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WATER QUALITY PROTECTION IN RURAL AREAS OF EGYPT
HUSSEIN A.A. EL GAMMAL
RESEARCHER, WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT UNIT, MINISTRY OF
WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION, EGYPT
h_elgammal101@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Egypt has limited water resources; it depends mainly on the River Nile which is
considered the Egyptian life blood for the domestic, industrial and irrigation uses. The
rapid increase in population and urbanization is a big challenge to the country in facing
water scarcity. The economic development also puts a lot of stress on water demands
since it affects water quality especially in rural areas. These areas are not included in
the current plans of the country for wastewater treatment due to lack of funds and
availability of low cost wastewater treatment plants modules. This puts a lot of
pressure on water resources from untreated or partially treated wastewater which
vigorously encourages not only the government but also the civil society to have
wastewater collection and treatment facilities in one package that can be funded,
operated and maintained by the beneficiaries themselves to ensure sustainable
development.
Wastewater characteristics and flow vary greatly from urban to rural areas and even
from small to big rural areas. This work investigates the raw wastewater characteristics
and the performance of low cost wastewater treatment plants in rural areas. Field data
collection on population census and activity, water supply, sewage system and water
and wastewater samples from water bodies, sewage network outlet and septic tank is
available from a field survey. The data is being analyzed using statistical methods to
evaluate wastewater characteristics for the design of low cost wastewater treatment
plants.
The results show the average wastewater characteristics and the performance of the
low cost wastewater treatment plants which proved to vary greatly in rural areas and
depend mainly on the behavior of the society. It is recommended to have aside
specific data for the design of low cost wastewater treatments plants for water quality
protection.
Key words:
Rural areas, wastewater flow, low cost, wastewater treatment plants, water quality,
Egypt
INTRODUCTION
Despite the fact that wastewater is a major source of pollution to the water courses it is
considered a sustainable and valuable resource that should be collected, treated and
reused in a proper way not only to preserve the environment and water bodies but also
to conserve the water resources. The per capita share of Nile fresh water is about700
m3/year which is already below the water poverty level. In addition to water scarcity,
the water courses suffer from domestic wastewater pollution especially in rural areas.
These areas unfortunately have not included yet in the governmental plan and until
now there is no institutional form for sanitary drainage in rural areas. Rehabilitation
and construction of sewage systems has not kept pace with the increase in rural water
supply networks.
Wastewater treatment in the Egyptian rural areas lags far behind potable water supply.
The vast majority of the Egyptian population receives piped potable water, however
only urban areas and some larger rural villages possess wastewater treatment facilities.
Economics of conventional wastewater treatment make the cost prohibitive in small
dispersed rural settlements. Untreated wastewater is typically discharged water bodies.
This practice has contributed to widespread degradation of water quality and affects
the policy reuse of drainage water plans in Egypt
Although the enforcement and the legislative framework, the sanitary drainage in each
household is connected to unsealed septic tank and the sewage is regularly evacuated
by trucks and dumped in water bodies. Dumping wastewater in water courses costs
from (4 – 10) USD in rural areas depending on the water table level and the septic tank
condition which is costly to the household owner.
10 percent of the total burden disease worldwide could be prevented by improvements
related to drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene and water resources management.
Eighty-eight percent of cases of diarrhea worldwide are attributable to unsafe water,
inadequate sanitation or insufficient hygiene. In Egypt, the total burden diseases that
can be alleviated by improving drinking water, sanitation, hygiene is 25.1 percent
(WHO [10]).
Nowadays, there is a strong intention to build sewage networks and small wastewater
treatments plants (WWTP) in rural areas not only from the government side but also
from the civil society. Wastewater characteristics in small localities strongly differ
from those in densely populated areas. Wastewater in rural areas is also different from
one region to other (Becares, et al, [3]). Also, the flow of wastewater vary greatly from
urban to rural areas and even from small rural to big rural areas, which depends on
many factors like the density of population , the activities, the water supply and the
sewage network efficiency.
Raw wastewater characteristics for the studied rural areas showed interesting
difference in comparison with that found in the bibliography (Ferrer and et al [4])
Frequently, the management of WWTP in small urban areas is not adequate, which
can be deduced from the poor results achieved by many of them, especially those
which are run directly by local town council (Salas [8]).
The use of low cost technologies for small communities in the Arab region is still at
demonstration or experimental scale. Small-scale anaerobic low cost technology in a
form of two- stage UASB reactor has proven to be 70 percent efficient in treating
wastewater under arid condition; these results were concluded from a long –term
research program carried out in Jordan, Egypt and the West Bank (UNEP [9]).
Setting the appropriate wastewater characteristics and flow for the design of the
sewage collection and low cost wastewater treatment in rural areas is an important
issue for the system economy and sustainability.
This work assesses and investigates the domestic wastewater characteristics in the
rural areas for the design of low cost wastewater treatment plant in addition to the
performance of these plants.
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
Study Area:
To characterize the wastewater in rural areas, the data are collected from two villages
in the Upper Egypt, one village from Lower Egypt, one village from Eastern Delta,
three villages from the Middle of Delta and one village Western of Delta (Fig.1).
Fig. 1 Study Areas
The distribution of rural areas in the governorates is explained in table 1.
The data collected under the support of environmental services for improving water
quality management program in Egypt (El Gammal [4]).
Table 1 Region of Rural Areas
The following approach is used to gather the data:
- Collect general information about the villages, including location, access,
population, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) operating in the area,
administrative entities, and business activities related to the wastewater treatment
issue
- Collect information about the quantity of wastewater through:
a. Direct field measurement from sewage networks or sewage trucks
b. Estimation of the actual consumption of potable water and population
- Collect information on quality of wastewater through:
a. Collect wastewater samples from outlets of the sewage network or from
sewage trucks
b. Analyze samples
c. Identify sources of pollution such as animal manures or industries
After collection of data, two types of wastewater treatments plants are installed in the
rural areas of Egypt. The aerobic system is used in Upper Egypt and in the Middle of
Nile Delta while anaerobic system is installed in middle of Egypt and in the Eastern
and Western of Nile Delta.
!
"
Region Village District Governorate No of
Villages
Upper Egypt El Toad Luxor Luxor 2
El Odessa
Lower Egypt Abdel Kareem Elisa Sinurus Fayoum 1
Eastern
Delta
Ezbet El Khady Zagazig Sharkiya 1
Middle Delta Senbo Zefta Gharbiya
3
Damanhour El
Wahsh
Zefta
Subrakas Santa
Western
Delta
Sharaf El Din Damanhour Behira 1
Total Number of Study Villages 8
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Water Quality parameters:
The basic wastewater parameters are monitored before and after the construction of the
wastewater treatment plants, pH, TDS, T, BOD, COD, TSS, and TFC according to the
standard method (Table 2).
Table 2 Sampling, Analysis, and Measured Frequency for Water quality Parameters
(2007-2009)
Measured
parameters Abbreviation Unit Wastewater Measured
Frequency
Influent Effluent
Temperature T °C x x Quarterly
Acidity &
alkalinity pH - x x Quarterly
Total
Dissolved
Salts
TDS mg/l x x Quarterly
Chemical
Oxygen
Demand
COD mg/l x x Quarterly
Biological
Oxygen
Demand
BOD5mg/l x x Quarterly
Total
Suspended
Solids
TSS mg/l x x Quarterly
Total Fecal
Coliform TFC mg/l x x Quarterly
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Raw Wastewater Characteristics
Acidity & Alkalinity (pH):
The pH values for the raw domestic wastewater range from 7.1 to 7.6 with an average
value of 7.3 which is normal and close to the neutral water. The standard deviation of
the whole measured values in the upper, lower, and Nile Delta of rural areas of Egypt
is 0.2 units which expresses the data consistency and the normal distribution of the pH
measured parameter.
Total Dissolved Salts (TDS):
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
BOD5 COD TSS
Wa ter Quality Parameter
Concentration (mg/l)
The TDS values of the raw domestic wastewater vary between 980 to 2600 mg/l with
an average value of 1600 mg/l. The data from the different regions of the rural areas
shows a big variation as it clear from the value of the standard deviation of 760 mg/l.
The average TDS of raw wastewater of the rural areas of the Nile Delta is 1050 mg/l
while in the upper and lower region of Nile valley is 2420 mg/l. This wide variation in
the TDS values may be explained by the variations in the family traditions and habits
in the food system in the rural areas.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5):
The BOD5 of the raw domestic wastewater ranges from 160 to 760 mg/l with an
average value of 450 mg/l with a standard deviation of 190 mg/l (Fig.2). The data
shows a big variation especially in the lower region of the Nile valley from 150 to 500
mg/l with an average value of 340 mg/l.
Fig. 2 Average Raw Wastewater Concentration in Rural Area
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
The COD of the raw domestic wastewater vary between 260 and 1650 mg/l with an
average value of 770 mg/l. The large variation in the values results from the high
variation in COD in middle of Nile Delta rural areas where some local industrials
discharge directly to the sewerage networks like chemical and metal industries. The
COD values in the middle Nile Delta rural areas range from 400 to 1650 mg/l with an
average value of 860 mg/l. The average COD in the upper and lower region of the Nile
Delta valley is 550 mg/l which is complying with similar results of raw domestic water
(Abdel-Halim et al, [1])
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
TN NH3 TP
Wa ter Quality Parameter
Concentration (mg/l)
Total Suspended Solids (TSS):
The TSS values of the rural domestic wastewater range from 150 to 1200 mg/l with an
average value of 360 mg/l. The data show a big variation from one region to another in
the rural areas with no clear trend. The average TSS in upper and lower region of the
Nile Valley is 700 mg/l while in the Nile Delta region is 400 mg/l.
Total Nitrogen (TN):
The TN values range from 30 to 70 mg/l with an average value of 50 mg/l (Fig.3). The
high values results from discharging the manure of the animals in farmer's households
to the sewerage network. The TN values vary from one region to another based on the
tradition and habits of farmers in the rural areas.
Ammonia- Nitrogen (NH3-N):
The values of NH3 range from 26 to 36 with an average value of 30 mg/l. The NH3
values vary from one region to another with no clear trend from the southern region of
Nile Valley to the Nile Delta region.
Fig. 3 Average Raw Wastewater Nutrient Concentrations in
Rural Area
0
20
40
60
80
100
BOD5 COD TSS TFC
Water Quality Parameter
Removal Efficiency (%)
Aerobic Anaerobic
Total Phosphate (TP):
The TP values range from 2 to 15 mg/l with an average value 7 mg/l. The data show a
big variation from one region to another. The higher values of TP are in the Nile Delta
region than the lower and upper region of Nile Valley due to the overuse of the
detergents.
Total Fecal Coliform (TFC):
The TFC values vary from 1.3 x 106 to 24 x108 with an average value of 2 x 108
MPN/100 ml. The measured values show a large variation in all the regions of the
rural areas with no clear trend. The data variability is due to the nature and method of
the measurements which depends on personal counting.
PERFORMANCE OF WASTEWATER TREATMENTS PLANTS
The process performance was measured by monitoring the influent and effluent
concentrations of BOD5, COD, TSS, and TFC of the aerobic and anaerobic wastewater
treatments in the rural areas of upper and lower regions of Nile Valley and in the Nile
Delta. The aerobic and anaerobic systems in the upper and lower region of Nile Valley
are the same as the ones in the Nile Delta.
BOD Removal
The BOD removal values range from 62 to 99 percent with an average value of 92
percent for the aerobic wastewater treatment plants in the rural areas ( Fig.4 ) while
these values vary between 26 and 88 percent with an average value of 73 percent for
the anaerobic wastewater treatment plants. The results of anaerobic system are
complying with the results of UASB in Egypt and Jordan.
Fig. 4 Average Removal E$ciency of Aerobic and Anaerobic
Wastewater Treatment Plants
COD Removal
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TSS Removal
The TSS removal values range from 63 to 97 percent with an average value of 86
percent for the aerobic system while for the anaerobic systems the TSS values vary
between 53 and 95 percent with an average value of 77 percent. The removal
efficiency for the anaerobic system is quiet good results but for the aerobic system is
low. This discrepancy is due to the frequent blockage of the sand filter after the final
settling tank which needs regular backwashing in the aerobic system.
Total Fecal coliform Removal (TFC)
The TFC removal values range from 97 to 100 percent with an average value of 99.5
percent for the aerobic system while for the anaerobic these values vary between 98.5
and 100 percent with an average value 99.5 percent. Although the removal efficiencies
are high but still the effluent quality do not comply with the permit discharge to the
agricultural drainage system according to law 48 article 66.
Acidity & Alkalinity Removal
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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
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are high but still the effluent quality do not comply with the permit discharge to the
agricultural drainage system according to law 48 article 66.
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REFFERENCES
[1] Abdel-Halim.W., El-Sayed,W., Halim,H., and Rosen,K., Municipal Wastewater
Treatment in Developing Countries Comparable Alternative Anaerobic Cost-
Effective Systems, IWTC 13, Hurguda, Egypt.2009.
[2] Abdel Shafi,E., Hisham,S.,.Mostafa,M., and Nazih,M., Cost Effective Wastewater
Treatment Process: Anaerobic Domestic Wastewater Treatment Using Fixed
Film Reactor as a Low-Cost Treatment Alternative, IWTC 13, Hurguda,
Egypt,2009.
[3] Bcares, E.,Soto,F., and.Blas,J., Wastewater Characteristics and pre- treatment
efficiency in small localities of Leon province (Spain), Smallwat07, II
International Congress, Wastewater treatment in small communities,p.179,
Seville, November 11 – 15, 2007.
[4] El Gammal, H., Data Collection for Design of Wastewater Treatment
Facilities, Report No.43, Environmental Services for Improving Water Quality
management in Egypt,2008.
[5] Ferrer, C., Becares,E., and Sanguesa,I., Effects of Wastewater characteristics and
Process Design on the efficiency of small Wastewater treatment plants,
Smallwat07, II International Congress, Wastewater treatment in small
communities, Seville, November 11 – 15, 2007.
[6] Foresti, E.. Anaerobic treatment of domestic sewage: established technologies and
prospective. 9th International Symposium on Anaerobic Digestion, Antwerpen,
Belgium, 2001.
[7] Lettinga, G. and Hulshoff Pol, L., UASB-Process Design for Various types of
wastewaters. Water Sci. Tech. 24: 87-107,1991
[8] Salas.J.J., Wastewater Treatment in Small urban Areas in ANDALUSIA (Spain),
Smallwat07, II International Congress, Wastewater treatment in small
communities, Seville, November 11 – 15, 2007.
[9] UNEP, International Source Book On Environmentally Sound Technologies for
Wastewater and Storm water Management, 2004.
[10] WHO, Safer Water, Better Health. Costs, benefits and sustainability of
interventions to protect and promote health, 2008.
