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Women’s Role in Sustainable Rural Development: The Case Study of Yaylacık Village in Konya, Turkey

Authors:
  • Kırşehir Ahi Evran University, Agricultural Faculty
1
Environment and Ecology at the
Beginning of 21st Century
Editors
Prof. Dr. Recep EFE
Prof. Dr. Carmen BIZZARRI
Prof. Dr. İsa CÜREBAL
Prof. Dr. Gulnara N. NYUSUPOVA
ISBN 978-954-07-3999-1
ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI UNIVERSITY PRESS
SOFIA 2015
Environment and Ecology at the Beginning of 21st Century
2
Editors
Prof. Dr. Recep Efe
Balikesir University, Faculty of Arts and
Sciences
Department of Geography
10145-Çağış, Balıkesir-Turkey
Prof. Dr. Isa Cürebal
Balikesir University, Faculty of Arts
and Sciences
Department of Geography
10145-Balıkesir-Turkey
Prof. Dr. Carmen Bizzarri
European University of Rome
Via degli Aldobrandeschi 190
00163 Roma, Italy
Prof. Dr. Gulnara Nyussupova
Al-Farabi Kazakh National
University, Faculty of Geography and
Natural Management,
Department of Geography
050040-Almaty-Kazakhstan
St. Kliment Ohridski University Press
ISBN 978-954-07-3999-1
The contents of chapters/papers are the sole responsibility of the authors, and
publication shall not imply the concurrence of the Editors or Publisher.
© 2105 Recep Efe, Carmen Bizzarri, İsa Cürebal, Gulnara N. Nyussupova
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
prior permission of the editors and authors
Environment and Ecology at the Beginning of 21st Century
5
Contents
PREFACE ..................................................................................................................... 3
CONTENTS .................................................................................................................. 5
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................... 11
Alternative Ways of Utilization of Wastes
Brigitta TÓTH & Ferenc FODOR
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................... 28
Determining the Direction for Urban Development in Harmony with the
Natural System through Ecological Planning: A Case Study of Göcek
Zeynep R. BOZHÜYÜK ARDAHANLIOĞLU & Nihat KARAKUŞ
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................... 47
The Effects of New Urban Transformation Law on Upper-Class Housing
Prices: The Case of Caddebostan, İstanbul
Özgül ACAR ÖZLER, Tayfun SALİHOĞLU & Güliz ÖZTÜRK
SALİHOĞLU
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................... 61
Some of the Landscape Planning Approaches in the World and in Turkey
Osman UZUN
CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................... 80
The Renewal of a Built-Up Environment in the Context of Urban Regeneration
Nilüfer TAŞ, Murat TAŞ, Zehra Berna AYDIN, Nihal AÇIKALIN
CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................................... 91
Climatological and Meteorological Information for Future Sustainable
Agriculture in Bulgaria
Milena Dimitrova MOTEVA, Valentin Stoyanov KAZANDZHIEV and
Veska Anastasova GEORGIEVA
CHAPTER 7 ............................................................................................................. 112
Use of GIS in the Inventory, Planning and Management Applications Based On
Landscape Ecology
Bülent YILMAZ, Duygu DOĞAN and Oğuz ATEŞ
CHAPTER 8 ............................................................................................................. 125
Economic Evaluation of Wood Pellet as a Renewable Energy Source in Turkey
Mahmut Muhammet BAYRAMOĞLU & Devlet TOKSOY
CHAPTER 9 ............................................................................................................. 138
Visual Quality Analysis for Roadside Landscape Scenes of Erzurum-Erzincan
(Turkey) Highway Route
Işık SEZEN
Environment and Ecology at the Beginning of 21st Century
6
CHAPTER 10 ........................................................................................................... 153
Natural Factors Affecting Karez (Karéz) Formation in Arid and Semi-Arid
Areas
Nazım BABABEYLİ, Fatih İMAT & Yagub BABABEYLİ
CHAPTER 11 ........................................................................................................... 166
Simulating the Impacts of Future Policy Scenarios on Urban Land Use in Izmir
Metropolitan Area Using the SLEUTH Urban Growth Model
Engin NURLU, Hakan DOYGUN, Hakan OGUZ and Birsen KESGIN
ATAK
CHAPTER 12 ........................................................................................................... 180
Xerophytic Landscape
Elif BAYRAMOĞLU & Öner DEMİREL
CHAPTER 13 ........................................................................................................... 190
Industrial Ecology for Sustainable Cities
Ayşe Nur ALBAYRAK & Nihal ŞENLİER
CHAPTER 14 ........................................................................................................... 203
Functional and Size Typology of Settlements in Presheva Valley
Arsim EJUPI & Valbon BYTYQI
CHAPTER 15 ........................................................................................................... 209
Air Pollution and Heart Disease
Aysel ÖZDEMİR, Nevin UTKUALP and Aylin PALLOŞ
CHAPTER 16 ........................................................................................................... 216
Women’s Role in Sustainable Rural Development: The Case Study of Yaylacık
Village in Konya, Turkey
Cennet OĞUZ, Arzu KAN and Mustafa KAN
CHAPTER 17 ........................................................................................................... 241
Solving Environmental Problems via Participatory Landscape Planning
Emel BAYLAN
CHAPTER 18 ........................................................................................................... 256
Combating Desertification in Sudan
Maha Ali ABDEL LATIF & Mustafa Mohamed ELHAG
CHAPTER 19 ........................................................................................................... 267
Effects of Biotechnology on Agriculture
Emine Dilşat YEĞENOĞLU & Meltem SESLİ
CHAPTER 20 ........................................................................................................... 277
Bulgarian and Turkish Complex Geological and Geophysical Research in
Antarctica: Summary and New Results
Boyko RANGUELOV, Orhan POLAT, Elçin GÖK and Çağlar ÖZER
Environment and Ecology at the Beginning of 21st Century
7
CHAPTER 21 ........................................................................................................... 302
Recreation and Urban Park Management
Rukiye Duygu ÇAY
CHAPTER 22 ........................................................................................................... 313
The Importance and Value of School Yards in Early Childhood Education
Şafak ÖZTÜRK AYNAL
CHAPTER 23 ........................................................................................................... 326
Child and Nature
Nilüfer KÖŞKER & Fatma ÇALIŞANDEMİR
CHAPTER 24 ........................................................................................................... 337
Determination of Regional Boundaries in Turkey in the Light of the Changing
Region Concept and its Effects on Regional Planning
Ufuk Fatih KÜÇÜKALİ
CHAPTER 25 ........................................................................................................... 355
Human Impact on Natural Vegetation: A Case Study of Karpuz Stream Basin
(East of Manavgat)
Serkan SABANCI
CHAPTER 26 ........................................................................................................... 367
Urban Characterization by Means of Dynamic Fractal Parameters
Jean-François PARROT & Carolina RAMÍREZ-NÚÑEZ
CHAPTER 27 ........................................................................................................... 382
A Planning Approach on Creation of Archeopark for İzmir Yeşilova-Yassıtepe
Archeological Sites
Nurhan KOÇAN & Ahmet ERGÜN
CHAPTER 28 ........................................................................................................... 398
Evaluation of the Open and Green Spaces in the Aspect of Urban Ecosystems:
Case of Fethiye City, Turkey
İsmail ÇINAR, Nihat KARAKUŞ, Zeynep R. BOZHÜYÜK
ARDAHANLIOĞLU and Serdar SELİM
CHAPTER 29 ........................................................................................................... 411
Land Cover/Use Change Assessment Using Maximum Likelihood and Support
Vector Machines Algorithms in Tunçbilek Coal Mine Area
Nazan KUTER & Semih KUTER
CHAPTER 30 ........................................................................................................... 424
Environment and Migration
Melahat DEMIRBILEK
Environment and Ecology at the Beginning of 21st Century
8
CHAPTER 31 ........................................................................................................... 437
Reflections of Environment, Ecology and Sustainability Concepts on
Architecture and Design from the Start of 21st Century till Today
Kutlu SEVİNÇ KAYIHAN, Saniye KARAMAN ÖZTAŞ and Cahide
AYDIN İPEKÇİ
CHAPTER 32 ........................................................................................................... 456
An Investigation on Creating University Landscape Materials Information
System Model: Karadeniz Technical University Case Study
Banu Çiçek KURDOĞLU, Yaşar Selçuk ERBAŞ, Öner DEMİREL,
Recep NİŞANCI and Kadir Tolga ÇELİK
CHAPTER 33 ........................................................................................................... 471
The Impacts of Environment on Human Health
Derya ADIBELLİ
CHAPTER 34 ........................................................................................................... 481
Determination of Environmental Literacy Levels of the Classroom Teachers in
the City of Bursa
Elif KARAKURT TOSUN
CHAPTER 35 ........................................................................................................... 500
The Ecological Nutrition
Eda GÜNEŞ & Ümit SORMAZ
CHAPTER 36 ........................................................................................................... 512
Vermiculture Technology and its Importance in Sustainable Plant Breeding
Atilla ATİK, Fürüzan ASLAN and Surhay ALLAHVERDİ
CHAPTER 37 ........................................................................................................... 521
The Importance of Water in Economies of Countries in the 21st Century
Birol TAŞ
CHAPTER 38 ........................................................................................................... 530
Determining the Borders of Conservation Area Based on Ecological Risk
Analysis: Case Study of Gala Lake, Turkey
Elif Ebru ŞİŞMAN, Ilgar KIRZIOGLU and Aslı B. KORKUT
CHAPTER 39 ........................................................................................................... 545
Analyzing the Degree of Landscape Fragmentation in Izmir, Turkey from 1984
to 2009
Engin NURLU, Birsen KESGIN ATAK and Işın BARUT
CHAPTER 40 ........................................................................................................... 556
Assessment of Visual Quality in Geomorphologic Landscape: Case Study of
Tortum Creek Valley, Uzundere District (Erzurum/Turkey)
Işık SEZEN, Neslihan DEMİRCAN, Faris KARAHAN and Zöhre POLAT
Environment and Ecology at the Beginning of 21st Century
9
CHAPTER 41 ........................................................................................................... 570
Natural Limits of the Settlement Growth in the Carpathian Neogene Basin (The
Town of Zvolen, Slovakia)
Martina SLÁMOVÁ, Boris BELÁČEK and František CHUDÝ
CHAPTER 42 ........................................................................................................... 590
Evaluation of the Studies for People with Disabilities in the “Sustainable
Society” Model and from a Sociological Point of View
Melda Medine GÜLEÇ
CHAPTER 43 ........................................................................................................... 603
Multi-Clusteral Nature of the 2011 Van Earthquake Aftershock Sequence in the
Accretionary Region of Eastern Anatolia
Mustafa TOKER
CHAPTER 44 ........................................................................................................... 618
Conceptualization of Architectural Sciences’ Students in terms of Relation
between the Natural Environment and their Professional Field
Neslihan KULÖZÜ
CHAPTER 45 ........................................................................................................... 636
Discursive Relationship between Human Development, Environment and
Sustainability
Oana IONUŞ
CHAPTER 46 ........................................................................................................... 654
Visual Quality Evaluation of Water Elements in Urban Areas
Özgür YERLİ & Selen DÖNER
CHAPTER 47 ........................................................................................................... 671
Life Cycle Assessment of Building Products in the Context of Ecological
Architecture and Academic Research in Turkey
Z. Sevgen PERKER
CHAPTER 48 ........................................................................................................... 683
Connecting the City and the Sea: An Integrated Proposal for the Renovation of
the Waterfront of Downtown Vladivostok, Russia
Carlos R. ZEBALLOS VELARDE & Sergei A. MOSTOVOI
CHAPTER 49 ........................................................................................................... 700
How to Raise the Environmental Awareness in Children
Yasemin AYDOĞAN, Özlem OKYAY and Pelin AKSÜT
CHAPTER 50 ........................................................................................................... 717
Water Hardness and Health
Aysel ÖZDEMİR, Nevin UTKUALP and Aylin PALLOŞ
Environment and Ecology at the Beginning of 21st Century
10
CHAPTER 51 ........................................................................................................... 723
Ecological Approaches towards Building Materials in Architecture
Saniye KARAMAN ÖZTAŞ & Kutlu SEVİNÇ KAYIHAN
CHAPTER 52 ........................................................................................................... 736
The Romania-Bulgaria-Serbia Cross-Border Touristic Potential Specific for
the South-West Oltenia Region According to the Danube Strategy Approach
Mirela MAZILU & Adrian NEDELCU
CHAPTER 53 ........................................................................................................... 756
Changing and Lost Socio-Cultural Values and their Effect on Architecture:
Case Study of Tilkilik and Namazgah Region in Basmane District, İzmir
Malike ÖZSOY
CHAPTER 54 ........................................................................................................... 766
Land Suitability Analysis by GIS and MCDM Techniques
Fatma AŞILIOĞLU
CHAPTER 55 ........................................................................................................... 783
Using Recycling Materials for Sustainable Landscape Planning
Mehmet ÇETIN
ABOUT THE AUTHORS ........................................................................................ 789
216
Chapter 16
Women’s Role in Sustainable Rural Development: The Case
Study of Yaylacık Village in Konya, Turkey *
Cennet OĞUZ, Arzu KAN and Mustafa KAN
1. INTRODUCTION
A country’s development means to increase life standards of people in that region. In
consequence, one of the key is to take life standards higher for people who are
engaged in agriculture in which countries based on agriculture economically. Making
more competitive, ensuring the sustainability, diversification of income sources of the
people, who is lived in rural area and engaged in agriculture, especially small farmers
and the poor people in order to increase living standards, are important elements of
growth based on agriculture (WDR 2008, World Bank, 2009). People’s life standards
are important who has affection in Turkey’s development and in ensuring the
livelihood of a significant part of the population in agricultural sector (Çakmak and
Akder, 2005). This issue is also the strategy of struggle of the firms against poverty
which are effected from povert y and active in rural areas in agricultural sector
(Gülçubuk, 2006; Doğan, 2008; Öztürk, 2008/a; Öztürk, 2008/b). Poverty is inevitable
in countries who are economically based on agri culture and if cannot increase
productivity in agriculture (Kazgan, 1984). Life and working conditions are in more
different form i n rural areas than urban areas. Although both parts have its own
difficulties, it’s remarkable that people who are deprived from a lot of opportunities
have lower life standards (Gülçubuk et al., 2010). Therefore, research should be
conducted and to be implemented in order to ensure development of the rural
population.
%51 of the world’s population and %33 of Turkey’s population consist of rural
population. %45 of the active population consists of rural active population in both the
World and Turkey (Faostat, 2011/a). Therefore, the countryside in terms of both
working population and general population is significant potential. A society’s
development according to its social, economic and cultural development depends
mostly on people’s having equal rights. To have equal rights for all the people is
important for the development of the community. So, expectation is to make gender-
balanced approaches in studies for development (Yurttaş et al., 2005; FAO, 2010;
World Bank, 2009, Gülçubuk, 2009; Gülçubuk and et al., 2010). Women, consisting
half of Turkey’s and the world’s population and having an important role for both
socially and economically, need to be considered separately in the context of
development programs. Because, women are naturally different from men and they
have abilities to operate in different fields. Especially, required labor is covered by the
employer and his family in order to have sustainability in agricultural production and

*This study was supported Selcuk University, Scientific Research Fund (BAP). Project
No:08401120
Cennet Oğuz et al.
217
provide rural development. In developing countries, agricultural holdings are the type
of family enterprises based on the owner’s and his family’s l abor. This is the reason
why women are giving a hand to their husbands and working in agriculture sector
actively (World Bank, 2009, FAO, 2011).
Women population working in agriculture actively is increasing year by year and
the most is considered as cost free family labor force”. The key role that women
play in agricultural production has been ignored for long years, and in development
plans and programs, in market economy marker centered men’s production oriented
projects have been focused on. The importance of women in agricultural sector has
started to be discussed especially since 1983. In developing countries such as Turkey,
the state of women and their access to public service especially in rural areas
distinguish considerably. Specifically in recent years, Ministry of Food, Agriculture
and Livestock, and Ministry of Education are carrying out women - oriented projects
in rural areas to support them gain local and regional skills, and promoting workshops.
Also, lots of studies locally an regionally have been done on the role of women in
agricultural production (Oğuz et al., 2008;uz, 2008;uz, 2011; Oğuz et al.,
2012;uz and Kan, 2012).
In rural areas, women and youth’s current situations should be pr esented
generally in order to produce activities for them. The problems and need of every
culture, region and circumstances could show different structure, but dont change
basic elements. Here, an important point to be mentioned, in particularly, the effect of
the work done by women is accepted less valuable than the work done by man is
reflected to the statistics and limited data, particularly for women living in rural areas
are found. Besides all this, although many studies focused on the women living urban
area, the studies and resear ch focused on women living in rural areas seems to have
more limited (Gülçubuk et al., 2010).
Women population working in agricultural activities increase year by year.
Correspondingl y, in the projects and programs carried out in the frame of rural
improvement, necessary importance is not given to the women. In the programs which
must be performed, studies regarding women should also be done by practicing a
totalitarian approach. In a project executed in Australia, in economic, social and
environmental sustainability, it is aimed to raise the statue of women in rural areas, to
suppl y education supporting their improvement , to gain opportunity of leadership and
to raise living conditions. Encouraging studies have been done to have women
actively take part in a network set among business, families of rural women, and
society and industry. To provide a high level participation of women, leaders of
industry have supported the project (Kerr and Snaidero, 2006). By carrying out such
projects, it should be provided to receive necessary support from agriculturally based
industry. In many places of world, especially in USA, organizations regarding the
place of women in agriculture (Women in Agriculture) are active. In California,
various educative programs are applied to improve the women who take part in
agricultural activities. The organization of “Australian Women in Agriculture” have
about 500 members and the members are composed of farmers, scientists, educators,
people working in communication and people working in many different areas.
Consequently, all the members bring fresh breathes to the organization and
agriculture. A communication net exists including the improvements about
Women’s Role in Sustainable Rural Development: The Case Study …
218
production, rural industry and agricultural innovation (Anonymous, 2007/a). In world
countries, 15th October has been celebrated as World’s Farmer Women’s Day since
1995. On this day, it is tried to raise the statute of farmer women, to support their
demands, to increase sensitiveness in governmental activities and society
(Anonymous, 2007/b).
Turkey is a candidate country and in the process of adaptation of the European
Union. One of the adaptation critters is rural development. Because of that, this
situation shows that Turkey should focus on the women oriented rural development
studies.
The economically active population working in rural areas in Turkey are
7,710,000 and women form 54.73% of this (Table 1). Women population working
actively in agricultural activities is increasing year by year. However, the rate of
women is decreasing in the active population. At this point, the place and importance
of women population in agricultural activities and rural development are increasing.
The rate of women in economically agricultural active population in the world is
42.86%. In USA, 20% of agricultural businesses are administrated by women. The
businesses administrated by women are small businesses. The number of women
working in business has increased 1% in the last 10 years. % 29 of the businesses in
Australia, 24 % of the businesses in Italy are run by women. This rate is 7 % in
Denmark and 6% in Holland (Keskin, 2004). In Turkey, the rate of the agricultural
population in the total population is decreasing gradually as a result of economic
improvement and rapid urbanization. While the rate of agricultural population (village
and country town) was 56.2% in 1980, it decreased to 41% in 1990, 35.26% in 2000,
26.51% in 2010 and 26.60% in 2013. In Europe, women are seen as the backbone of
rural society and programs have been developed especially in the area of gardening
for women since 19th century. In Pennsylvania, in 1910, gardening school was
founded for women. Today, due to the rapid improvement of gardening industry,
various course programs are prepared in Europe. Programs about gardening activities
performed commonly should also be prepared in Turkey. Agricultural broadcasting
has a big contribution in these programs oriented for rural areas. Garden plants are
strategic products for Turkey and they have a role in an important participation of
Turkey in world’s marketing. For this reason, in Turkey, it is necessary to make
production by following the technological improvements in garden plants husbandry
and the aimed quality in world’s marketing
Turkey is an important producer for European market with its geographical and
climatic situation due to its proper conditions for growing every kind of plant. Wide
ranges of horticultural crops are being growth for commercial and being exported to
plenty of countries. Horticultural activities are the field in which the women work is a
different culture happening changes day by day. Women can work in almost every
activity of horticulture. Approximately %15 of agricultural lands in Turkey devoted to
the horticulture (TUIK, 2011/b). The horticulture activities have been widely
conducted around the entire district, especially in which have border to Mediterranean
region (Akşehir, Beyşehir, Hadim, Ereğli and Seydişehir) in Konya. Most of these
areas are suitable for organic farming in terms of agricultural production using less or
almost no input, far away from major centers and activities to be conducted mostly in
subsistence.
Cennet Oğuz et al.
219
In recent years, organic agriculture has been spreading rapidl y in t he world and
global organic food market is also growing gradually. Organic agriculture is carried
out almost in every country in the world and organic production areas are ever
increasing. According to the last Global Organic Agriculture Statistics of Organic
Agriculture Research Institute (FİBL), there was about 37.2 million hector organic
agricultural area in 160 countries in the world in 1990. These areas consist only 0.9%
of total agriculture areas in the world.
Table1: Distribution of active women labor in rural area in Turkey by year s
1980 1990 2000 2010 2011 2012 2013
Total Population in
Turkey (1000) 43,906 53,995 63,174 72,138 73,059 73,997 74,933
Total Male Population
in Turkey (1000) 21,755 26,637 31,080 35,436 35,884 36,341 36,797
Total Female Population
in Turkey (1000) 22,150 27,358 32,094 36,701 37,174 37,656 38,136
Female populat io n
(%) 50.45 50.67 50.80 50.87 50.88 50.88 50.89
Rural population in
Turkey (1000) 24,684 22,028 22,275 21,290 20,818 20,368 19,935
Urban popul. (1000) 19,222 31,966 40,900 50,848 52,241 53,629 54,997
% Rural population 56.22 40.79 35.26 29.51 28.49 27.52 26.60
Total economically
active population (1000) 14,418 19,953 21,901 24,457 24,750 25,055 25,362
Male economically
active population (1000) 10,587 13,882 15,941 18,010 18,233 18,463 18,695
Female economically
active population (1000) 3,831 6,071 5,959 6,447 6,517 6,591 6,667
Female economically
active population% 26.57 30.43 27.21 26.36 26.33 26.31 26.29
Total economically
active population in
agriculture (1000)
8,147 10,323 9,062 8,005 7,906 7,809 7,710
Male economically
active population in
agriculture (1000)
4,779 5,315 4,576 3,731 3,650 3,570 3,490
Female economically
active population in
agriculture (1000)
3,369 5,008 4,486 4,274 4,256 4,239 4,220
Female economically
active population in
agriculture %
41.35 48.51 49.50 53..9 53.83 54.28 54.73
Source: (TUIK 2011/a)
Organic agriculture has been started in 1984-85 season with dried grape and
dried fig, which are traditional products for Turkey. In later years, organic agriculture
showed the rapid grown and the number of organic products reached to about 250
according to 2008 Ministry of Food Agriculture and Livestock (MFAL). The number
of products displays a regular increasing with processed product which is obtained
from these raw materials. As of 2010, organic agriculture was engaged in 191,785
hectare. That comes up to 0.78% of all production area of Turkey (GTHB, 2011).
Women’s Role in Sustainable Rural Development: The Case Study …
220
Almost all of the organic certified productions have been exported to developed
countries initially to the EU countries and USA and Japan.
Turkey is still taking the lead among dry and dried fruits and also in organic
cotton market which helps the development of organic farming. Productions have
been doing as contracted which are mostly intended to foreign market. A group of
producer should get toget her under the “project” providing the transition to organic
production in accordance with the demand. In recent years, interests in ecological
products have been also increased by the support policies and efforts of non-
governmental organizations (ETO, 2010).Hence, there are rural development projects
for the development of the organic farming in these areas and people who are engaged
in agriculture are allowed to grow their crops for market-oriented. One of them is the
micro-scale rural development project which was carried out in 2006 in Yaylacık
village, Seydişehir town, Konya province with Konya Provincial Special
Administration, Konya Province Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Livestock,
Selcuk University and Farmers’ Union. With the Project, “Organic Strawberry
Production Project” was carried out in the Yaylacık Village which is one of the
largely emigrant mountain villages. Women, playing an active role in the horticulture
as well as in all areas of agriculture, contributed much in the conduct of these type
projects. Not only strawberries but also other products, like broccoli, cabbage, dwarf
apple etc., have started to be produced in the village with this project. The main
purpose of this project is to show the contributions of Organic Strawberry Project”
on increasing of the agricultural holdings in the region and to demonstrate the role of
women in the production. In addition, the projects, implemented in small micro base
in rural development work, are of great importance in the prevention of poverty and
migration in the region.
2. MATERIAL and METHODS
The main material of the research was consisted from the questionnaire forms
fulfilled face to face and with the volunteer women engaged with horticulture in
Yaylacık Village, Seydişehir-Konya-Turkey. Also, it is also benefited from researches
and secondary data which various public corporation and institutes have. Yaylacık
village was chosen as research area according to the Purposed Sampling Method”.
The reasons why the village chosen as research area were that the researchers known
the region and the village well, the improvement on the horticulture of the village
between the present situation with the five years earlier situation was monitored.
Yaylacık village was chosen, because, this situation was closely related to income
levels of the producers and to be an example to other women in rural areas in the
Konya region.
Yaylacık village is 65 km far away from Konya province and 30km far away
from Seydişehir district. The village surrounded by mountains, has 1700 m altitude
(Figure 1), and harsh continental climate prevails in the village. Agricultural land is
very small and fragmented. The main source of livelihood is small ruminants (goat
and sheep). Self-enclosed, simpl e and mountainous life prevail in the village because
of being away from the great residential units (districts or provinces center), and
limited working opportunities.
Cennet Oğuz et al.
221
Figure 1: Location of study area (Yaylacık Village).
Logistic Regression was used i n order to signify effectiveness of the women in
organic farming. Logistic Regression Analysis is a method which is used in situations
like when a dependent variable has a categorical form and also when an independent
variable is constant or in a categorical form. In Yaylacık village where the project was
conducted, the “Full-Count Method” was used to determine the number of women
would be interviewed to put forward the benefits of organic farming to the village and
the women’s role in organic farming. In research are, it was stated by Konya Province
Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Livestock that 100 producers has engaged with
strawberry growing in total. 55 of these 100 producers participated the survey study as
volunteer. The woman who is his wife of head of household was interviewed in every
agricultural holding. The agricultural holdings were evaluated in three groups
according to the land size of. Besides its land degradation, limited and scattered arable
land with small areas decreased the probability of finding big size agricultural
Women’s Role in Sustainable Rural Development: The Case Study …
222
holdings.
That’s why the agricultural holdings are divided into 3 groups as the agricultural
holdings had areas less than 0.5 ha (group 1), the agricultural holdings had areas
between 0.5-1.0 ha (group 2) and the agricultural holdings had areas more than 1 ha
(group 3). Accordingly, 17 holdings were in first group, 23 holdings were in second
and 15 holdings were taking part in third group. The annual income of agricultural
holdings was calculated and this income was converted to equivalent person (EP). The
FAO’s approach was used the EP calculation based the minimum calorie requirement
of working-age men that is highest value. The other age and sex groups were
calculated this scale and α coefficient and demographic groups were presented in
Table 1 .
The data gathering from the farmers via survey entered the computer via Excel
program and anal yzed in SPSS Statistical program. The descriptive data about the
research area presented as tables after regulations. Logistic regression analyze in
which result variable displays a categorical structures applied in three ways.
Table 2: The FAO scale based the minimum calorie requirements calculation of
demographic groups
Demographic Groups α coefficient
Children (5 age<) 0.64
Children (5-17 age) 1.00
Men (18-39 age) 1.00
Women (18-39 age) 0.84
Men (40 age +) 0.88
Wo me n (40 a ge +) 0.76
Source:TUIK, 2008.
These are named as binary logistic regression analyze in the event that dependent
variable has two alternative, as nominal logistic regression analyze in the event that
dependent variable has classifying measure level and at least three alternatives and as
ordinal logistic regression analyze in the event that dependent variable has sequencer
measure level and again at least three alternatives (Gujarati, 2003; Özdamar, 2004). In
this study, Binary Logistic Regression, BLR Analyze was used. The annual income of
agricultural holdings was calculated and this income was converted to equivalent
person (EP). The FAOs approach was used the EP calculation based the minimum
calorie requirement of working-age men that is highest value (TUIK, 2012). Logistic
Regression was used to analyses the influence of each explanatory variables, which
are belonging to the women, on the dependent variable, which is a dichotomous
variable (poor and non-poor famil y), the binary logistic regression was used as a
method (Gujarati, 2003). The logit model is written;
Where Prob (y=1) is once again the probability of the event, α is the Y intercept,
βs are regression coefficients, and Xs are a set of predictors. α and βs are typically
estimated by the maximum likelihood (ML) method.
Cennet Oğuz et al.
223
In order to form cross table to search the relationships among the data
(dependency degree) and to see whether there is a relationship among them, χ2 test
(Chi square test), a parametric test, was applied and it was searched whether there is a
statistical relationship among the characters with 95% confidence level. If the
relationship is important in 95% confidence bounds in the result of the statistical test
2 test) which is conducted between 2 (two) character that is held in the cross –
tables, the dependency degrees of these two characters are looked and ø (phi) factor
was taken into consideration as the dependency degree (Kesici & Kocabaş, 1998). The
population was studied according to the age, sex and education statues in the
enterprises. While calculating the existing family labor force in the enterprises, the
factors in Table 3 which reflects labor force successes according to the sex and age
groups of the population were used (Açıl and Demirci, 1984; Erkuş et al., 1995). The
family members who worked continuously out of the enterprise, the ones worki ng out
of the enterprise and t he ones who did not work because of the reasons such as illness,
military service and education were not included. They were accepted to be able to
work 280 days a year considering the natural circumstances of Research Region. The
amount of potential work force was found by multiplying the amount of men work
force by 280 (Erkuş, 1979).
Table 3: The Conversion coefficients for man labor unit
Age Groups Man Woma n
0-6 0.00 0.00
7-14 0.50 0.50
15-49 1.00 0.75
50-+ 0.75 0.50
Source: Erkuş, 1979
3. FINDINGS and DISCUSSION
3.1. Age, Education, Sex Distributions of Examined Research Populat ion
The household size, age, education, sex distributions as demographic characters
of agricultural holdings were exami ned from the data gathered from 55 farmers via
survey. The household size was calculated as 5.73 in the interviewed agricultural
holdings and wasn’t found as statistically significant at 95% confidence level as
results of variance analyses. Accordingly, household size didn’t constitute difference
by farm size groups (Table 4)
The gender distribution according to the farm size groups was examined and the
ratio of women in total population was found as 51.27% on general average. This
distribution of sex by farm size was analyzed with “Chi-Square Test”, but the
statistically significant relations couldn’t be found at 95% confidence level.
Accordingly, man and women distribution in every farm size group was similar each
other’s, differences weren’t significant as statistically (Table 4).
Besides the distribution of sex-ratio, household member’s age distribution is also
important when determining the labor as manpower. For this reason, the age
distribution of the household members was examined according to farm sizes. The age
distribution of household members according to the farm size was found as
statistically significant at 95% confidence level as results of Chi-Square Test. While
the young population was more in the agricultural holdings belonging to 1 group, 15-
Women’s Role in Sustainable Rural Development: The Case Study …
224
49 age population as known active population and old population (50 age >) were
more in the agricultural holdings belonging to 3. Group (Table 3). Carrying out such
projects which Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock have especially executed
recently holds key for the employment of rural population, especially of women.
According to land groups, 6+ age family member’s educational status analyzed and
stated that 76.43% of the household members were primary-middle school graduate.
Table 4: Household size and sex-ratio distribution of agricultural holdings
Farm Size Groups Average(Person) Men (%) Women (%)
1. Group (0.5 Ha<) 5.00 50.49 49.51
2. Group (0.5 – 1.00 Ha) 6.55 47.92 52.08
3. Group (1.00 Ha >) 5.50 47.76 52.24
Average 5.73 48.73 51.27
Tabl e 5: Age di str ibutio n of the househo ld members b y fa rm size groups
Farm Size Groups Total
1. Group 2. Group 3. Group
% % % %
Age
6 Age < 7.77 10.42 8.96 9.24
7-14 Age 28.16 22.22 7.46 21.02
15-49 Age 52.43 54.86 59.70 55.10
50 Age and > 11.65 12.50 23.88 14.65
Total 100,00 100.00 100.00 100.00
χ : 14.29 S.D.:6 p value:0.03 φ:0.21
Statistically significant at 95% confidence level
The relation of the educational level of household members with the farm size
groups wasn’t statistically significant at 95% confidence level as results of Chi-Square
Test. In every group, educational level of household members resembles each other’s
(Table 6).
Table 6: The distribution of educational level of household members by farm size groups
Farm Size Groups
Total
1. Group 2. Group 3.
Group
% % % %
Educa tional
Lev el
Illiterate 14.56 15.28 16.42 15.29
Literate 0.00 0.69 0.00 0.32
Primary-Middle
School 77.67 76.39 74.63 76.43
Secondary School 7.77 6.94 7.46 7.32
High School or
University 14.56 15.28 16.42 15.29
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
χ : 2.81 S.D.:8 p value:0.95
Statistically not significant at 95% confidence level
Cennet Oğuz et al.
225
3.2. The State of Work Force Usage in the Research Area
Labor utilization as manpower units and idle and potential labor values were
presented in table 5 according to the farm size groups for the research area. When
examined the table 7, the statistically significant difference could be shown at 90%
confidence level between the farm size groups in side of having manpower units of
the agricultural holdings according to the Variance Analyses. The agricultural
holdings used their manpower units effectively were in 3. group (52.34%) and then 1.
group (35.17%) and 2. group agricultural holdings (32.49%) followed respectively.
When increasing the farm size, utilization rate of labor increase could be said.
However, unemployed work force still takes an important place in the holdings and to
evaluate this work force, it is beneficial to carry out alternative product projects.
Table 7: Labor utilization in the research area
1. Group 2. Group 3. Group Average F Value s
Average Manpower Units 3.32 4.41 3.90 3.88 2.44*
Manpower Used in
Agriculture in Farm 314.40 385.11 596.88 404.32 4.22**
Manpower Used in
Agriculture in Out of Farm 0.00 23.18 0.00 9.27 2.44*
Manpower Used in Non-
Agriculture 36.02 21.49 15.90 25.82 0.30
Total Manpower 350.43 429.78 612.77 439.41 3.45**
Potential Manpower 996.43 1322.73 1168.75 1164.55 2.44*
Idle Manpower 646.00 892.94 555.98 725.14 3.61**
Utilization Rate of Labor
(%) 35.17 32.49 52.42 37.73 ---
* Statistically significant at 90% confidence level
** Statistically significant at 95% confidence level
3.3. Land Usage State of the Agricultural Holdings
Another topic which is held in the research is the land usage states of the
agricultural holdings seen. In Table 8, average land size is given according to the land
size groups of the enterprises. The average land size of 21 enterprises, which are in the
1. Group, is 0.36 ha, the average land size of 22 enterprises, which are 2. Group, is
0.71 ha and the average land size of 12 enterprises, which are 3. Group, is calculated
as 2.01 ha (Table 8). In the research area, the land size is quite small and while wheat
and barley had been grown before the project was started to carry out, after the project
was started to carry out, there was an importance change in the production variet y.
Recently, while an important amount of strawberry has been cultivated, (85.45% of
producers) also potato, broccoli, cabbage elder flower and dwarf apple has been
started. As there is shortage of land in mountainous villages, production variet y has
great importance in terms of the evaluation of marginal areas.
When the property states of the land which the enterprises inspected were
investigated, it was determined that the possessed land was in majority and possession
state of land didn’t change according to land size groups.
Women’s Role in Sustainable Rural Development: The Case Study …
226
Also, while the number of land plot was less (2.76 pieces) in small enterprises, it was
seen that it increased as the land size of enterprise get bigger. The average number of land
part for each agricultural holding was calculated as 3.67 plots (Table 9).
Table 8: Land size of the agricultural holdings by farm size groups (Ha)
Farm Size Groups Mea n Sample
Number Standard
Deviation Variance
1. Group 3.55 21 1.26 1.60
2. Group 7.34 22 1.35 1.812
3. Group 20.13 12 9.96 99.14
Total 8.68 55 7.85 61.58
Tabl e 9: Land ow ner ship of the a gric ultural hol dings by far m si ze groups
Farm Size Groups Total
1. Group 2. Group 3. Group
Frequency % Frequency % Frequency % Frequency %
La nd
Owner ship
Own
Land 56 93.33 83 86.46 51 86.44 190 88.37
Rented
Land 0 0.00 5 5.21 3 5.08 8 3.72
Shared
land 2 3.33 1 1.04 1 1.69 4 1.86
Total 58 100 89 100 55 100 202 100
Number of
Agricultural Holdings 21 22 12 55
The Number of Plots
Per Agricu ltura l
Hold ings 2.76 4.05 4.58 3.67
Χ
2
: 4.25 S.D.:14 p value:0.37
Statistically not significant at 95% confidence level
In the agricultural holdings inspected, the distribution of land according to the
crop pattern is given in Table 10. According to this, in the research area, it can be said
that especially strawberry, alfalfa, wheat, barley, potato, rye and bean productions are
common. The average land size for each enterprise in the research area is 0.87 ha and
total land size is 47.75 ha.
3.4. Women’s Time Usage State in The Agricultural Holdings
In the research area, it has been detected that women take place mostly in plant
production among the agricultural production activities and they work more than 7
hours according to the average of enterprises. When Table 11 is examined, it is stated
that in the research area, women spare their time for house work, cooking, child care,
animal husbandry and for themselves. While there is not a meaningful relationship
according to land operating size groups in terms of housework, child care, the time
they spare for themselves and animal care, in terms of plant productions, in the
enterprises which are in 3. Group land size it is stated that the time the women spare
for plant production is much more than the women in other group of enterprises.
Cennet Oğuz et al.
227
According to this, while in the enterprises which are in the 3. Group, the time the
women spare for plant production is average 9.25 hours a day, this number is
calculated as 6.19 hours in the enterprises which are 1. Group, as 6.84 hours in the
enterprises which are in the 2. Group (Table 11). Especially in the mountainous areas,
the women work in a quite self - sacrificing way in order to take an advantage at
maximum from the marginal areas. In the investigated enterprise, as small cattle
raising is common as animal existence, while the women spare time for husbandry
activities average 1 hour a day, which changes according to the enterprise size groups,
plant production takes approximately all their day. For women take place on every
phase of production. However, there is no time which women spare for themselves. In
the projects carries out, women should be provided to reach information and use them,
and by giving various seminars, should also be supported to represent themselves in
the society.
Table 10: Distribution of land size according to crop pattern by far m size groups
1. Group 2. Group 3. Group Total
Average
Product.
Area (Ha)
Numb.
of Plot
Average
Product.
Area
(Ha)
Numb.
of Plot
Average
Product.
Area
(Ha)
Number
of Plot
Average
Product.
Area (Ha)
Numb.
of Plot
Wheat 0.14 8 0.27 19 0.92 12 0.44 39
Barley 0.00 0 0.20 1 0.00 0 0.20 1
Rye 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.30 2 0.30 2
Potatoes 0.14 19 0.18 20 0.28 12 0.19 51
Bean 0.10 3 0.11 8 0.09 4 0.10 15
Alfalfa 0.00 0 0.00 0 2.00 1 2.00 1
Strawberry 0.14 21 0.18 22 0.22 12 0.17 55
Mixed
Ve getab le 0.10 2 0.10 12 0.09 4 0.10 18
Mixed Fruit 0.08 5 0.16 7 0.29 7 0.19 19
Fallow 0.00 0 0.00 0 1.80 1 1.80 1
Average Plot
Size (Ha) 0.13 58 0.18 89 0.44 55 0.24 202
Number of
Agricultural
Hold ing
21 22 12 55
Farm Size per
Agricultural
Hold ing (Ha)
0.36 0.73 2.01 0.87
Total Farm
Size (Ha) 7.45 16.15 24.15 47.75
In the research area, although family work force is not getting payment,
workforce payment of the enterprises has been calculated. In Table 12, the distribution
family workforce payment for each enterprise according to the land size groups is
seen.as the result of variance analyze conducted, it can be said that the family
workforce payment of the enterprises which are in the 3. group is more than the other
Women’s Role in Sustainable Rural Development: The Case Study …
228
enterprise groups. However, it is calculated as 11,949.54$ in the area of enterprises. In
the research area, as family work force forms the fixed capital group, especially
women’s workforce takes place as “family workforce without payment”.
Tabl e 11: Distri bution of women’s ti me usa ge b y fa rm size groups (Hour)
Farm Size Groups
House
Work
Cooking Childcare Anima l
Husbandry
Plant
Production
Spare
the time
for
oneself
1.
Group
Mean 1.57 1.19 0.62 1.00 6.19 0.00
Number of Sample 21 21 21 21 21 21
Standard Deviation 0.83 0.40 0.87 0.95 3.69 0.00
2.
Group
Mean 1.16 0.95 0.98 1.32 6.84 0.09
Number of Sample 22 22 22 22 22 22
Standard Deviation 0.57 0.41 1.16 1.29 2.75 0.43
3.
Group
Mean 1.25 1.17 0.50 0.83 9.25 0.08
Number of Sample 12 12 12 12 12 12
Standard Deviation 0.62 0.54 1.24 0.84 3.86 0.29
Total
Mean 1.34 1.09 0.74 1.09 7.12 0.05
Number of Sample 55 55 55 55 55 55
Standard Deviation 0.70 0.44 1.08 1.08 3.52 0.30
F Values 2.05 1.81 0.97 0.91 3.25** 0.56
* Statistically significant at 90% confidence level,
** Statistically significant at 95% confidence level
Table 12: Distribution of family labor cost by farm size groups ($1)
Farm Size
Groups
Family Labor
Cost Within The
Hold ing
Family
Labor Cost
Outside The
Hold ing
Family Labor
Cost Non-
Agriculture
Work
Tot al F amily
Labor Cost
1. Group Mean 7,922.62 - 1,000.40 8,923.02
N umb er o f S a mp le 21 21 21 21
2. Group Mean 9,871.21 700,76 973.87 11,504.17
N umb er o f S a mp le 22 22 22 22
3. Group Mean 15,083.33 - 2,979.17 18,062.50
N umb er o f S a mp le 12 12 12 12
Total Mean 10,264.39 280,30 1,404.85 11,949.54
N umb er o f S a mp le 55 55 55 55
F Values 4.91** 2.40* 2.91* 8.34***
* Statistically significant at 90% confidence level
** Statistically significant at 95% confidence level
*** Statistically significant at 99% confidence level
*1$≈1.20TL (It was Central Bank official Exchange Rate for July-August 2008)
Cennet Oğuz et al.
229
Women mostly work together in each other’s work. In rural areas, the way that
women participate in production changes dependi ng on the type of agricultural
activity and the income of family (Sirman, 1991). In Turkey, most of the agriculture
enterprises are small scale ones in which agricultural activities are performed by
family members, benefiting from foreign work force is not in question or in small
amounts.
Women living in rural areas carry out a big amount of producing activities as
family employee without payment in small family enterprises. In study conducted in
order to determine the factors which affect women participate in agricultural
activities, it has been detected that 70.6% of them participate in agricultural activities
as family employee free of charge besides the housework (Ertürk, 1987). And in a
study conducted to determine the place of women in rural area in Adana, it has been
found that 69.2% of the women are interested in agricultural activities (Sarptürk,
1990). And in another study carried out in order to determine the socio–economic and
cultural place of women in rural area, it has been detected that women mostly work in
agriculture sector and in their own agricultural holdings, that’s they are family worker
without payment (Yıldırak, 1992).
However, it is known that also in big enterprises using paid work force, women
are not out of agriculture and they participate in production. Participation of women in
agricultural activities with low payments or casual can be in question. Especially in
the seasons of planting and harvesting in which agricultural works is extensive,
women can find work with payment or casual (Nazik and nen, 1993; Hasipek et al.,
1995).
3.5. Income State and Income Sources of the Investigated Agricultural
Holdings
The income sources of the agricultural holdings discussed in the research area are
presented in Table 13. When Table 13 is consi dered, while plant production activity
generally take place among the income sources of all enterprises, it is seen that animal
production activities are allowed as well in 81.82% of enterprises. In the research
area, there is small cattle especially sheep and goat.
When the distribution of incomes are studied according to land size groups, as a result
of Chi–Square analyze conducted, it has been detected that income sources are
changing according to the land size groups and this is also important statistically on
95% reliability. Especially as land size gets bigger, income sources of enterprises are
varying more, besides plant production, animal production and retirement pension are
taking more places among income sources.
One of the qualities studied in intra –family relationships is the state that women
have their own property. The stat of women having property happens mostly by the
way of inheritance from their families in our society with patriarchal structure. In the
studies carried out, when the way of how women get property i n the region of study is
investigated, it is detected that the women in big enterprises get more property than
those in small enterprises. It has been detected that there is an important relationship
between the size of enterprise and getting property with Chi-Square analyze and 95%
confidence level (Table 14).
Women’s Role in Sustainable Rural Development: The Case Study …
230
Table 13: Distribution of income sources of the agricultural holdings by farm size groups
Income Sources Farm Size Groups Total
1.Goup 2. Group 3. Group
Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %
Plant Production 6 28.57 1 4.55 0 0.00 7 12.73
Plant and A nimal Prod uct io n 10 47.62 12 54.55 7 58.33 29 52.73
Plant Prod uction, A nimal
Production, and Pension 0 0.00 2 9.09 4 33.33 6 10.91
Plant Prod uction, A nimal
Production, and The Others 3 14.29 6 27.27 0 0.00 9 16.36
Plant Production, and Pension 2 9.52 0 0.00 0 0.00 2 3.64
Pla nt Pro duc tio n, and T he
Others 0 0.00 1 4.55 0 0.00 1 1.82
Plant Prod uction, A nimal
Production, Trade and
Pension 0 0.00 0 0.00 1 8.33 1 1.82
Tota l 21 100.00 22 100.00 12 100.00 55 100.00
Χ
2
: 26.85 DF.:12 p value:0.008 φ:0.70
Statistically significant at 99% confidence level
Table 14: The state of women’s property owners by the farm size groups
Farm Size Groups Total
1. Group 2. Group 3. Group
Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %
Do you
have any
property?
Yes 4 19.05 2 9.09 4 33.33 10 18.18
No 17 80.95 20 90.91 8 66.67 45 81.82
Total 21 100.00 22 100.00 12 100.00 55 100.00
Χ
2
: 3.09 DF.:2 p value:0.21
Statistically significant at 95% confidence level
3.6. The State of Women’s Partic ipation in the Activities in the Investigated
Agricultural Holdings
In t he agricultural holdings existing in the research area, the studies which
women do to improve themselves and the problems faced in this process have been
investigated. It has been asked whether the women participate in any course to
improve themselves and it has been detected that a big amount such as at the average
87,27% of women in the agricultural holdings has not attended any course.
But it has been calculated that this state is not the same in all size groups of
agricultural holdings participation in course programs in big agricultural holdings are
more than the women in small agricultural holdings, the relationship between size
groups of agricultural holdings and the participation in course programs is important
statistically in the result of Chi–Square analyze at 95% confidence level (Table 15).
In the research area, organic strawberry cultivation has been started in 2006 and
families have become adapted to the production of organic strawberries. The adaption
and acceptance of families to the new technologies, the income of organic strawberry
and the share of it in the total income of the households were examined for 2008 when
interviewed and presented table 16. The adaption of the household to organic
strawberry farming varied by t he size of farms and small size farms more quickly
adopted the organic strawberry farming than large size farms were determined by
Cennet Oğuz et al.
231
Variance Analyses and the grouping was done by Duncan Test. The gross margin of
organic strawberry farming per hectare changed and this difference was found
statistically significant at 99% confidence level. Annual margin of organic strawberry
farming per hectare was higher in the agricultural holdings including 1. group t han the
agricultural holdings including 2. and 3. groups.
Table 15: The state of women’s participation to course programs
Farm Size Groups Total
1. Group 2. Group 3. Group
Freque
nc y % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %
Have you
attend to
any course?
Yes 2 9.52 1 4.55 4 33.33 7 12,73
No 19 90.48 21 95.45 8 66.67 48 87,27
Total 21 100 22 100 12 100 55 100
Χ
2
: 6.11 DF.:2 p value:0.05 φ:0.33
Statistically significant at 95% confidence level
Table 16: Transition year to organic strawberry farming (year) and its share in total
inco me b y far mi ng s ize gro ups (%)
1.
Group 2.
Group 3.
Group Total F
Va l ues
The transition year to straw cherry
farming (Year) 1.90 ab 2.09 b 1.67 a 1.93 2.57*
The share of organic strawberry on
house hold inco me ( %) 61.67 b 51.59
ab 40.83 a 53.09 5.14***
* Statistically significant at 90% confidence level** Statistically significant at 95% confidence level
*** Statistically significant at 99% confidence level
3.7. The State of Women’s Satisfaction of Their Lives in The Research Area
Another topic investi gated in the agri cultural holdings in the research area is also
women’s life satisfaction and their anticipation. 76.36% of the women discussed in
the investigated agricultural holdings have stated that they are satisfied with their lives
now.
In the result of Chi–Square analyze, it has been detect ed that there is statistically
an important relationship between their state of satisfaction at the 95% confidence
level and size groups of the agricultural holdings. Especially as the size of agricultural
holding gets bigger, it has been seen that women’s life satisfaction decreases. Here,
the fact that land size amount increases the work load on the women and women take
more place in production emerge as an effective factor (Table 17). The income per EP
(equivalent person) gives the meaningful results than the income per household
member. When considered that different needs of each individual within a family
according to gender and age as the person, the agricultural holdings were divided into
3 groups as equivalent person. While the daily income per EP in the agricultural
holdings having 1-3 EP was 7.81$/EP, the incomes per EP were 5.51 $/EP and 3.89
$/EP respectively in the agricultural holdings having 4-6 EP and 7-+ EP in the
research area. Daily income per EP was found the highest in the agricultural holdings
having 1-3 EP by the result of the Variance Analyses. When the EP increased in the
Women’s Role in Sustainable Rural Development: The Case Study …
232
agricultural holdings, the daily income decreased for per EP (F:5.23 p<0.001) (Table
18).
Table 17: The state of women’s life satisfaction and their anticipation by farming size
gro ups
Farm Size Groups Total
1. Group 2. Group 3. Group
Frequen
cy % Freque
nc y % Frequ
ency % Frequenc
y %
Women’s life
satisfaction and
their
anticipation
Satisfied 4 19.05 6 27.27 3 25.00 13 23,64
Not
Satisfied 17 80.95 16 72.73 9 75.00 42 76,36
Total 21 100..00 22 100.00 12 100.00 55 100.00
χ : 0.42 DF.:2 p value:0.81
Statistically significant at 95% confidence level
Table 18: The income per equivalent person (EP), variance analyses and Duncan grouping
in the research area
Equiva lent P ers on
(EP) The Income Per EP
($/EP) The Number of Agricultural
Holdings
1-3 EP 8.81a 17
4-6 EP 5.51b 23
7 -+ EP 3.89b 15
Average 6.09 55
F Value 5.23***
* Statistically significant at 90% confidence level ** Statistically significant at 95% confidence level
*** Statistically significant at 99% confidence level
In the survey area, poverty level was tried to be calculated with the information
received from the agricultural holdings (August, 2008). According to data of TUIK
(Turkish Statistical Institute), there are 3 different levels based on poverty line in
Turkey, which are $1, $2.15 and $4.30 per day. In this research, if the daily income
per EP in the agricultural holdings was under those levels ($1, $2.15 and $4.30 per
day), we defined the agricultural holdings as poor and in the other case, the
agricultural holdings were not-poor. According to that, the number of agricultural
holdings under the poverty line and above the poverty line and their daily income per
EP were shown in Table 8. When the poverty line was considered as $1, that time
9.09% of total agricultural holdings were under the poverty line. This rate is 25.45%
and 63.64% respectively for $2.15 and $4.30 as poverty line (Table 19).
As poverty is defined, its effects show differences in societ y. Besides, not only is
poverty a problem which interests women but also it can be related to belong to
immigrant groups depending on time and place, definite ethnic groups – minorities or
a specific social class. However, the women and the men who take place in these
groups, live poverty in a different way and the process of poverty affect the women
and the men in different ways. In order to understand women’s poverty, it needs to
express determining properties. According to the researches, women’s poverty has
two determining properties as its place in labor market policy and benefiting from
educational opportunities. Indicators such as the fact that women’s participation in
labor market policy is low, when participation is provided, they are employed in badly
Cennet Oğuz et al.
233
paid works, they are family worker free of charge, they are not involved in income
gained in rural areas, etc. determine these differences. Due to the fact that they do not
benefit from educational opportunities enough, their position in family, their being
secondary in labor market policy, the lack of capacities in organization are among the
reasons of this. At the same time, woman has an important role in the development of
a country.
Tabl e 19: The p overty i ndicators o f the a gri cultural hol di ngs (AH) in the research area
Equiva lent P ers on
(EP)
1$ 2,15$ TL 4,30$
The
Numb. of
AH’s
Average
Income Per
EP ($/Day)
The
Numb. of
AH’s
Average
Income Per
EP ($/Day)
The
Numb. of
AH’s
Average
Income Per
EP ($/Day)
The Agricultural
Holdings Under
The Pove rty Line 5 1.12 14 1.90 35 3.72
The Agricultural
Holdings Below
The Pove rty Line 50 6.59 41 7.52 20 10.23
Average 55 6.09 55 6.09 55 6.09
First of all, a society’s development in social, cultural and economic respects
depend on that individuals consisting the society have equal opportunities. The fact
that individuals benefit from opportunities equally is effective in the development of
society steadily. In development centered studies, sex is seen as a steady approach.
For this reason, in the struggle with poverty, a developmental approach in which sex
is steady is an important point in increasing the welfare of society.
Another part of the survey is setting a model with the women intervi ewed via
public survey to det ermine their efficiency in poverty alleviation. Efficiency in
general describes the extent to which time or effort is well used for the intended task
or purpose and enabling the business to see in which situation. It is also an indicator
for the value of using existing capacity. It is often used with t he specific purpose of
relaying the capability of a specific application of effort to produce a specific outcome
effectively with a minimum amount or quantity of waste, expense, or unnecessary
effort. The increasing of efficiency refers to be reached the outcomes of the business
(economic, social, technological etc.) to the highest level in all sides. Delivering the
outcomes to the highest level in economic and technological ways also increases the
productivity. One of the main aims of the survey is to determine of the women’s
economic efficiency in the working area. The following assumptions were taken into
consideration in determining women’s efficiency. The changes in occurring on per
equivalent person income with change in production and social activities of women in
the agricultural holdings s are different. For this reason, the efficiency of the women
was tried to be calculated as affecting of women activities on poverty alleviation of
the farms by considering the TUIK poverty lines ($1, $2.15 and $4.30 per day). In
Table 20, the variables and model result were presented.
Y dependent variable was taken as TUIK poverty line $2.15 in Binary Logistic
regression. If the agricultural holdings were under this poverty line according to per
equivalent person daily income, we gave the “0” code which showed that these
agricultural holdings were poor, in the other statement was coded as “1”. According
Women’s Role in Sustainable Rural Development: The Case Study …
234
to the analyses results, while the proportion of idle women labor in total idle labor
(%), and total farm land size (Ha) were found as statistically significant at 95%
confidence level, the proportion of agricultural income in total income and the
meeting situation of women with Agricultural Extension Experts were found as
statistically significant at 90% confidence level (Table 20).
When the model is examined, the occurrence of more idle women labor in the
agricultural holdings is a feature of increasing poverty. The probability of the risk
being under the poverty line in the agricultural holdings having more idle women
labor is 0.92 times more than the agricultural holdings having less idle women labor
(Table 20). That means that if the women labor is used effectively, the poverty risk on
the agricultural holdings will be decreased. This is an indicator showing women
power in the research area.
The other variable is the “total farm land size”. This variable is also an indicator
showing the wealth. In theory, increasing of farm size will reduce the risk of the
agricultural holdings staying under the poverty line. In this research similar result was
found. When the reality which the farmers have limited, small and fragmented area,
this is an expected result. According to the analyze, the probability of the risk being
under the poverty line in the agricultural holdings having small land (small farm size)
more than the agricultural holdings having large land (big farm size) (Table 20).
The other important variable is the share of agricultural income in total income.
In this research, the expectation on agricultural income was in side of reducing the
poverty of the agricultural holdings. But, in the model, the sign of this variable is
negative was found. That means that agricultural income is not enough alone to the
alleviation of poverty in the research area. Non-agricultural activities should be
provided to the area as well as agricultural activities. The other factor is the features of
the agricultural holdings in which the share of agricultural income is high in total
income. These agricultural holdings were small size farms and mainly their life
subsistence depended on agricultural activities. This indicator gives the information
about the farm size. If the agricultural holdings had high agricultural income in regard
to total income, their risk staying under the poverty line would be more than the other
situations. The risk was calculated as 0.92 times more.
Significant the other variable is the meeting of women with agricultural
extension experts. Organic strawberry production generally was done by women.
When the contribution of women to this agricultural activity was thought, women are
the key point in side of the sustainability of the activity. One of the key elements of
the sustainability is education. In that state, it is important to determine the target
group, men or women? In that case, the analyze results showed that if the women
meet with agricultural extension experts and also were educated in agricultural
education courses, the risk probability of the agricultural holdings staying under the
poverty line decreases. This refers that in the research area, women should be
integrated into the agricultural education programs.
The other variables involved to the model about women activities which could
affect the poverty status of the agricultural holdings couldn’t be found as statistically
significant at least 90% confidence letter. Participation of women in decision-making
processes can be shown among these variables. Participation of women in decision-
making processes was shown in 3 variables. These were participation on monetary
Cennet Oğuz et al.
235
subjects, participation on non-monetary subjects, and the mutual exchange of ideas.
Lack of statistically significant of these factors could be due to already participation of
the women to the decision-making processes intensively. In other words, the large
number of women participate the decision-making processes could be the most
important reason not to determine the differences sufficiently. Same situation is valid
for the statement of women for being member to agricultural organizations. The small
number of women becoming members of any agricultural organization in the research
area may have prevented identification of lesser differences (Table 20). Except of
these factors, the educational level of the women and the following statement of
media (TV and Radio) by women factors were also found statistically not significant
(Table 20).
Table 20: Bi nary logi sti c regr ess ion a nal yze res ults
Variables Co effi cients Std.
Errors Wald df P
Values Exp (B)
Becoming a member of any Agricultural
Organi zations
Not Member: 0
Member:1
-0.77 1.66 0.22 1 0.64 0.46
Decision Makers on Monetary Issues
Women no t parti cipate to the dec is ions:0
Women par ticipate to the decisions:1
0.10 1.66 0.00 1 0.95 1.10
Decision Makers on Non- Monetary Issues
Women no t parti cipate to the dec is ions:0
Women par ticipate to the decisions:1
-1.85 1.79 1.11 1 0.29 0.16
State to exchange ideas wit h her husband
Not exchange ideas with her h usband:0
Exchange ide as wit h her husb and:1
3.08 2.07 2.21 1 0.13 21.69
The S hare of Idle Women Manpower in
Total Manpower (%) -0.09 0.04 4.60 1 0.03** 0.92
Total Farm Land Size (Ha) 0.50 0.26 3.59 1 0.05** 1.65
The Share of Agricultural Income in Total
Income (%) -0.08 0.04 3.35 1 0.06*** 0.92
The S hare of The Time Women S pending
in Agriculture in Their Total Time (%) 0.03 0.03 0.71 1 0.40 1.03
The Statement of Women Meeting
Extension Specialists
Not Meeting: 0
Mee ting:1
2.01 1.24 2.61 1 0.10*** 7.43
The Educational Level of Women
Illiterate:0
The Other Situation:1
-2.11 1.79 1.39 1 0.24 0.12
The Women Watching TV or Not
Not watching: 0
Watching:1
-2.22 1.55 2.05 1 0.15 0.11
The Women Listening Radio or Not
Not listening: 0
Listening:1
0.56 1.64 0.12 1 0.73 1.76
Constant 10.65 5.59 3.63 1 0.05** 42,188.08
*Significant at 99% confidence level, **Significant at 95% confidence level, *** Significant at 90% confidence
leve l
Women’s Role in Sustainable Rural Development: The Case Study …
236
RESULTS
It can be said that an agricultural development initiative was started in Yaylacık
Village with organic strawberry farming by Konya Provincial Special Administration
and Konya Province Directorate of Food Agricultural and Livestock in 2006. Women,
as always, are the most important figure in that development process. Production of
organic strawberries has started after 2005 and now is one of the main sources of
living in that region. The most important factor affecting the agricultural holdings on
adapting to the organic strawberry farming was and Konya Province Directorate of
Food Agricultural and Livestock activities and then seen organic strawberry farming
as a profitable activity followed was determined. Organic strawberry farming adoption
levels varied by size of farms and small agricultural holdings were adopted more
quickly than large agricultural holdings to the organic strawberries farming.
Determination of decision makers within family and outside in the study area
will help policy makers and practitioners to identify the target audience. Because the
incorrect determination of the target group may lead to the probl ems, which could not
been noticed the first time and may adversel y affect the future of studies and it may
reduce the effectiveness of the studies.
In this context, it was determined that men in the family have the superiority on
income spent, but women have a considerable role in this decision making process
was found in the agricultural holdings surveyed area. It could be said that women and
men made decision together on the subject of raising children, marriage of children,
purchase of goods, plant and animal production and also the other family members
joined the process.
Organizational movement was one of the most important elements in the
participation of women to within family and non-family life activities in the research
area.
The woman having an important role in the decision-makers also plays an
important role in increasing the efficiency of the agricultural holdings with their
organizational movement. For this reason, the agricultural holdings were examined in
side of whether there were women's organizational movements or not, but onl y
12.73% of the women were been found as a member of an organization in the
agricultural holdings average.
The agricultural organizations in which women were members were Village
Development Cooperatives, Irrigation Cooperati ves and The Chamber of Agriculture.
When the organic strawberry f arming were extended and the women had important
role in that were thought, the organic strawberry farming could be an opportunity to
form new initiatives among the women on product processing and marketing and to
become more efficient for women.
In the research area, the women had TV watching habits, in addition to this, they
didn’t have listening to the radio, cell phone use, internet use, reading books,
newspapers etc. habits were found as results of the analysis on related to the women
technology usage level. Media and information technologies are adequate tools for
agricultural extension activities related to the agriculture to reach the women in the
research area. In spite of havi ng seen to reach women via TV-shows, women’s
reluctance to TV programs about agriculture made that option futile. At first stage,
face to face meetings are more efficient than using technology to reach out women in
Cennet Oğuz et al.
237
the survey area. Therefore, even extension experts and agricultural consultants should
play an i mportant role in reaching to the women.
Entrepreneurship of women is also important as well as technology usage of the
women. In the research area, women’s entrepreneurship has an active role in to
improve the current potential and create new sources in organic strawberry
production. Financial resources are the important element in the entrepreneurial
activities. Therefore, in the inspected agricultural holdings, the survey was made on
credit usage of women and it was stated that none of the women interviewed were
using credits.
As a result of the Logistic Regression, it was found that the occurrence of more
idle women labor in the agricultural holdings was a feature of increasing poverty. The
probability of the risk being under the poverty line in the agricultural holdings having
more idle women labor is 0.92 times more than the agricultural holdings having less
idle women labor. Moreover, the poverty risk of the agricultural holdings having
women meeting with agricultural extension experts was 7.34 times less than the others
was calculated.
Under these circumstances, in the research area, production of organic
strawberries can be seen as an important step to take the region’s income level higher.
The result showed that the women who were active in the agricultural holdings were
raising the income level. In addition to this, it was deduced that agricultural extension
experts should establish dialog with the women more for income growth. Strawberry
farming activities being more labor than comparable products, such as the cereals,
provided new employment opportunities in the region. An important opportunity,
especially on the evaluation of the idle labor force was taken. Receive recompense for
labor is important as well as evaluation of work for the future of the region. Therefore,
the increase in demand for the region's organic strawberry should be provided. This is
possible with market accession of more firms.
It is considered that increasing incomes is not single aim but also social
dimension shouldn’t be overlooked in development projects. In that region, there is no
doubt that the production of the organic strawberries increases the work load of
women. This increase in work load should not bring any social nuisances. For this
reason, social dimension of the development project, especially for disadvantaged
groups like women should be investigated and the projects should be directed
according to the results of not only economic but also social.
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Article
Full-text available
The Republic of Turkey occupies a unique geographical and cultural position at the crossroads of Europe and Asia. Turkey has a total land area of 78 million hectares and a population is about 70 million. Approximately one third of the land is arable, and 26 percent of the population lives in rural areas. Since the formation of the modern state of Turkey in 1923, the economy has been grown rapidly. However, economic growth slowed in the mid-1990s in the wake of a fiscal and monetary crisis. There are wide disparities in income between the more prosperous, industrialized parts of the country in the west and south-west, and the less developed provinces in the rest of Turkey. In 2007, gross national income was USD 5500 per capita. Turkey's economy mostly depends on agricultural sector rather than industry and services. Even Turkish industry is commonly agricultural manufacturing, so economic development of Turkey will pick up speed whenever agricultural development exists in Turkey. Agricultural production has to be raised at least double times in Turkey because of the fast growing population In order to feed fast growing population of Turkey, in recent years, modern agricultural technologies, irrigation systems, environment friendly fertilizers, quality seeds, and agricultural credits has being applied in Turkey's agriculture. All those inputs need to be used by knowledgeable farmers in order to get sufficient results. Turkey's farms have been obtained a family business and small scale. Day to day, youths are not interesting in agriculture in Turkey as well as like developing countries. Almost 8 millions employee work in agriculture and about 60% of them are female in Turkey. In agriculture, women have been striving the agricultural activities and besides their house-works. Women are drawers in agricultural development for Turkey. Whenever the women get good education, they could be affecting her husband and children. They can also be very sensitive about their agricultural environmental production. The overall objective of this study was to examine factors influencing accessibility of women to Agricultural Extension Services in Konya. The second purpose of the study was to investigate specific needs and interests of women.
Tarım Ekonomisi Dersleri
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Çakmak, E. H.; Akder, A. H. (2005). DTÖ ve AB'deki Gelişmeler Işığında 21.Yüzyılda Türkiye Tarımı. TÜSİAD Yayın No 2005-06/397, Tepebaşı, İstanbul.
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Ankara İli Yenimahalle İlçesinde Kontrollü Kredi Uygulaması Yapılan Tarım İşletmelerin Planlanması Üzerine Bir Araştırma
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Erkuş, A. (1979). Ankara İli Yenimahalle İlçesinde Kontrollü Kredi Uygulaması Yapılan Tarım İşletmelerin Planlanması Üzerine Bir Araştırma, Ankara Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları, No. 709, Ankara.
Erzurum Bölgesinde Kadının Tarımsal Üretime Katılımı Konusunda Bir Araştırma
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