Ecosystem-Based Approach to Combat Drought and Desertification and Their Relation with Rural Development

Full text

Current Trends in Science and Landscape
Management
Editors
Recep EFE
Murat ZENCIRKIRAN
Jan A. WENDT
Zeynal TUMSAVAS
Halil UNAL
Bilyana BORISOVA
ISBN978‐954‐07‐4338‐7
ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI UNIVERSITY PRESS
SOFIA  2017

2
Editors
Prof. Dr. Recep EFE
Balikesir University,
Faculty of Arts and Sciences,
Department of Geography,
Balıkesir-Turkey
Prof. Dr. Murat ZENCİRKIRAN
Uludag University,
Faculty of Agriculture,
Dept. of Landscape Architecture,
Bursa-Turkey
Prof. Dr. Jan A. WENDT
University of Gdansk,
Faculty of Oceanography and
Geography,
Gdansk-Poland
Assoc.Prof. Dr. Zeynal TUMSAVAS
Uludag University,
Faculty of Agriculture,
Dept. of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition,
Bursa-Turkey
Assoc. Prof.. Dr. Halil UNAL
Uludag University,
Faculty of Agriculture,
Dept. of Biosystems Engineering
Bursa-Turkey
Dr. Bilyana BORISOVA
Sofia University,
St. Kliment Ohridski,
Sofia-Bulgaria
Sofia St. Kliment Ohridski University Press
ISBN 978-954-07-4338-7
The contents of chapters/papers are the sole responsibility of the authors, and
publication shall not imply the concurrence of the Editors or Publisher.
© Recep Efe
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior
permission of the editors and authors.

CONTENTS
Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................ 9
Inclusive Landscape Design to Provide Social Interaction in Urban Spaces
Aysel USLU & Pelin ŞAHİN KÖRMEÇLİ
Chapter 2 ...................................................................................................................... 23
Determining the Visual Pollution of Çukurova University Campus
Deniz ÇOLAKKADIOĞLU & Muzaffer YÜCEL
Chapter 3 ...................................................................................................................... 33
The Determinants in the Design and Implementation Process of Green Roof
Structures
Eyüp ERKUL & Abdullah SÖNMEZ
Chapter 4 ...................................................................................................................... 43
An Alternative Approach to Sustainable City Development: Cittaslow/Slow City
A. Esra CENGİZ, Çiğdem K. AYHAN, Tutku AK, Umut P. TİMUR
Chapter 5 ...................................................................................................................... 63
Cittaslow as a Model for Sustainable Development: A Review of Slow Cities in
Turkey
A. Esra CENGİZ, Çiğdem K. AYHAN, Tutku AK, Umut P. TİMUR
Chapter 6 ...................................................................................................................... 91
A New Research Approach for Past Landscapes: Landscape Biography
Huriye Simten SÜTÜNÇ
Chapter 7 ...................................................................................................................... 99
Evaluation of Coastal Areas in terms of Coastal Landscape and Coastal
Planning
Hilal KAHVECİ & Cengiz ACAR
Chapter 8 .................................................................................................................... 109
Landscape Rehabilitation on Highways: Bartın-Kurucaşile Highway Ahatlar
Location
Pınar BOLLUKCU, Aslı CESUR, Ömer Faruk MERMER
Chapter 9 .................................................................................................................... 121
Determining Ecotourism Circulation Corridors Using GIS in Küre Mountains
National Park, Turkey
Sevgi GÖRMÜŞ
Chapter 10 .................................................................................................................. 139
Edible Landscape
Sevinç BAŞAY
Chapter 11 .................................................................................................................. 145
Innovative Urbanizing City: Garden and Parks in the Future Skyscrapers
Yasemin CINDIK AKINCI, Sara DEMİR, Öner DEMİREL
Chapter 12 .................................................................................................................. 155
Landscape Design and Planning: 3D Printing
Ahmet AKINCI & Yasemin CINDIK AKINCI

4
Chapter 13 .................................................................................................................. 161
A Study on Seseli resinosum Freyn & Sint. Species and Biotopes on the Northern
Anatolian Coastal Landscape: Case of Bartın, Turkey
Yeliz SARI NAYİM
Chapter 14 .................................................................................................................. 169
Assessment of National and International Regulations Related to Environmental
Impacts of Transportation
Muzaffer YÜCEL & Zerrin SÖĞÜT
Chapter 15 .................................................................................................................. 179
Today's Urban Forestry
Yılmaz ÇATAL, Atila GÜL, Ö. Kamil ÖRÜCÜ
Chapter 16 .................................................................................................................. 189
Study of Forgotten Vineyards and Traditional Vineyard Houses in terms of
Cultural Landscape: Case of Nigde
Gülden SANDAL ERZURUMLU & Mertkan Fahrettin TEKİNALP
Chapter 17 .................................................................................................................. 197
Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium L.) Plant with Different Aspects, Its
Cultivation and Breeding
Cüneyt CESUR, Belgin COŞGE ŞENKAL, Hülya DOĞAN, Tansu USKUTOĞLU
Chapter 18 .................................................................................................................. 209
An Alternative Oil Plant: Styrax (Styrax officinalis L.)
Cüneyt CESUR, Belgin COŞGE ŞENKAL, Hülya DOĞAN, Tansu USKUTOĞLU
Chapter 19 .................................................................................................................. 217
Determination of the Outdoor Recreational Potential in Burdur City, Turkey
Latif Gürkan KAYA & Cengiz YÜCEDAĞ
Chapter 20 .................................................................................................................. 229
Attitudes to Protected Areas: A Case of Lake Salda Nature Park in Burdur-
Turkey
Cengiz YÜCEDAĞ & Latif Gürkan KAYA
Chapter 21 .................................................................................................................. 241
Ecovillage Movement in Turkey
Osman ZEYBEK
Chapter 22 .................................................................................................................. 253
Garden Design for Healing at Hospitals
Parisa GÖKER
Chapter 23 .................................................................................................................. 261
DNA Marker Studies in Some Game Birds
E. Dilşat YEĞENOĞLU, Yakut GEVREKÇİ, Meltem SESLİ
Chapter 24 .................................................................................................................. 277
Plant Heat Shock Protein 70 (hsp70 ) as a Biomarker of Environmental Stress in
Plant Production
E. Dilşat YEĞENOĞLU & Şenay AYDIN

5
Chapter 25 .................................................................................................................. 285
The Effects of Organic Substances and Foliar Calcium Applications on
Limonium sinuatum Cultivation in Saline Conditions
Hülya AKAT & Özlem AKAT SARAÇOĞLU
Chapter 26 .................................................................................................................. 297
Evaluation of ‘Sense of Place’ in the Town of Konuralp/Duzce (Turkey)
Ayşegül TANRIVERDİ KAYA
Chapter 27 .................................................................................................................. 313
Environmental Problems and Environmental Awareness
Figen GÜRSOY & Burçin AYSU
Chapter 28 .................................................................................................................. 319
Ecosystem-Based Approach to Combat Drought and Desertification and Their
Relation With Rural Development
Mustafa KAN, Arzu KAN, Cennet OĞUZ
Chapter 29 .................................................................................................................. 343
Capitalizing on the Relationship among Food-related Values, Food-related
Lifestyle and Food-related Behavior for Promoting Healthy Dietary Behavior
among Food Desert Residents
Cihat GUNDEN & Terrence THOMAS
Chapter 30 .................................................................................................................. 357
Investigating the Levels of Job Satisfaction Among The Workers in Forest
Products Industry; Example of Düzce (Turkey)
Derya SEVİM KORKUT, Tarık GEDİK, Muhammet ÇİL, Hanife KARA
Chapter 31 .................................................................................................................. 367
Global Warming and Environmental Education
Emine TEYFUR
Chapter 32 .................................................................................................................. 377
Determination of Biological Diversity of Woody Plants in Kaçkar Mountains
National Park
Ercan OKTAN
Chapter 33 .................................................................................................................. 411
Outdoor Air Quality in Istanbul
Esin BOZKURT KOPUZ, Ayşegül PURSA, Betül YILMAZ,
Eylül OZDEMIR, Dilara OZTURK
Chapter 34 .................................................................................................................. 421
Temporal Change of Forest Areas in Turkey (1926-2015)
Emre ÖZŞAHİN & İlker EROĞLU
Chapter 35 .................................................................................................................. 427
The Role of Beneficial Microorganisms in the Protection of Plants Growing in
Natural Landscape Areas
Fatih ÇIĞ, Murat ERMAN, Mehmet SONKURT, Arzu ÇIĞ

6
Chapter 36 .................................................................................................................. 443
City Centers That Could Not Survive Despite the Urban Transformation: Case of
Tarlabaşı, Istanbul
Hülya BERKMEN & Sırma TURGUT
Chapter 37 .................................................................................................................. 455
The Effects of Fertilising Applications on Flower Yield and Growth in Lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia Miller.)
İnci Sevinç KRAVKAZ KUŞCU, Nurcan YİĞİT, Mehmet ÇETİN,
Ayşe Gül AYDEMİR ÖZCAN, Hakan ŞEVİK
Chapter 38 .................................................................................................................. 463
Methods for Multiple Trait Selection Using in Animal Breeding
Yakut GEVREKÇİ, Meltem SESLİ, E. Dilşat YEĞENOĞLU
Chapter 39 .................................................................................................................. 469
Classical and Modern Breeding Techniques Applied on Tobacco
Meltem SESLİ, Yakut GEVREKÇİ, E. Dilşat YEĞENOĞLU
Chapter 40 .................................................................................................................. 479
Formation Principles of Historic City Systems
Mert Nezih RİFAİOĞLU
Chapter 41 .................................................................................................................. 495
Effects of Chemicals Used in Leather Finishing on Human Health
Meruyert KOIZHAIGANOVA KAYGUSUZ & Nuray Olcay IŞIK
Chapter 42 .................................................................................................................. 509
A Study on the Awareness of Consumers About Safe Food
Muhammed ÇUKADAR
Chapter 43 .................................................................................................................. 519
A Review on the Integration of Ecosystem Service Concept in Decision Making
Nurdan ERDOĞAN
Chapter 44 .................................................................................................................. 531
Organizational Commitment of Forestry Technical Staff: The Case of the
Istanbul Regional Directorate of Forestry
Seçil YURDAKUL EROL & Murat KÖSE
Chapter 45 .................................................................................................................. 543
Various Evaluations on Human Resources Management in Forestry in Turkey
and the State of Technical Forestry Staff
Seçil YURDAKUL EROL
Chapter 46 .................................................................................................................. 563
Life Strategies of Alpine Region Plants in Turkey
Sevda TÜRKİŞ
Chapter 47 .................................................................................................................. 571
Technical Infrastructure and Urban Resilience
Sırma TURGUT & Hülya BERKMEN
Chapter 48 .................................................................................................................. 577
Conservation of Local Fruit Species in Bartın Forest Habitats, Turkey
Yeliz SARI NAYIM

7
Chapter 49 .................................................................................................................. 587
Karstification Conditions and Karstic Landforms in Dim River Basin (Alanya)
Fatma KAFALI YILMAZ & Hülya KAYMAK
Chapter 50 .................................................................................................................. 613
Risk Terrain Modeling (RTM) for Site Selection: The Example of Tekirdağ
Emre ÖZŞAHİN & İlker EROĞLU
Chapter 51 .................................................................................................................. 625
Income-Generating Woody Taxa Used for Afforestation in Arid-Semi Arid
Region: The Case of Turkey
Zafer YÜCESAN & Sefa AKBULUT
Chapter 52 .................................................................................................................. 637
Accessibility of Historical Cities by Individuals Using Wheel Chair: The Case of
Antalya Old Town (Kaleiçi)
Tahsin YILMAZ, Rıfat OLGUN, Faik ŞAVKLI, Zeynep AKBULUT
Chapter 53 .................................................................................................................. 645
Interdisciplinary Convergence: Landscape Planning and Spatial Planning
Disciplines
Oğuz ATEŞ, Bülent YILMAZ, Fürüzan ASLAN
Chapter 54 .................................................................................................................. 655
Monitoring Land Surface Temperature using Landsat 8 Imagery: A Case Study
of Rome – Italy
Hakan OGUZ & Muge OZTURK
Chapter 55 .................................................................................................................. 661
Alternative Energy Potential of Turkey and Relevant Problems
Ünal ÖZDEMİR & Muhammed ORAL
Chapter 56 .................................................................................................................. 671
Global Climate Change - Observed and Projected Impacts on Manavgat
Serkan SABANCI
Chapter 57 .................................................................................................................. 685
The Effects of Ecotourism Activities on Forest Villagers in Duzce
Yaşar Selman GÜLTEKİN & Pınar GÜLTEKİN
Chapter 58 .................................................................................................................. 701
Ecotourism Governance in Basin Scale: An Example of Western Blacksea Basin
Pınar GÜLTEKİN, Osman UZUN, Yaşar Selman GÜLTEKİN
Chapter 59 .................................................................................................................. 717
Outdoor Ozone Concentrations in Anatolian Side of Istanbul
Esin BOZKURT KOPUZ, Duygu ÜÇOK, Melda AKTAR, Mertcan TURGUT
Chapter 60 .................................................................................................................. 725
Ceramic Tile Manufacturing Industry in Turkey within the Scope of Global
Environmental Issues: An Assessment and Review
Özgür CENGİZ

Chapter 28
Ecosystem-Based Approach to Combat Drought and
Desertification and Their Relation with Rural Development
Mustafa KAN1, Arzu KAN1, Cennet OĞUZ2
1Res. Assist.; Ahi Evran University, Agricultural Faculty, Dept. of Agricultural Economics,
Kırşehir, Turkey.
2Prof. Dr.; Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Dept. of Agricultural Economics,
Konya, Turkey.
INTRODUCTION
Drought, a natural climatic event, can be defined in bold outline as fall in amount
of humidity, which gives rise to the scarcity of water. Drought can be meteorologically
as the fall of rainfall below the normal level. In a broader expression, drought can be
defined as “a natural event, which causes land and water resources to be negatively
exposed, and hydrologic balance to deteriorate as a result of the fall of rainfall
considerably below normal levels recorded” (BMÇMS, 1997). Desertification has been
defined in UN Convention to Combat Desertification as a “land degradation formed by
complex interactions between the physical, biological, political, social, cultural, and
economic factors including climatic changes and human activities in the arid, sub arid,
dry-sub humid areas” (UNCCD, 2017, Kannan, 2014). According to this, other than
polar and subpolar zones, when land lose that can form in almost every region of the
earth occurs in the arid, sub-arid, and dry-semihumid lands, it is accepted as
desertification.
Actually drought has not only one definition. It has multidimensional problem and
because of that, Wilhite and Glantz (1985), defined drought in 4 categories as;
meteorological, hydrological, agricultural, and socioeconomic. As the first three
approaches deal with physical phenomenon, the last one deals with drought in terms of
supply and demand, tracking the effects of water shortfall as it ripples through
socioeconomic systems (Fig., 1). Socioeconomic definition of drought is associated
with the supply and demand of some economic products that are related to the
meteorological, hydrological, and agricultural drought (NDMC, 1995)
Drought can occur until humid type of climate independently from time and space.
It is natural that arid climates are more sensitive. Drought slowly develops in general
and its continuity can be long. Therefore, it can be noticed late and, when it is noticed, it
is seen that the area it affects enlarges and that its compensation becomes very difficult.
Besides the decrease of rainfall, the meteorological factors such as temperature, wind,
humidity and, thus, factors such as evapotranspiration directly affect drought.
Gürbüz (2008) defined the problem as a processes such as the decrease of total
rainfall, disorder of rainfall distribution, becoming poor of stream resources, gradually
disappearance of underground water, and stated that excessive temperatures become
widespread and last long, affect not only “the soil, water, or agriculture”, as it is
thought, but also all areas of the life from social processes to economy.

Ecosystem-Based Approach to Combat Drought …
320
Figure 1. Drought types and sequence of it occurrence and impacts (NDMC, 2017)
Since there is a decrease in the production realized and value added created, the
general balances of economy are affected. From the aspect of societies, which cannot
keep adequately balanced diet, and which have deficiency in total production of
vegetable food, drought, which leads the production to decrease, can be a very
important problem of social life. Due to the fact that drought will lead to decrease in
income of rural society, whose livelihood depends on crop production, it can be
resource of another socioeconomic negativity. That providing water, which is the need
of plant, becomes difficult, and falls in the yield leads to the new unnecessary costs in
the use of input. With drought, the need of plant for water will increase much more, a
very important problem with natural resource such as prodigally using the water
resources that decrease will be created (Gürbüz, 2008).
According to UNICEF, from the drought as a result of climatic change, the people
in the poor countries of the world, especially children, are more affected compared to
all the world. While the powerful, rich, and industrialized societies have the financial
resources that can balance the problems, which climatic change can create, the poor
societies are devoid of the necessary resources, which can cope with the food, drought,
famine, and epidemic. Climate change and drought is an important problem of the all
the Nations and to minimize the risk of this problem has been subject to many plans.
One of the world wide action was Millennium Development Goals (8 MDG’s) which
was completed in 2015 and Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) has substituted of
it with 17 Goals. The common point of two action is to combat climate change and

Mustafa KAN et al.
321
mitigate of its negative effects on society (UN, 2017).
In some regions of the world, even though very positive distance was covered, for
example in Sub-Saharan Countries, it can be said that it is difficult to reach these
targets. On the other hand, it is predicted that the scarcity of agricultural production will
mostly affect Africa, South Asia, and Latin America. In the countries such as Zambia,
very serious falls are already now experienced in the rainfalls and, as a result of this,
depending on the disappearance of clean water resources, very dramatic increases are
expected in diseases such as cholera. In Sub-Saharan Africa and South America,
depending on the results of climatic changes, it is foreseen that child deaths may
increase approx.160.000. As stated in the reports of UNICEF, all of these diseases is a
consequence of an increase of less than 1C occurring in the temperatures. With adding
the process experienced in the past and rapidity of the existing environmental pollution
to the present change, it is seen that an increase of 1C to 2C cannot be prevented
(DLG, 2008, UNICEF, 2015).
This study aims to discuss on the relationship of drought and desertification in the
world with rural development; its social dimensions, and actions taken toward this,
depending on the literature review.
DROUGHT AND DESERTIFICATION IN THE WORLD
According to climatic classification of Köppen, climatic zones in the world take
place under the five main headings (Fig.1) These are:
 Tropical climates
 Arid and semiarid climates
 (Temperate climate)
 Continental climates
 Polar climates
Figure 1. World Map and Climatic Zones (Winslow et al., 2004)

Ecosystem-Based Approach to Combat Drought …
322
It can be said that climatic zone, in which the possible effect of drought and
desertification is experienced the most heavily is dry climatic zone. The areas having
this climatic zone are divided into two as areas having desert climate (arid) and areas
having step climate (semiarid) (Pidwirny, 2006).
 Areas having desert climate (dry arid): These areas cover about 12% of the
world and desert plant is compatible with vegetation.
 The areas having this climate correspond to 14% of the earth and vegetation of
these areas is step plants.
Approx. 110 countries having the arid lands face to the potential desertification
danger. United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) predicts that the global cost of
desertification is approx.. USD 42 billion. According to the prediction of Worldwatch
Institute, continents undergo 24 billion toms of the loss of fertile topsoil every year. In
addition, it is accepted that about 30% of lands suffers from desertification in view of
the intensive degradation in arid lands, on which the natural vegetation is sparse
(Türkeş, 2007a).
Desertification has been defined in UN Convention to Combat Desertification as a
“land degradation formed by complex interactions between the physical, biological,
political, social, cultural, and economic factors including climatic changes and human
activities in the arid, sub arid, dry-sub humid areas” (UNCCD, 2017). Desertification
both occur more frequently and become more effective in the lands, which have a total
of low rainfall, insufficient water resources, long arid seasons, repetitive drought events,
loose surface material, and fine soil layer, and which is covered sparse and also
sensitive vegetation. The factors associated with climate such as very intensive drought
events can lead to an increase in affectability of land from desertification and
acceleration of desertification process. In fact, the drought and wrong land management
are a result of combination and incompatibility of between the use of land and water
and soil and dominant climate. In addition, it should not be forgotten that desertification
also affects the local and global climate. At the present days, the lands, in which there
are the real deserts and areas inclined to desertification, cover about 47% of the lands of
the earth. Another feature of these areas is that the human population per km
2
of these
area ranges between 5-50 (Fig. 2) and that they form the areas, in which the poor people
are present the most densely (Fig. 3).
Figure 2. The density of human populations living in arid areas in the world
(persons/km
2
) (GRID, 2017)

Mustafa KAN et al.
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Combatting drought and desertification also includes combatting poverty. If it is
considered that the poor people in the world mostly live in the rural areas, it can be said
that rural development policies form an important leg in this combat. In particular, the
emergence of the term “development” as a “sustainable development” in the Rio
Summit at the international level in 1992 indicated that the facts of the environment,
climate, agriculture, development and poverty should be assessed together in the rural
area and should be evaluated of the strategies in this framework.
Figure 3. World poverty map and distribution of the population by countries (The
World Bank, 2015).
The first international initiatives to combat desertification have begun when the
great Saharan drought ends in the period of 1968-1974 in which dates 200.000 people
and millions of animals died. Desertification has been one of the important subjects of
United Nation Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio in
1992. As a results of the studies lasting about two years, “UN Convention on
Combating Desertification (UNCCD) in the Countries, influenced from Intensive
Drought or Desertification” was accepted in Paris in June 1994. Turkey, on the other
hand, became a party to the UNCCD in March 1998, which entered into force in
December 1996. Now, 195 parties of the Convention’s work together aiming to
improve the living conditions of the people living in drylands, to restore and maintain
land and soil productivity, and to mitigate the effects of drought. The UNCCD is
particularly committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local
people in combating desertification and land degradation.
The effect of drought on agriculture shows itself as a decrease in agricultural
production. The reflections that the drought in the world, experienced in the years of
2006-2007, generates on foreign trade, as a result of fall in agricultural production, are
presented in Fig. 4. Increased demand on the food supply has caused the price of food
to rise. Between 2007 and 2008, world prices of food commodities rose dramatically.
One of the main reasons of The Global Food crises are the drought and desertification.

Ecosystem-Based Approach to Combat Drought …
324
As will also be seen from the map, it can be said that this increase occurs in the
countries in arid and semiarid climates, where the poverty is mostly experienced. But
there is a reality that rising prices will improve the trade balance of major food
exporters, but major importers stand to see a greater deficit. This situation can be seen
in the map.
Figure 4. 2007-2008 Impact of projected food price increases on trade balances (IMF,
2008)
As a result, it can be said that the effect of drought and desertification on the
population living in the rural area and mostly live off agriculture is higher than other
areas. Therefore, it points out that the approaches to be dealt with should be
multidimensional; and solutions, integrated and broad participation. In that time
different approaches have emerged and one of them is the integrated ecosystem
approach setting relation with all ecosystem components (e.g. human activities, habitats
and species, and physical processes). The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
defines the ecosystem approach as “a strategy for the integrated management of land,
water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an
equitable way” (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2000)
Integrated Approach In Combating Drought And Desertification
Desertification, drought, and poverty create mistrust and trouble for the arid areas
of especially African and Asian Countries. According to UN Convention to Combat
Desertification (UNCCD), 250 million of people in the world suffer from
desertification, and 250 millions of people are under risk. Desertification, beyond loss
of productivity, brings together with it the problems such as social alienation and
confliction, atmospheric pollution, and impairment of global fresh water and seas.
According to a study, carried out by International Council for Science on environmental
problems, it is reported that among 37 problems, which are necessary to be considered
in 21st century, the problem with desertification and destruction of forestry areas comes
in the third order. It is stated that the income loss in view of desertification is about $2

Mustafa KAN et al.
325
billion. UNCCD defines desertification as “land fragmentation forming in view of the
various causes including climatic changes and human activities in the arid, semiarid,
and semi humid areas”. Especially as an inappropriate example for the use of land in the
most common way, the applications of excessive tillage soil, overgrazing, decrease of
forests, and wrong irrigation are shown (Weis, 2000). The soils have begun to fall into
decay at the alarming level (Saiko and Zonn, 2000; Türkeş and et al., 2000). Vegetative
drought fragments the poor societies and weaken, and the decrease of water supply
triggers the fragmentation of land as a result of that the vegetative assembly on the soil
begin to disappear and causes the existing resources to expire. There are many factors
affecting desertification. Among these, some points such as unpredictable effects of
fragile soils, drought, press of animal production, geological erosion decrease of
nutritive elements, increasing population, problems with land production, lack of land,
unbalance of resource distribution, insufficient infrastructure and access to market, and
ignorance of agricultural and environmental study systems by the politicians can be
counted. Due to the complexity of the causal factors given, if an improvement is desired
in the life of people, it is necessary to form the integrated approach with a wide
stakeholder
Especially in the areas, in which the resources are less, and desertification is
intensive, how can poverty be reduced and how can the poor people manage to survive
in food security without leading to more permanent destructions? These two questions
form the social dimension of the drought and desertification and the actions to be taken
should be formed in this framework.
To give the answers and to find the best solution to these questions, we need think
multi-dimensional plans covering all the components. We know that such as poverty,
food security, rural development, environment, human etc all of them are connecting
each others and if we mitigate climate change’s negative effects especially on rural
society, we should consider all ecosystem components in the same bowl. It means that
we should manage the ecosystem in the integrated approach.
Ecosystem management has been formally around since at least the introduction of
conservation ethics by Aldo Leopold in 1966 as a concept (Czech, 1996; Czech and
Krausman, 1997; FAO, 2003). It emerged at global level in the 1970s, initially boosted
by the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment and strengthened by the
1992 CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) and UNCED (Conference on
Environment and Development) and the CBD definition for the ecosystem approach
was developed through a number of seminars and workshops between 1995 and 2000
(Smith and Makthby, 2003). The term is usually used in the form of “ecosystem
approach to…” as, for instance, in the ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF) or to
environmental protection (Gonzalez, 1996). Such an approach “recognizes explicitly the
complexity of ecosystems and the interconnections among its component parts”
(Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 2002).
The 1992 UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and defines the
“ecosystem approach” as “Ecosystem and natural habitats management… to meet
human requirements to use natural resources, whilst maintaining the biological
richness and ecological processes necessary to sustain the composition, structure and
function of the habitats or ecosystems concerned. Important within this process is the
setting of explicit goals and practices, regularly updated in the light of the results of
monitoring and research activities” (Garcia et al., 2003). The ecosystem approach

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concept is included within national level guidelines produced by governments (Holliday
and Gautam, 2005). FAO (The Food and Agriculture Organization) has been leading
globally and has produced technical guidelines (FAO, 2003) which are referenced
within many of the regional and national strategies (Garcia and Cochrane, 2005;
Holliday and Gautam, 2005)
Ecosystem-based approach can be used to put integrated solution together with
many subjects such as marine system management, rangeland management, drought
management, forest management, desertification management, flood management,
climate change management, water resource management etc. Dryland management,
water management, forest management etc. becomes ecosystem management when all
the elements that constitute it and interactions are handled together. The terminology is
less important than the understanding that a coherent whole, whatever its form, should
encapsulate the best compromise available between resources and users (Shepherd,
2008). Every subject and also every region need specific guidelines and principles to
use ecosystem-based approach, and there are many samples in this area (Shepherd,
2008; Doswalt and Osti, 2011; Roy et al., 2011, Andrade et al., 2012; White et al.,
2012, Vignola et al., 2015)
Drought and desertification are closely related phenomena. While drought is a
natural phenomenon, effects can be further exacerbated by unadorned human activities.
Land degradation is the process of converting fertile soils into less or inefficient land. In
extreme cases in drylands this is called desertification (European Union, 2016).
Depending on climate change, the drought frequency, duration and severity are
expected to increase in many parts of the world. Such changing conditions, especially in
the fragile dry areas of the world, increase the pressure on the land. This can lead to
land degradation and desertification, which in turn increases poverty. Under this
framework, in the arid ecosystems, considering the natural and agricultural elements
together, it is necessary to form an integrated approach for a sustainable development.
Therefore, Integrated Ecosystem Approach (same concept with Ecosystem-Based
Adaptation Approach) is supported by World Resources Institute and United Nations
Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD, 2014; White and et al., 2002) especially
for the arid areas and process of United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCDD).
In developing countries where economies and livelihoods depend largely on
ecosystem services, policies for adaptation to climate change should take into account
the role of these services in increasing the resilience of society. In this aim, the key
messages from an international workshop on “Adaptation to Climate Change: the role
of Ecosystem Services” held in November 3–5, 2008 in the International Centre for
Tropical Agriculture Research and Higher Education (CATIE) in Turrialba, Costa Rica
are important in the regards of EbA (Figure 2). This strategy can be adapted to many
themes to find solution for many problem as coming together all stakeholders.
Under these thoughts, in the arid ecosystems, considering the natural and
agricultural elements together, it is necessary to form an integrated approach for a
sustainable development. Therefore, Integrated Ecosystem Approach (same concept
with Ecosystem-Based Adaptation Approach) is supported by World Resources
Institute and United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD, 2014;
White and et al., 2002) especially for the arid areas and process of United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCDD).

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The thought of integrated ecosystem is related to the approach of natural resource,
and attracted attention of many people especially in the last quarter center (McNeely
and Scherr, 2003). This approach has mostly emerged with supporting environmental
friendly approaches in agricultural production and, when the participation of farmers is
added to this, the approach of farm system has occurred. In this process, in a broader
framework, the reflections of agro-ecology (Altieri, 2002), agro-forestry (Leakey,
1999), and integrated natural resource management (CGIAR, 2004) have been also
added to the natural and agricultural elements.
Figure 2. Key messages to stakeholders related to ecosystem-based adaptation (EBA)
(Vignola et al., 2009)
The integrated ecosystem approach, on the other hand, is based on a system that
addresses different types of land use on the field. This approach also considers the
resource flow and balance between the different uses. Diversity and risk assessment are
important in this approach. The differences between the traditional and Integrated
Ecosystem approach are presented in Table 1.
For application of Integrated Ecosystem approach, the program of Desertification,
Drought, Poverty and Agriculture (DDPA), established in CGIAR, prioritized the
following study subjects toward solution of problems associated with the poor people
living tin the arid and desert areas (Figure 3). These are (Anonymous, 2002, Thomas et
al., 2005):
1. Understanding and coping with drought risk and land degradation,
2. Integrated ecosystem approach for the sustainability of agricultural and
ecological services,
3. Policy and institutional options for combating drought and desertification,
4. Benefiting from genetic resources to combat drought and desertification,
5. agricultural diversification increasing income to foster more sustainable land
use and improve livelihoods,

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6. Increasing impact by using technology such as ICT and knowledge for
development strategy
Table 1. Distinguishing features of conventional vs. integrated ecosystem approaches to
agricultural research and development
Aspect Conventional Approach Integrated Ecosystem Approach
Perspective
Natural ecosystems seen as
input suppliers (land, fertility
etc.) for current or future
commodity production
Natural and managed ecosystems
viewed as part of one interdependent
whole, providing a wide range of
goods and services
Strategy
Maximize yield, production,
and net present value by
intensifying the use of land,
labor, and capital
Optimize total ecosystem goods and
services output over time
Products A few commodities or
products
A wide array of both managed and
natural goods and services
Scales of work Political and ownership
boundaries
Ecosystem and landscape, societal plus
biophysical
Methodology
Reductionist: high-resolution
measurement of a small
number of factors
System-oriented, including both
quantitative and qualitative
assessments with close attention to
interactions, flows, asset balances,
tradeoffs
Approach to
diversity
Reduce diversity for more
predictable results, more
targeted interventions, and
greater economies of scale
Take advantage of diversity to exploit
niche potential, meet a wider range of
needs, preserve future options, and
reduce total system risk.
Role of science
Applied science focused on
biophysical resources, geared
towards specific technology
outputs
Combine biophysical with social
analysis, include policy and social
context, create prototypes and models
of development processes for local
adaptation
Source: Winslov et al., 2004
The Program of Desertification, Drought, Poverty, and Agriculture (DDPA) differs
from the past attempts to combat drought and desertification. These differences are;
(Anonymous, 2002):
 The new approach considers the complex interactions between social, political,
technical, financial, environmental, cultural and other dimensions,
 The new approach takes into account the sustainable provision and valuation of
services that provided by healthy ecosystems to rural poor and other segments of
society,
 The new approach look outside the box including more biodiverse agricultural
systems and new small enterprises. It pursuits of diversified livelihood opportunities,
 The new approach gives more importance to research and innovation,
 The new approach emphasizes on policy and institutional constraints and their
resolution,
 The new approach defends participatory involvement at all levels,

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 The new approach is based on broad participation,
 The new approach is based on close cooperation between agriculturists and
ecologists.
 The new approach is particularly focused on using key new opportunities such as
biotechnology and information technology.
 In the new approach, the scale to be studied is carefully determined, and this
scale includes the outcomes that should result in more effective adoption.
Figure 3. Interactions of Drought, Desertification and Agriculture (Integrated
Ecosystem Approach) (Anonymous, 2002)
When the approach of CGIAR related to combating, drought, desertification and
poverty is examined, it can be concluded that international and interdisciplinary
cooperation is necessary in combating these problems in the world. When considered
that drought and desertification have many dimension, it is evident that its solution also
wants a multidimensional integrated approach.
Regional Approaches in Combating Desertification and Drought in The
World
In combating desertification and drought, in the world, in either many developed
or developing countries or region, the different regional approaches are used. With the
approaches applied in combating, there can be social, economic, and ecological
differences. The similarities and differences in these approaches used present the
different opinions and lessons for societies. When all of these approaches are examined,
all of them have the common aspects and differences.
Some examples regarding combating drought and desertification are as follows:
Drought and desertification form an important problem in South America,
Northeast Brazil (Candido et al., 2002; Oliveira, 2000), Gran Chaco region of
Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay (Eger and Prem, 2002), and many Caribbean

Ecosystem-Based Approach to Combat Drought …
330
Islands. This state shows a need for multinational and international cooperation. In the
rural areas such places, there are some troubles of political power and scientific study.
NGOs have become important organizations in presenting small sized problems in
Northeast Brazil (Soccal, 2000).
One of the most interesting examples associated with desertification is seen in
Haiti Island (White and Jickling, 1995; Weiner, 2004;). This example has alarming
quality for the other countries and shows how anything can be wrongly done. With
beginning of forestry areas to disappear, resulted from bad policies, weak management,
and overpopulation, the protective vegetation has begun to disappear in these areas;
erosion hills have formed; and the problems with poverty, famine, and disease have
begun to increase and spread. Although this area has a crowded population, the troubles
related to right of land property has been a point impeding land improvement in Haiti.
Beside this, the troubles of poverty and management constitute the other problems
(Smucker et al., 2002). In Jamaica near it, the problem with destruction of forestry areas
is experienced (Weis, 2000)
West Asia and North Africa have an increasing population density but a limited
cultivable land. This problem causes a competition about valuing scarce resources of
land for cultivating culture plants and using as pastureland. That irrigation potential is
limited, and the existing resources of land are not properly used are of other problems.
Beside this, the problem with salinization, overgrazing, and over tillage keeps
seriousness, and press of agriculture on environment increases (Oram, 1998; El-
Beltagy, 1999; Abahussain et al., 2002). Droughts are frequently experienced and form
a big threat. During drought, agricultural production decreases and farms engaging in
breeding are obliged to sell their animals in very low price due to forage and water
scarcity. The government is in active for supporting the produces experiencing problem
due to drought. But, the case that these supporting activities are continuous forms a
serious danger. For, the farmers know that the government will help them, when they
experience problem related to drought, and this causes the production to increasingly
continue. As a result, this case reveals the problem with more intensive use of land, fall
of land yield, and degradation of land structure Another problem is that the rich farms
want to benefit from these supports (Hazell et al., 2001). Against this case, it was
thought of that private sector applies rainfall insurance in the area may be an alternative
solution. So, if the land owners want to protect themselves, they themselves will both
put up with insurance expenditures and obtain its benefit by themselves.
In an international conference, some discussions were made for providing
environmental sustainability equality, and economic growth in the region (Oram, 1998).
As a result, it was concluded that studies should be carried out on 4 main subjects.
These are related to taking urgent actions about liberalization in market, reform about
property right, drought management, and pastureland improvement
The dry countries of Central Asia are among the countries facing drought and
desertification risk. The central planning and public farming system of the former
Soviet Union caused destructions on the environment. In this system, heavy
mechanizations techniques were used, the local tradition was eliminated, and local
knowledge, which have provided sustainable production in these areas for years, was
ignored (Casermeiro and Azhigaliyev, 2001; Durikov and Winckler 2001; Pavlov et al.,
2001; Holzel et al., 2002).
The environmental disasters experienced in the basin of Aral Sea (Saiko and Zonn

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2000; Mainguet et al., 2002; World Bank, 2003) are the most important examples
showing the bad results of up-to-down planning. For example, in terms of cotton, for
being able to provide self- sufficiency, the beds of streams flowing to Aral were
modified. It caused the problems such as drying of sea zone, salinization, pollution of
waterways, disappearance of local vegetation and biodiversity, salt sand storms,
disturbance of ecology and economy
As a result, Asian countries, newly gained their independencies, face to the
problems with salinization, erosion, degradation of pasturelands, loss of biodiversity,
and loss of local cultures and traditions. The historical dependency of the governments
on central movement, uncertainties in the current administration, and legal structure
prevent the individuals and societies from combating desertification (Durikov and
Winckler 2001). Poverty in the serious dimensions, inconstant political structures, and
severe conflictions weaken the solution resources and capacities toward removing the
risks in the countries such as Afghanistan (Saba, 2001). Collapse of Soviet system,
together with ending of many activities, may allow for some ecosystem elements to be
repaired (Holzel et al., 2002).
When South Asia is compared to Sub-Saharan Africa, it has a higher rate in terms
of population density and this state forms a serious press on the land. Especially India,
which forms a large part of South Asia, has the arid and dry areas. Throughout Thar
Desert, in the farms, due to the inheritance system in the farms, every average 20-30
years, the lands are inherited to the children by their fathers and, because of this, the
lands are divided into two every time. This causes fragmentations of lands and food
scarcity (Ram et al., 1999). On the other hand, this high population constitutes
inexpensive labor force, scientific and technical resources, and urban markets, which
can provide land rehabilitation under the suitable conditions.
Desertification and drought is the subjects, which gave paid attention for long
times, and many studies are carried out on this subject. (Rao et al., 2000). Just as in
Africa, in the mid- 20th century, although the projects were in techno- centric approach,
yield solutions are not generally compatible with the local solutions, local conditions,
and priorities.
In India, in the development of dry areas, especially in the suitable areas, in the
success obtained in the production of wheat and paddy, the importance of movement,
known as Revaluation, is great. But, it cannot be said that the previously taken lessons
are completely applied in the dry areas in full meaning. Among these, that the producers
do not sufficiently invest on irrigation and other inputs, the troubles in accessing to the
developed applications, inadequate credit units, bad roads, and other deficiencies of
infrastructure can be shown as the leading problems. For example, that many producers
avoid fertilizing to be able get higher yield from wicker can be shown among these
problems, because producers sees as priority the straw yield for their animals rather
than grain yield and do not want to fertilize (Asokan et al., 1998).
For the different thoughts, in 1950s, the watershed approach has begun to stand out
(Samra and Eswaran 2000; Lobo and Samuel 2001). In 1987, after the drought
experienced across the country, the approach of development by accumulating water
has gained more acceleration. In 1990s, forming water accumulating basins formed
important points of rural development investments across the country and an annual
budget of $ 450 million is allocated for it (Farrington et al., 1999). This approach has
also become a model for the countries such as Thailand, Vietnam, and China.

Ecosystem-Based Approach to Combat Drought …
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The Actions Taken in Combating Drought and Desertification in Turkey
Depending on a temperature increase that may occur in the global dimension that
important variations occurs in climate is unavoidable. The results of this variation can
be predicted as melting of land and sea icebergs, sea level rise, change of the borders of
climatic zones, and increase of extreme meteorological events and diseases depending
on these (IPCC, 1996; Türkeş, 1996; Türkeş et al., 1999; Sipahioğlu, 2007). These
events will emerge in very different way regionally and temporally. For example,
hurricanes seen in some regions of the world, while increases occur in intensity and
frequency of meteorological disasters such as strong rainfalls, and floods and overflows
occurring depending on these, in some countries, desertification as well as long term
and intensive droughts can be seen (Sipahioğlu, 2007).
Turkey is located in Mediterranean Climatic Zone, seen in the west regions of
subtropical zone continents. It is a country, which is surrounded by seas from three
sides whose average altitude is around 1,100 m, and which has very different
topographical and geographical structure. In addition, all air masses known affect
Turkey. Although Turkey generally takes place in Mediterranean Climatic Zone, it is
also a country, in which many types of sub- climate are experienced. Turkey, in this
complex climatic structure, is the leading country, which can be most affected from the
climatic change (Sipahioğlu, 2007)
Turkey will be affected from the decrease of water resources, forest fires, drought,
and desertification, which can especially be seen depending on global warming, and
ecological degradations as a consequence of these. Essentially, drought, which is a
problem, determined by the processes such as “decrease of total rainfall, decrease of
rainfall distribution balance, becoming poor of stream resources, gradually
disappearance of underground water, becoming widespread and lasting long of
excessive temperatures”, as it is thought, affects not only soil, water, and agriculture but
also all areas of the life from social processes to economy. According to Türkeş et al.
(2001), the environmental and socioeconomic problems a possible climatic change may
cause in Turkey can be summarized as follow.
• Increase in the time and intensity of hot and arid cycles will accelerate drought
and desertification as well as the events such as salinization and erosion
• As a result of climatic zones shift to North, Turkey can remain under the effect of
the warmer and arid climatic conditions
• The new problems will be added to the problem with the existing water resources
of Turkey; great troubles will be experienced in drinking and using water.
• Agricultural production potential can be changed. (This change, together with the
regional and seasonal differences, can be in the form in increase of decrease according
to the species).
• Terrestrial ecosystems and agricultural production systems can be suffered from
the increase in insects and diseases.
• The increase in temperature will make negative effects on the human and animal
health and the rates of disease and death rates, resulted from excessive temperature, will
increase.
• Depending on sea level rise, the low areas, in which the dense settlement places
and tourism and agricultural areas of Turkey take place, will remain under water.
• In the areas, covered by the seasonal snow and permanent ice cover, depending
on melting, in the events of snow avalanches, flood, and overflow, increase will occur.

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• The changes in sea flows will create negative effects on sea ecosystems and sea
products will decrease.
In another study done by Baglee et al., (2013), the effects of climate change in
Turkey was summarized as;
• Temperature increases everywhere in all seasons, but the increases are larger in
summer than winter,
• Decreases in annual precipitation amounts in southern parts of Turkey, and
possible slight increases in the northeast,
• More intense precipitation events, increasing the risks of fluvial and pluvial
flooding, together with landslides,
• Increased intensity and duration of droughts and hot spells to increased water
stress, and
• Rising sea levels, increasing the risks of flooding in low-lying areas of river
deltas and coastal cities.
Flood and Drought are two main water issues in Turkey. These natural disasters
are a result of the global warming and climate change and their destructive power are
damaging in larger scales than those happened in the past. They can have the results in
social and economic sides. These unpleasant occurrences add to the burden of water
administration in the semiarid zones such as in Turkey.
A change, which can be seen in global climate, will differently affect the various
regions of Turkey. It is reported that in the regions of Central Anatolian, South East
Anatolian, Aegean, Mediterranean regions of Turkey, which have semiarid and semi
humid climatic feature especially in the threat of desertification, more negative results
will be seen in terms of agricultural, forestry, and water resources (DPT, 2000).
Responsible Ministries about drought and desertification in Turkey are Ministry of
Forestry and Water Affairs and Ministry of Food Agriculture and Livestock (Fig., 4).
National organizations related to disaster management which are responsible for
reducing or preventing the effects of drought and water scarcity in Turkey are: Water
Management Coordination Board (SYKK), Central Committee for Watershed
Management (HYMK), Agricultural Drought Management Coordination Board
(TKYKK) and Disaster and Emergency Services Coordination boards (MoFWA, 2015).
Agriculture is an important economic sector for Turkey. Because of its dependence
on natural condition, it makes this sector sensitive and strategic. Agriculture is an
important resource for nutrition and employment. Despite the use of intensive
technologies in production models and the increase in agricultural productivity, natural
disasters and their frequency of occurrence are increasing day by day by the effects of
climate change. According to scenarios developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC), threats that will probably increase in natural disasters such as
heat waves, droughts, forest fires, heavy rains and tropical storms. When compared to
other natural disasters, drought is a natural disaster that is difficult to manage. All
disasters can result in losses in agricultural production (plant, animal and aquaculture
production) because of its dependence to nature highly. This risk can threaten the
sustainability of agricultural production (Özevren et al., 2013). Because of that
agricultural drought is important problem for Turkish economy and society.
Since the negative effect of drought on agriculture will show itself in the form of
decrease in the production realized and value added created, the general balances of
economy are affected. In terms of societies, which do not keep balanced and sufficient

Ecosystem-Based Approach to Combat Drought …
334
diet, and which have deficiencies in their total vegetable productions, drought leading
the production to decrease can become a very important social life problem. Drought
can be the source of another negativity due to decrease it will lead to in the income of
the rural society, whose livelihood depends on vegetable production. That supplying
water the plant needs becomes difficult and that yield falls lead to unnecessary costs in
the use of agricultural input. Due to drought, since the need of plant for water will also
increase, a very important problem with “natural resource consumption” will be created.
Figure 4. Scheme of Responsible Authorities for Drought and Desertification in Turkey
Although the problem with drought is the source of many economic and social
problem, it shows its effect on especially agriculture and rural area, depending on this.
Since the negative effects of global warming will also be seen on the other regions of
Turkey, especially Central Anatolian and Southeast Anatolian Regions (DPT, 2000), it
is evident that it will negatively affect the life of the people living in these regions,
especially rural areas. Among these negative effects, the leading one is the acceleration
of desertification process due to the increase of poverty, and press on the farms.
In Turkey, in the scope of combating drought, the various studies have been
carried out and the precautions have been taken. One of them is on the agricultural
drought. The Decision on Procedures and Principles of Activities for Combatting
Agricultural Drought and Drought Management has put into force on 8th of July, 2007
by publishing on Official Gazette and under this decision “Regulations on Agricultural
Drought Management Duties and Working Procedures and Principles” has been
published on 02 March 2008 dated Official Gazette and in line with this regulations the
first 5 year Agricultural Drought Combating Strategy and Action Plan for 2008-2012
period and the second one for 2013-2017 were prepared and put into the force.
The aim of this Regulation was determined as reducing the effects of agricultural
drought possible to be experienced, and regulating the duties, and working methods and
principles of Agricultural Drought Management formed for combating agricultural
drought. Agricultural Drought Management Coordination Board has been established
under the leadership of Undersecretary of Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock
with the participation of representatives from related Directorates, non-governmental
organizations and universities and has begun its activities. With this boar, in the center
Monitoring, Early Warning and Prediction Committee and Risk Assessment Committee
•GD of Water Mangement
•GD of Meteorology
•GD of State Water Affairs
•GD of Combatting Desertification
and Erosion
Ministry of Forestry and
Water Affairs
•GD of Agricultural Reform
•GD of Agricultural Research and
Policies
Ministry of Food
Agriculture and Livestock

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and at the Provincial Level; Agricultural Drought Crisis Centers under Governors'
Presidency have established. Management chart is indicated in Figure 5.
The duties of Agricultural Drought Management Coordination Board are
summarized as:
a) Preparing action plan for combating drought and providing its implementation;
b) Providing cooperation between the institutes and organizations in combating
agricultural drought;
c) Examining the reports and suggestions coming from risk assessment committee
and making application decision in the scope of action plan for combating agricultural
drought;
d) Monitoring, supervising the application of action plan for agricultural drought,
and evaluating the results taken
e) Eliminating the problems, associated with the financial, administrative, technical,
and social subjects which will be faced in implementation of agricultural drought action
plan; and
f) Preparing the drafts regarding the law, regulation, and other sub-regulations and
make suggestions.
Figure 5. Scheme of Agricultural Drought Management (IDMP, 2017)
In the second Plan, actions have been taken in broad perspective to reduce the
effects of drought. The Strategy for Combatting Agricultural Drought and the Action
Plan not only include measures to be taken in years when there is a drought, but also
measures to be taken under normal conditions. In the years of drought, drought activity
for dry and irrigated agricultural areas consists of 4 steps. These (GTHB, 2013);
Step 1; Preparation for drought,
Step 2; Drought alert,

Ecosystem-Based Approach to Combat Drought …
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Step 3; Urgent action,
Step 4; Restriction
Watershed Management Models can be an example for ecosystem-based
management plan in the context of combating climate change in Turkey. Through its
State Planning Organization (SPO), the Government of Turkey has started to prepare a
National Basin Management Strategy (NBMS) to inform its longer-term investment
program in watershed rehabilitation and water management and ensure that such
investments meet key objectives, including livelihood support and income generation,
conservation and sustainability of natural resources, reduced vulnerability to climate
change, and fiscal efficiency. The preparation of the strategy builds on a few General
Directorate of Afforestation and Erosion Control (AGM)-led rehabilitation projects as
well as a pilot watershed management project (including the ongoing World Bank-
financed Anatolia Watershed Rehabilitation Project, and the EU-financed Capacity
Development Assistance for Water Sector in Turkey), and the work by the General
Directorate of Environmental Management (GDEM) on Watershed Protection Action
Plans for Turkey’s 25 river basins (MoEF and WorldBank, 2010).
CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, drought and desertification is the leading problem among the
environmental and climatic problems experienced all over the world. In Turkey, due to
the drought global climatic change brings together with it and, associated with this,
either the problems related to land fragmentation in our law of inheritance or wrong
applications and population press on the land, the problems with desertification that
emerge is the leading one among the important problems. In a country, like Turkey, 25
% of whose population provide their, livelihoods from agriculture, this case increases
the importance of the problem much more. That 32.18% of the people living in these
areas live below poverty line makes it necessary to add policies for solving the problem
of poverty. Therefore, the actions to be taken and solution strategies should be
determined and carried out in integrated approach and in a platform, in which a
participative approach and a large group of stakeholder are present. In addition,
prediction of drought and drought center, improvement of drought –tolerant plant,
national water management, accelerating scientific biotechnological studies, much more
use of information systems, formation of a national network, use of suitable techniques
for providing sustainability in agriculture, and studies on sustainable development can
be put in order as some actions, which will be able to be taken.
The management of arid areas in Turkey, where drought is so distressing, is an
important part of the strategy to combat drought. According to climate classification,
Turkey is generally located in the arid, semi-arid and semi-humid climate zone. The
areas of semi-arid and arid climate cover about 65% of the country's area. For this
reason, it is very important to ensure sustainable use of these areas, which are suffering
from water shortages. Administrative, technical and financial measures are inevitable in
order for dry land management to be carried out in line with the use and conservation
principles.
Turkey has taken significant steps in the combatting against climate change and
drought and desertification, both of which are the most important consequences of
climate change. Turkey, having important capacity both legally and institutionally,
needs to integrated management structure, especially in arid and semi-arid areas, to

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combat drought and desertification. Although the management organization in the
context of combating agricultural drought may be seen as an integrated agricultural
drought management system that brings together all stakeholders, it is difficult to say
that it has an effective management and decision-making capacity, including all
ecosystem services. Although Turkey have considerable amount of knowledge and
technical capacity, there is lack of coordination between the institutions. For this reason,
ecosystem-based functional management systems need to be planned separately,
especially in areas where significant droughts are experienced. In this context,
watershed-based drought and flood plans prepared by the Ministry of Forestry and
Water Affairs, General Directorate of Water Management, Flood and Drought
Administration Department are important in terms of ecosystem-based approach. But
these models need to be dynamic rather than static.
In order to promote the role of ecosystem services in societal adaptation to climate
change, it is important that a variety of actors, such as policy-makers, scientists and
civil society, are actively involved in accordance with their mandates. It was stated in
the final declaration of the Dry and Semi-arid Area Management Workshop held by the
General Directorate of Combatting Desertification and Erosion (ÇEM) of the Ministry
of Forestry and Water Affairs in Nevşehir between 05-08 December 2011 that actually,
all stakeholders should work together on the ecosystem-based functional planning
studies in the arid and semi-arid areas of Turkey.
We need to own our natural resources in the approaches of rational, forward-
looking and sustainable for future generations. It is important for future generations to
be informed about these resources and their use so that they can make sound decisions
to protect our natural resources. It is necessary to investigate the concept of ecosystem
management as a method in this framework and the possibility of exploiting ecosystem
management method by examining a sample area in Turkey.
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