviors (Mayer et al., 2016). ei is a talent that can be developed and taught to people of many ages and occupations (côté, 2017;Munir & azam, 2017;serrat & serrat, 2017). ...
... the ability theory of ei illuminates how self-management behaviors contribute to individual performance in organizational settings Mayer et al. (2004). self-management, as highlighted by gong et al. (2019), Munir and azam (2017), and Rahim et al. (2006), involves managing beliefs, impulses, resources, and disciplines, significantly impacting individuals' performance in organizational settings. smith et al. (2022) underscore the prevalence of self-management behaviors in proactive personalities, urging managers to harness and guide these behaviors toward organizational goals for enhanced performance and productivity. ...
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This paper aims to examine the contribution of emotional intelligence to employee performance enhancement in the public sector using evidence from Mersa Town, Amhara Region, Ethiopia. 200 respondents’ response was taken for this survey to meet its objective. An explanatory research design and a quantitative approach were applied. By employing stratified sampling, the employees were grouped based on their sector of expertise. The research employed primary data and a multiple linear regression model for analysis. The study’s findings showed that self-awareness, self-management, social-awareness, and relationship management, that is, all emotional intelligence proxies, have a significant positive effect on employees’ performance enhancement in the public sector. As a result, this study suggested that the public sector should do a better job of promoting self-awareness and ensuring emotions are effectively managed in the workplace to have strong self-management. The public sector also needs to come up with policies that help employees to become more socially conscious by promoting teamwork, which will help them to become more adaptive at managing relationships. The study’s conclusions have theoretical and practical implications for the creation of focused interventions and regulations meant to improve employee performance through the use of emotional intelligence.
... The literature suggests that people with excessive emotional intelligence are more able to control their emotions, comprehend others' feelings, communicate well, and have a positive impact on others (Puri & Mehta, 2020). Several studies such as Ezzatabadi et al., (2012), Asilaza (2016), and Munir and Azam (2017) have indicated that emotional intelligence when effectively assessed and managed will result in improved job performance at the workplace. Employees" job performance is a prerequisite for the overall performance of organisations (Vahidi, & Arshadi, 2016). ...
... Healthcare professionals such as health assistants, midwives, and nurses are the front liners of healthcare organisations who interact in the workplace with various types of people every day (Munir & Azam, 2017). A nurse may fulfill multiple emotional needs regularly, ranging from basic health therapy to patients, to cooperation and contact with other nurses or physicians (Chatrath, Kaur, & Singh, 2021). ...
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... The article also examines contextual variables that can impact the efficacy of inclusive leadership in advancing environmental sustainability, such as organisational culture, industry sector, and geographical location. In Munir and Azam (2017), the review offers significant information on how inclusive leadership can contribute to environmental sustainability activities in organisations. This review compiles current literature on the correlation between inclusive leadership and sustainable behaviours, encompassing eco-friendly conduct. ...
... Employees actively participate in recycling, implementing energy-saving measures, and engaging in other sustainable initiatives, which align with the organisation's core values. This study's results are in line with Baig et al. (2021), Munir and Azam (2017), Peterson et al. (2011), Rexhepi and Berisha (2017), Sihombing et al. (2018) and Soomro and Shah (2019). ...
... The article also examines contextual variables that can impact the efficacy of inclusive leadership in advancing environmental sustainability, such as organisational culture, industry sector, and geographical location. In Munir and Azam (2017), the review offers significant information on how inclusive leadership can contribute to environmental sustainability activities in organisations. This review compiles current literature on the correlation between inclusive leadership and sustainable behaviours, encompassing eco-friendly conduct. ...
... Employees actively participate in recycling, implementing energy-saving measures, and engaging in other sustainable initiatives, which align with the organisation's core values. This study's results are in line with Baig et al. (2021), Munir and Azam (2017), Peterson et al. (2011), Rexhepi and Berisha (2017), Sihombing et al. (2018) and Soomro and Shah (2019). ...
... Depression in the workplace individual can significantly impact personal well-being and productivity leading to reduced performance (Kotteeswari, n.d.). Anxiety, which is a natural response to a perceived threat, can manifest in cognitive, physiological, and behavioral ways (Munir & Azam, 2017). Nonetheless, individuals with anxiety disorders encounter recurrent false alarms, resulting in significant distress and impairments in daily functioning. ...
... Nonetheless, individuals with anxiety disorders encounter recurrent false alarms, resulting in significant distress and impairments in daily functioning. According to a study conducted by the Anxiety and Depression Association of America, 56% of employees indicated that their work performance was impacted by anxiety and stress (Munir & Azam, 2017). ...
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... En effet, des études ayant utilisé une telle approche notent une amélioration de cette habileté 55,56,57,58,59 . Qui plus est, cette augmentation aurait un impact positif sur différents éléments, incluant une diminution de certaines réactions émotionnelles inappropriées 60 , une meilleure compréhension de la manière dont les émotions influencent la prise de décision 56 , et une meilleure performance tant au niveau académique que professionnel 58,61,62 . ...
... Instructors with higher EI are more independent and competent [10]. Recent research proves that EI increases employee accountability, trust, and performance in the workplace [11]. Similarly, EI is the ability to perceive, express, understand, and manage emotions effectively in oneself and others [12]. ...
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Excellent teachers will produce quality students who resemble their teachers. Teaching is a very challenging and stressful job that creates emotional stress for teachers and significantly impacts students. Studies of emotional intelligence with student learning outcomes at the junior high school level in physical education subjects still need to be completed. Therefore, a deeper exploration in this study was conducted to uncover it. This study analyzes the relationship between emotional intelligence and students’ physical education learning outcomes in junior high school. The participants in this study were junior high school students in Southeast Maluku Regency. The sampling technique used was random sampling, namely sampling from population members in a simple random manner. The research instrument used emotional intelligence, namely, an assessment rubric developed by Daniel Goleman and a physical education learning outcomes test. The results showed that emotional intelligence significantly affected students’ physical education learning outcomes. The correlation between study habits and students’ physical education learning outcomes obtained in this study shows its meaningfulness. It provides a clue that study habits are one of the main factors contributing to student learning outcomes. From the results, improving study habits will significantly contribute to students’ learning outcomes in physical education. Consequently, this study contributes to the body of knowledge on emotional intelligence by offering implications for teachers at primary to higher education levels. Keywords: emotional intelligence, learning outcomes, physical education
... Emotional intelligence of employees affects their overall job performance, mostly competency factor of emotional intelligence had greater effect on job performance of employees (Mishra & Mohapatra, 2010). It is suggested that organizations must employee cost effective emotional intelligence training and intervention programs as improved higher level of emotional intelligence among employees leads to higher employee performance (Munir & Azam, 2017). Supervisors and managers who have low level of emotional intelligence would not be able to deliver the required level of performance on the job (Kulkarni et al., 2009). ...
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The study has been conducted to investigate the impact of mediating effect of self-efficacy on the relationship between transformational leadership, mindfulness, emotional intelligence on creative performance in education sector of Karachi, Pakistan. Survey using structured questionnaire of 5-point Likert scale. Five independent variables including flexibility policies, role conflict, leave provisions, interpersonal relation at work and workload have been studied along with the dependent variable of creative performance out of the 5 variables, the finding examine that independent variables are positively effect on creative performance.
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Emotional intelligence describes ability, capacity, skill, or self-perceived ability to identify, assess, and manage the emotions of one’s self, of others, and of groups. The theory is enjoying considerable support in the literature and has had successful applications in many domains.
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This article aims at shedding light on the emotional intelligence (EI) of gifted and high ability students. We begin by presenting a brief overview of EI theory and research and its relevance to gifted education. We then present theoretical considerations bearing on the nature of the relationship between cognitive and EI. This is followed by a survey of correlational and individual difference research bearing on the EI-high ability nexus. We then move on to present a number of general guidelines for the development of an EI training program designed to foster emotional and social competencies in gifted students. We conclude by offering some broad generalizations about EI in gifted students and point out the areas of needed future research.
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Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to a set of competencies for understanding and managing emotions and emotional encounters. It is an elusive construct that has inspired a variety of conceptualizations and measurement strategies. Current perspectives divide into those that define EI as an ability akin to conventional intelligence, and those that assign it to the personality sphere. There are several reasons why EI might relate to mental and physical health. Superior emotion-regulation and coping abilities may promote a range of personal benefits, especially in buffering the adverse health impacts of stressors. EI is also associated with social engagement, which promotes better health. This article briefly reviews empirical studies of EI and health outcomes in nonclinical and clinical samples and identifies methodological challenges for this research area. EI is consistently associated with better outcomes, especially for mental health, but underlying mechanisms are uncertain. The chapter concludes with implications for practitioners in health psychology.
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This research project examines whether emotional intelligence (EI) is related to organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and counterproductive work behavior (CWB). A key question concerns the degree to which EI is related to OCB and CWB after controlling for other established predictors. The study uses meta-analytical summaries of existing research (for EI-OCB, k = 68, N = 16,386; for EI-CWB, k = 17, N = 3914). It uses meta-analytical controls to obtain the best estimates of effect sizes, incremental validity, and relative importance. This meta-analysis found that EI is positively associated with OCB and negatively related to CWB. When controlling for ability measures of EI, the Big Five personality measures, general self-efficacy, cognitive intelligence, and self-rated performance, both self-report measures of EI and mixed competency measures of EI show incremental validity and relative importance in predicting OCB and CWB. An analysis of self-report EI found that the effects of EI on OCB and CWB are stronger in health care and service industries than in industries where emotional labor demands are lower. The results imply that organizations can increase OCB and reduce CWB by recruiting employees high in EI and by training employees in emotional competencies.