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First results of rock art survey in Central Balkans 109
Modern Humans (AMH) to reache Western
Europe already possessed incipient graphic
and symbolic behavior. erefore, evidence
of early graphic activity should be found
along the path followed by the rst AMH
to colonize Europe. During two months of
survey, the walls of several known prehis-
toric cave sites located in dierent zones of
Serbia were explored. During that project,
the rst evidence of possible Paleolithic
rock art was found in Selačka 3 cave (East-
ern Serbia). In this paper the background,
methodology and the discussion for its
chronological attribution to Upper Palaeo-
lithic are presented.
Zusammenfassung
Im Jahre 2012 wurde ein neues Surveyp-
rojekt ins Leben gerufen mit dem Ziel der
Erforschung paläolithischer Felskunst in
Serbien. Die zugrundeliegende Arbeitshy-
pothese besagt, dass die ersten Anatomisch
Modernen Menschen die Westeuropa
erreichten bereits über beginnende grasche
und symbolische Fertigkeiten verfügten.
Folglich sollten sich entlang der Einwande-
rungsroute in Richtung Europa der ersten
Anatomisch Modernen Menschen Spuren
ebensolcher bildlicher Äußerungen nden
lassen. Während zweier Monate wurden die
Wände mehrerer bereits bekannter paläo-
lithisch besiedelter Höhlen in unterschied-
lichen Gebieten Serbiens untersucht. Im
Rahmen dieses Projekts wurde erste mög-
licherweise paläolithische Wandkunst in
der Selačka 3 Höhle (Ostserbien) entdeckt.
In diesem Beitrag werden der Hintergrund
und die Methodologie des Projekts sowie
die Diskussion um eine Einordnung der
Entdeckungen in das Jungpaläolithikum
präsentiert.
Keywords / mots-clés / Schlüsselwörter
Upper Paleolithic, rock art, archaeological
survey, Balkans, Serbia.
Paléolithique supérieur, art parietal, pros-
pections archéologiques, Balkans, Serbie.
Jungpaläolithikum, Wandkunst, archäolo-
gische Surveys, Balkan, Serbien.
Resumée
En 2012, nous avons commencé un nou-
veau projet de prospection archéologique
dans le but de chercher des indices d’art
pariétal paléolithique en Serbie. L’hypothèse
principale est que les premières populations
d’Humains Anatomiquement Modernes
(HAM) qui sont arrivés en Europe de
l’Ouest possédaient déjà un comportement
graphique et symbolique. Par conséquent,
la preuve d‘une activité graphique précoce
devrait se trouver sur le chemin suivi par
les premiers HAM à avoir colonisé l‘Europe.
Deux mois de prospection ont été consacrés
à l’exploration des parois de plusieurs grottes
préhistoriques situées en diérentes zones
de la Serbie. Au cours de ce travail, la pre-
mière preuve d‘une éventuelle grotte ornée
paléolithique été trouvé dans la caverne de
Selačka 3 (Serbie orientale). Dans cet article,
nous présentons l’étude, la méthodologie et
les arguments pour une possible attribution
chronologique de cet ensemble au Paléo-
lithique Supérieur.
Abstract
In 2012 a new survey project was initiated
with the goal of investigating the Paleolithic
rock art in Serbia. e primary working
hypotheses is that the rst Anatomically
First results of rock art survey in Central Balkans
Analysis of the graphic remains of Selačka 3 (Serbia)
Aitor Ruiz-Redondo, Dušan Mihailoviċ & Steven Kuhn
110 First results of rock art survey in Central Balkans
Introduction
e emergence of Paleolithic art and sym-
bolism is considered to be a major milestone
in human evolution (e.g. Mellars 1989; Floss
2007; Zilhão 2007). is is related to the fact
that art has been traditionally considered
as one of the rst expressions of symbolic
thought in human history (Mellars 1989;
Mithen 1996; D’Errico 2003). Additionally,
a number of researchers consider artistic
images as symbolic systems for transmitting
social values and information (Lorblanchet
2007; Porr 2010). In this context, several
authors have linked the origin(s) of art to
the development of cognitive capabilities
in Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH)
entering Europe beginning ca. 40,000 BP
onwards (Mithen 1996; Lorblanchet 1999;
Mellars 2004).
Traditionally, the development of Paleolithic
art and symbolism has been treated mainly
as a Western European phenomenon (e.g.
Leroi-Gourhan 1965, Mellars 1989; Gamble
1994) exclusively developed by anatomi-
cally modern humans. However, in recent
years, some authors have suggested that
“the emergence of ‘behavioral modernity’
was triggered by demographic and social
processes and is not a species-specic phe-
nomenon; a corollary of these conclusions
is that the corresponding genetic and cog-
nitive basis must have been present in the
genus Homo before the evolutionary split
between Neanderthal and modern human
lineages” (Zilhao 2007: 1). Recently, some
specialists have proposed that Neander-
thal created some of the earliest European
Paleolithic artworks (e.g. Pike et al. 2012;
Rodríguez-Vidal et al. 2014). While there is
no consensus about whether Neanderthals
created artwork (see for instance: Henshil-
wood and Marean 2003; Pons-Branchu et
al. 2013), this possibility seems to suggest
that Upper Paleolithic art and symbolism
would have its origins in Western Europe
and, therefore, the presence in other ter-
ritories has to be explained as diusion or
convergence phenomena. However, things
look more complex, and evidence support-
ing an origin for the rst artistic expression
outside Western Europe has expanded in
the last few years:
1. Recent AMS dates seem to conrm that
Paleolithic art quickly spread through
a large territory shortly aer the col-
onization of Europe by the rst AMH
(Conard 2003; Floss 2007; Pike et al.
2012; González Sainz et al. 2013).
2. e technical and symbolic complexity
exhibited by the rst Paleolithic art-
ists (e.g. Chauvet, Altxerri B, portable
art from Swabian Jura) indicates the
existence of a complex, varied and fully
developed artistic tradition during the
Aurignacian that does not t with the
classic evolutionary model proposed by
Leroi-Gourhan and other scholars in
the 1970.
3. Recently, the dating of rock art in
Sulawesi (Indonesia) suggests that rst
evidence of gurative art in SE Asia is
similar in age to that in Europe (Aubert
et al. 2014). Furthermore, the kind of
motifs represented in Sulawesi (neg-
ative hand stencils and red painted
animals) are very similar to those used
in Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) rock
art. e rock art from Sulawesi may
suggest the existence of connections
among European and Asian symbolic
culture through a common ancestor
that possessed the capacity for symbolic
artwork.
4. At Blombos cave (South Africa),
archaeologists found the oldest graphic
representations currently known, con-
sidered as some kind of ‘proto-art’ (c.
100,000-75,000 BP). ese engravings
consist on a number of non-gurative
geometric marks on ocher pieces, and
they are unanimously considered as
the rst examples of symbolic behavior
(Henshilwood et al. 2002; 2009). Despite
its early date –at least, for European
parameters- it is generally accepted that
the Blombos engravings were created
by Homo sapiens.
To address the issue of the origin of art and
symbolism, the Balkan region is a key area.
First results of rock art survey in Central Balkans 111
It is the most probable route followed by
AMHs colonizing Europe from the Near
East, and yet it is little explored archaeolog-
ically. e discovery of Early UP rock art in
the region would further support the possi-
bility that this phenomenon had its origins
outside of Western Europe, questioning a
well-established archaeological paradigm.
A number of discoveries in the Balkans are
promising. For instance, some deep engrav-
ings have been found in Badanj cave (Bos-
nia-Herzegovina). ey consist in a series
of lines whose interpretation is not clear
(the authors have proposed to represent the
rear part of a horse, Basler 1976; Kujundžić
1989) but they have been securely dated as
Paleolithic (Basler 1976; Whallon 1989).
e recent discovery of the cave of Coliboia
in Western Romania seems to conrm the
importance of the Balkans area in the debate
concerning the origins of art. At Coliboia
archaeologists documented black gurative
animal paintings (bison, horse, rhinoceros)
with an estimated age of 30,000 BP (Clottes
et al. 2012).
In this context, we started a project in 2012
proposing a thorough examination of the
archaeological record of the Balkan Pen-
insula related to Paleolithic art and sym-
bolism. We have begun in Serbian caves,
but the nal goal of this project is to make
a selective survey of the walls of all known
Upper Paleolithic sites and other immediate
caves in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia,
Montenegro and Romania.
Methodology
e criteria for cave site selection were the
following: a) caves with known Upper Pale-
olithic deposits (based on previous work by
D. Mihailović and colleagues in Eastern Ser-
bia); b) caves close to known Upper Paleo-
lithic sites, and c) caves documented by T.
Dogandžić in Despotovac area. In sum, a
total of 29 caverns in dierent areas of the
country were analysed (for more info about
all the sites, see Ruiz-Redondo 2014b).
To address the main goals of the project, we
proposed to follow two dierent analytical
methodologies during eldwork:
1. Archaeological survey. e part of the
study involves exhaustive and system-
atic examinations of a series of cave
Figure 1 : Location of the cave of
Selačka 3 in Serbia.
112 First results of rock art survey in Central Balkans
sites with known or likely Paleolithic
deposits. We examine the cave walls,
oors and ceilings, sample pigments if
necessary, and document all graphical
traces present in the caves.
2. Documentation and analysis of the
rock art. To identify and trace graphic
units several types of illumination with
dierent luminosity and color tempera-
ture were used. Aerwards, every panel
and graphic unit was photographed.
Superimpositions were identied
using a handheld microscope. e
photographs were processed with the
Dstretch® plug-in for the ImageJ® pro-
gram, and the digital tracings will be
made with Adobe Photoshop® CS6. e
methodology for the graphic restitution
is based on computer graphics (Fritz &
Tosello 2007). All data were registered
in a Filemaker® 12 database and the
statistical analysis was performed using
SSPS® and PAST® soware.
Preliminary results: the case of
Selačka 3
Location and archaeological context
e cave of Selačka 3 is situated NE of the
city of Knjaževac (Serbia), in the Selačka
valley (Fig. 1). is valley is located on
the slopes of Stara planina mountain range
which separates Serbia and Bulgaria, or
the eastern and western parts of the Bal-
kans. e site’s coordinates are N43 41.933
E22 20.904, and 352 m AMSL. e cave
combines two narrow enclosed chambers
with a somewhat more extensive rockshel-
ter in the front (Fig. 2). e rock-shelter
entrance at the ground level is 12 m wide,
the greatest depth is 7.5 m and the height is
around 7 m. e entrance faces north-west.
e deposit was excavated by S. Kuhn and
D. Mihailović. ey have identied a stra-
tigraphy divided into three major layers
(1-3) with a series of sub-layers within each.
eir description of the layers and the mate-
rials recovered is the following (Kuhn et al.
2014):
Figure 2 : General view of the
rockshelter and the entrance of
Selačka 3. e excavation area
can also be seen.
First results of rock art survey in Central Balkans 113
Figure 3 : Some Paleolithic
artifacts from layers 2 (1,2) and
3 (3,4) at Selačka 3 cave (aer
Kuhn et al. 2014).
Layer 1 consists of dark, organic Holocene
sediments containing artefacts dating from
the Paleolithic to the modern era. Layer 2
consists of reddish brown clay-rich sedi-
ment, disturbed by pits and animal bur-
rows. Two Paleolithic artefacts (Fig. 3) were
collected from this layer. One is a basal frag-
ment of a small, straight bladelet with ne
inverse retouch on one margin. e other is
a complete bladelet with a distinctly twisted
prole. ese materials are not absolutely
culturally diagnostic, but they do fall within
the range of variation of Aurignacian
lamelles Dufour.
Finally, layer 3 is clearly a Pleistocene
deposit. It consists of yellowish sandy clay,
gravelly in places. A total of 17 artefacts
were recovered from this layer (Fig. 3). ey
include two very small centripetally worked
cores. Both have many typical Levallois
features but do not possess classic Levallois
morphology. Retouched tools include two
sidescrapers, two denticulated pieces and
several fragments of retouched pieces. e
small faunal assemblage (only ten identi-
able specimens) includes only wild species:
Equus ferus, Capra ibex and Rupicapra
rupicapra.
e authors assign Layer 3 at Selačka 3 in a
fairly recent Middle Paleolithic (late MIS4
or MIS 3). e ndings from layer 2 are
more ambiguous. However, the presence
of two small bladelets, one twisted and one
inversely retouched, does suggest that the
site possesses an Upper Paleolithic occupa-
tion, probably from EUP.
Parietal ensemble
On the 10th of October 2012 the cave was
intensively explored in the context of the
rst period of eldwork for the project.
Torch marks were found along various walls
of cave, attesting to previous explorations
inside the cave by people. Furthermore,
some 5 meters away from the main entrance
of the cave, on the le wall, other graphic
remains were observed. Regardless of their
position in relative proximity to the entrance
hall, direct sunlight does not reach the pari-
etal markings, placing them in a “half-shade
zone” (Pastoors & Weniger 2011).
e graphic remains consist in a series of
two small red marks. ey are parallel and
vertical and have an undeniable anthropic
origin (Fig. 4). ey are the result of the
action of dragging two ngers covered by
pigment down the wall. e maximum
length of the Graphic Unit is 4 cm, the max-
imum width is 3 cm, and the height from
the oor is 149 cm. ey could not be nat-
ural; however, it is possible that they were
made in historical times. e possibility of a
recent origin, however, is very low, which is
to say that it most likely is of Paleolithic age.
is type of parietal motives is known as
“paired marks”, as is relatively common
among cave sites with Paleolithic art in Spain
and France (Fig. 5). ese signs are fre-
quently found in association with negative
hand stencils (e.g. El Castillo, La Garma…)
positive hand stencils (e.g. Askondo), series
of dots or discs (e.g. El Castillo) and archaic
12
3
4
114 First results of rock art survey in Central Balkans
Figure 4 : Photograph (upper
le), photograph enhanced
by Dstrech® (upper right) and
tracing (bottom) of the graphic
unit I of Selačka 3. e unit is
composed of two short parallel
marks (paired marks).
Figure 5 : Examples of paired
marks in Paleolithic Art. Upper
le, Astigarraga (Gipuzkoa,
Spain); Upper right, Askondo
(Biscay, Spain); lower le, Chun
(Cantabria, Spain); lower right,
Lloseta (Asturies, Spain).
First results of rock art survey in Central Balkans 115
zoomorphic representations (e.g. Chauvet,
Altxerri, La Pileta…). is association
(on occasion on the same panel) of paired
marks and other distinctive Early Upper
Paleolithic motifs has been previously
documented (González-Sainz 1999). e
geographical distribution of this pattern
is relatively wide, with known examples
found throughout Dordogne in south
western France (Abri Blanchard) and the
Iberian Peninsula (La Pileta). Although this
pattern is plain its chronology is broadly
restricted to the Aurignacian and Gravet-
tian cultural periods of the Upper Paleo-
lithic (Garate 2010). Occurrences of this
pattern that present coherent contextual
chronologies and/or direct radiocarbon age
determinations cluster between the Middle
Aurignacian (ca. 39,000 cal. BP), with its
oldest known representation at Altxerri B
(González-Sainz et al. 2013, Ruiz-Redondo
2014a), to the beginning of the Solutrean
(ca. 22,000 cal. BP), as found at La Pileta
(Sanchidrián et al. 2001).
While a secure chronological attribution
of the motive at Selačka 3 is not possible at
this stage, the following arguments strongly
favour an Early Upper Paleolithic origin:
1. Although the paired marks are fairly
plain in morphology they are well
dened motifs limited to the Early
Upper Paleolithic.
2. e presence of Paleolithic occupa-
tional layers in the cave, with some arte-
facts presenting Early Upper Paleolithic
anities (Kuhn et al. 2014).
3. In the explored Serbian caves the fre-
quency of recent and historic grati
is much lower than in South-western
European caverns. Furthermore, recent
grati is generally painted in black
or using modern chemical paints and
consists of alphabetical characters. e
paired marks from Selačka 3 are made
with natural red ocher, the same color-
ant typically used in Paleolithic art. is
pigment was not found in any other
parietal images in the surveyed sites in
Serbia.
4. e possibility of an intentional falsi-
cation of the motive is very small. e
cave is in a region (the Balkans) with-
out little known Paleolithic art (except
Badanj Cave). Consequently, popular
knowledge of its graphic representa-
tions is limited and restricted to the
most famous gures (e.g. bison from
Altamira and bulls from Lascaux), not
to small and humble –but conventional-
signs.
In sum, in absence of contradictory evi-
dence, we propose that the most probable
hypothesis is that the paired marks from
Selačka 3 were made at some point during
the Upper Paleolithic, probably in its early
phase (ca. 40,000-22,000 cal. BP).
Conclusion
e Balkan region oers great possibilities
for archaeological studies addressing the
Paleolithic period because it represents a
key route of access connecting the Near East
to Central Europe (through the Danube cor-
ridor) as well as Southern Europe (through
the Adriatic coast). Yet there has been
comparatively little work on the Paleolithic
period in this area. e pace of research
has increased lately, and the potential of
the region has been demonstrated with
the discovery and documentation of very
important Paleolithic sites such as Velika
and Mala Balanica (Mihailović 2014) and
Šalitrena pećina (Mihailović & Mihailović
2007; 2014). With respect to Paleolithic art,
with the exceptions of Badanj (Bosnia-Her-
zegovina) and Coliboaia (Romania), this
vast territory remains terra incognita.
is paper introduces the rst evidence
for graphic motifs possibly belonging to
the Paleolithic period in Serbia. Although
the ndings are simple and the chronol-
ogy cannot be conrmed at present, they
should encourage further rock art surveys
in the Balkans. We are convinced that future
projects focused in this area will produce
essential contributions to one of the major
debates in prehistoric archaeology: the ori-
gin of rock art and symbolism.
116 First results of rock art survey in Central Balkans
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the IIIPC (University of
Cantabria) for the technical resources pro-
vided and the University of Belgrade for the
human and technical resources. is rst
stage of the project was funded by a FPU
contract for ARR at the University of Can-
tabria and for the further development this
study has received nancial support from
the French State in the frame of the ”Invest-
ments for the future” Programme IdEx Bor-
deaux, reference ANR-10-IDEX-03-02.
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Contact author
Aitor Ruiz-Redondo
PACEA (UMR5199) - Université de Borde-
aux
Bordeaux Archaeological Sciences Cluster
of Excellence (LaScArBx)
Bât. B18. allée Georoy Saint-Hilarie
33615 PESSAC CEDEX (France)
aruizredondo@gmail.com
Dušan Mihailović
Faculty of Philosophy
18-20 Čika-Ljubina, Beograd 11000 (Serbia)
dmihailo@f.bg.ac.rs
Steven Kuhn
School of Anthropology
Emil W. Haury Building
1009 East South Campus Drive
Tucson, AZ 85721 (USA)
skuhn@email.arizona.edu
