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Central Asia Journal No. 81, Winter 2017
CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS
FOR LIFE IN PASHTO
Imran Khan
& Shuja Ahmad
Abstract
This paper, using Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) as theoretical
framework attempts to identify, analyze and interpret Metaphors for life in
Pashto language. It argues that since life is a very rich conceptual domain,
therefore it has more than one conceptual mapping. It identifies eight
conceptual metaphors for Life in Pashto speech community, and
demonstrates through mapping and entailment that how the target domain
life is understood through several source domains in the Pashto language
and culture. The identified metaphors for life are: Life is a Food, Life is a
Journey, Life is a Person, Life is a Container, Life is Music, Life is a
Burdon, Life is a Gamble and Life is a Trial.
Keywords: Conceptual Metaphor Theory, Cognitive Linguistics, Life,
Target domain, Source Domain, Pashto Language and Culture.
Introduction
Metaphor, inherent in our conceptual system, is understanding one kind
of thing in terms of another1. This study attempts to identify and interpret
conceptual metaphors for life in Pashto () language and culture. Pashto
language belongs to the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European languages2.It
is the official language of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan along with
Dari (Afghan Persian). Pashto language is also spoken by majority of the
population in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Baluchistan provinces of Pakistan
as their mother tongue. Pashto is also spoken in the northeast of Iran,
Tajikistan and India, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Saudi Arabia.
Research Scholar, Area Study Centre, University of Peshawar.
Presently serving as Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, University of
Peshawar.
1George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By, (Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1980): 5
2Tariq Rahman, “Pashto Language & Identity Formation in Pakistan.”Contemporary
South Asia,(4)2, (1995): 151-170
Imran Khan & Shuja Ahmad 74
CMT proposes that cross-domain mapping govern our conceptual
system. The mapping take place on conceptual level in such a way that one
conceptual domain is understood in terms of another conceptual domain.3 A
Conceptual domain represents an organized knowledge about an experience.
In CMT, the conceptual domains have specific names, the target domain and
the source domain. Target domain is an understanding of a less delineated
conceptual domain through metaphorical expressions. Source domain is a
more delineated conceptual domain used for understanding the target
domain.4 For instance, LIFE IS A PURPOSEFUL JOURNEY metaphor
consists of the target domain, life, and source domain, journey.
The paper is purposefully divided into four secessions. The first
secession introduces the CMT. The second secession delineates the
methodology. The third secession identifies and interprets eight metaphors
for life in Pashto language and culture. Other metaphors for life also exist
besides the listed metaphors (Ref Unpublished MPhil thesis of Imran
available in the Library of Area Study Center- University of Peshawar)5. The
last secession concludes the discussion.
Methodology
The study applies Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) proposed by
Lakoff and Johnson in their works Metaphors We live By and Philosophy in
the Flesh and elsewhere. Moreover, it utilizes their mappings method
applied to source and target domains to establish a conceptual metaphor. The
following method of CMT was applied.
The Identification of Metaphorical Linguistic Expression
The identification of linguistic metaphorical expression consists of two
main steps: the first step involve a close reading or careful listening of the
sources with the intention of finding potential metaphorical linguistic
expression. The second step is the scrutiny of the potential metaphorical
linguistic expressions with respect to the following selection criteria:
A metaphorical linguistic expression is any expression involving a
separate source domains. A source domain is more delineated, detailed, and
concrete that refers to a concept expressed through using a word, phrase or
personification. Normally such linguistic items refer to something that is
3George Lakoff, “The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor” In Metaphor and Thought, ed.
Andrew Ortony ( New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993): 202-251
4Zolthan Kovecses, Metaphor: A practical introduction,(New York: Oxford University
Press. 2010): 4
5 Imran Khan, Conceptual Metaphors for Life in English and Pashto.(M. Phil. Thesis,
Area Study Centre Russia, China, Central Asia & Afghanistan, University of Peshawar,
2017)
75 Conceptual Metaphors for Life in Pashto
concrete. Personification is the process of referring to a concept by using a
word or phrase that generally denotes a living being. In cognitive linguistics,
personification based metaphorical expressions are considered as a type of
ontological metaphorical expressions.
For instance,
(empty Life) is marked as a metaphorical
expression because the word “ ” (empty) normally collocates with
physical containers such as (empty cup), but the adjective “”
(empty) is here used for the abstract noun “
” (Life). Similarly the phrase,
is marked as a personification of Life because “
” (weary)
usually collocates with living beings. Here, it is used for the abstract concept
of Life.
Once the selected metaphorical expression passed the above-described
criteria they were arranged under specific conceptual metaphors such as in
the case
(empty Life) the expression was arranged under conceptual
metaphors LIFE IS A CONTAINER, and
(Weary Life) was
arranged under the conceptual metaphor LIFE IS LIVING
BEING/PERSON. Pashto Metaphorical linguistic expressions were
represented by bold and letters in each sentence.
Sources of Pashto Metaphorical Linguistic Expressions and
Conceptual Metaphors for Life
Pashto dictionaries, both print and online, Pashto newspapers and
literary texts, movies, songs, television and radio programs, research
journals, magazines, autobiographies, proverbs, and tapa were utilized as
source for selecting Pashto linguistic metaphorical expressions. On the one
hand, it is assumed that dictionaries are records of the lexicon of a language
collected by professional lexicographers who organize a consistent and rich
source of everyday expressions. On the other hand, newspapers, literary
texts, movies, songs, television and radio programs, research journals,
magazines, autobiographies, songs, proverbs and tapa provide access to the
collection of naturally occurring data pertaining to linguistic expression.
Metaphors For Life In Pashto
Conceptual metaphors for Life in Pashto as identified and interpreted by
the study are as follows:
3.1 Life is a Food
One of the conceptual understandings of life in Pashto language is that
Life is a Food/ eatable thing.
Imran Khan & Shuja Ahmad 76
Metaphorical Linguistic Expressions
…
6
7
8
9
The Life-As-Food Mapping
Life corresponds to food.
The eating of food corresponds to living life.
The eater corresponds to the person who lives life.
Tasty food corresponds to happy/enjoyable/good life and
Sweet food corresponds to good life.
Bitter food or tasteless food corresponds to undesirable/unhappy/sad
life.
Finishing food corresponds to end of life.
The Life-As-Food Entailment
Since food is a thing that gives either good taste or bad taste, life’s
experiences can be good or bad.
Food is enjoyed; life is appreciated.
Instead of only one food we prefer and enjoy various types of foods;
routine life becomes boring so in order to enjoy life we want to have
various experiences.
Sweet and tasty foods give pleasure; good experiences in life give
pleasure and entertainment.
Bitter or tasteless foods don’t give us pleasure; bad experiences in life
deprive us of pleasure and happiness.
6Inam Ullah Jan Qais,
(Trans. Heart or Brain), (Peshawar: University Book
Agency, 1999),50
7Roshan Bangash,
(Trans. Selection from a Large quantity), 1st,2nd,3rd
ed.(Peshawar: University Publishers Qissa Khwani, 2014), 148
8Salim Raz,
(Trans./Being Killed Every Moment), (Peshawar: Master
Printers, Jangi Mohalla, 2009),.55
9 (Search: Anthology of Ghani Khan’s New Poetry)4th
ed.(Peshawar: University Book Agency, 2014), 476
77 Conceptual Metaphors for Life in Pashto
If someone has tasted sweet and bitter food then one knows both the
tastes; one having both good and bad experiences knows both sides of
the life- experienced or seasoned person
Food gets finished; life ends.
3.2 Life is a Journey
The metaphor for life that is present in most of the languages is Life is a
Journey. It is also present in Pashto language. Consider the following
expressions:
Metaphorical Linguistic Expressions
10
11
12
.13
14
15
16
17
10Muflis Durani,
'
(Trans. The Father of Pashto Journalism)”
In
,(Pukhtoon Magazine), 4(3),(Peshawar: Bacha Khan Trust, March 2009), 52-54
11Ezzat.(2011),
(Trans. Rights of husband and wife).
http://www.quranawsunnat.com/?p=3109
Retrieved on 20/4/ 2014.
12Inam Ullah Jan Qais,
(Trans. Heart or Brain), (Peshawar: University Book
Agency, 1999),113
13Roshan Bangash,
(Trans. Selection from a Large quantity), 1st,2nd,3rd
ed.(Peshawar: University Publishers Qissa Khwani, 2014), 30
14 Ibid 43
15 Ibid 78
16Farhad Ali Wasim Yousafzay,
(Trans. On the Path of Proverbs),(Peshawar:
Aamir Print And Publishers, 2014),119
Imran Khan & Shuja Ahmad 78
18
The Life-As-Journey Mapping
Journey corresponds to life.
Destination/stops correspond to life goal and achievements.
Traveler corresponds to human
Weather condition corresponds to degree of harshness.
Different roads correspond to different choices.
Impediments to travel correspond to difficulties in life.
End of journey corresponds to end of life.
The Life-As-Journey Entailment
Since journey has a starting point, life has a starting point that is birth of
human.
Since journey requires a traveler reaching a destination, life is led by
human having aims, objectives, purposes and goals.
Journey requires a specific rout to reach certain destination; life aims
and goals can be achieved by doing certain activities.
People can lose their way during journey; life aims and goals remain
unachievable by engaging in something different.
Co-travelers have common destination; people can have common life
goals.
A leader shows the path to traveler; parents, councilor and political
leader guide people towards achieving certain life goals.
A traveler can face impediment during travel; a person leading life can
face difficulties in life.
Harsh weather makes the journey difficult; certain degree of difficulties
can make achieving life goals difficult.
Choosing a rout; choosing an option.
Different routes lead to different destination; different life options lead
to different goals.
3.3 Life is a Person
The following linguistic expressions reveal that one of the life
metaphors in Pashto language is that Life is a Person.
Metaphorical Linguistic Expressions
17 Ibid. 204
18Salim Raz,
(Trans.Being Killed Every Moment), (Peshawar: Master
Printers, JangiMohalla, 2009),25
79 Conceptual Metaphors for Life in Pashto
19
20
The Life-As-Person Mapping
Person corresponds to life
Good health of person corresponds to good life
Killing of person corresponds to ending life
Crying and sobbing of person corresponds to unhappy life
Tiredness of person corresponds to disappointment in life
Indifference of a person corresponds to uninteresting life
Crucifying person corresponds to difficulties in life
Disloyalty of person corresponds to uncertainty about life
The Life-As-Person Entailment
Since a person has physical existence, life has existence
A person with good heath enjoys happy life; Wealth and good
experiences make life enjoyable.
Persons give us grief and sorrow; life gives us grief and sorrows.
A person gets tired while doing tasks; people get disappointed after
unfruitful struggle for achieving life goals.
A person challenging established norms gets crucified; struggling for a
good life people face substantial difficult and threatening situations.
An Indifferent person dissociate himself from a situation; people stop
taking interest in achieving life goals
Disloyal person is perceived as unpredictable person and she can stop
returning love any moment, life is uncertain and one can cease to exist
due to unpredictable celestial and terrestrial calamities.
19Salim Raz,
(Trans./Being Killed Every Moment), (Peshawar: Master
Printers, Jangi Mohalla, 2009),47
20 Ibid 6
Imran Khan & Shuja Ahmad 80
3.4 Life is a Container
Metaphorical Linguistic Expressions
The Life-As-Container Mapping
Container corresponds to life
Content in the container corresponds to the degree of emotions and
feelings such as happiness and sadness.
Full container corresponds to high degree of emotions and feelings
Empty container corresponds to absence of emotions and feelings
Using the full container to the end corresponds to living a good natural
life.
The Life-As-Container Entailment
Since container exists, life exists
Container has content, life has good and bad experiences that causes
good and bad emotions and feelings
When container is full it contains greater content, life has experiences
that causes high degree of good or bad emotions
When container is empty it has nothing in it, life is meaningless when
one losses important people or things in life.
When the content of a container are totally used it is well used, when
one spends life having all sorts of experiences and dies a natural death, it
is considered good life.
3.5 Life is Music
Metaphorical Linguistic Expressions
…
21
22
21Inam Ullah Jan Qais,
(Trans. Heart or Brain), (Peshawar: University Book
Agency, 1999), 112
81 Conceptual Metaphors for Life in Pashto
23
The Life-As-Music Mapping
Music corresponds to life
Musical instrument corresponds to cause of life events
Rise of melody corresponds to good life events
Fall of melody corresponds to bad life events
Singer corresponds to the person living a life
Singing happy songs corresponds to happy life
Singing sad songs corresponds to unhappy life
The Life-As-Music Entailment
Since music exists, life exists
Various melodies are caused by musical instrument; external forces in
life cause various events
Melodies rise, life has good events by virtue of UP IS GOOD
metaphor24
Melodies fall; life has bad events by virtue of DOWN IS BAD
metaphor25
Singer sings happy songs, life is happy
Singer sings sad songs, life is unhappy
22Salim Raz,
(Trans./Being Killed Every Moment), (Peshawar: Master
Printers, JangiMohalla, 2009),54
23
(Search: Anthology of Ghani Khan’s New Poetry)4th ed.
(Peshawar: University Book Agency, 2014),48
24George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By,(Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1980), 15
25Ibid
Imran Khan & Shuja Ahmad 82
3.6 Life is a Burden
Metaphorical Linguistic Expressions
…
…
…
…
26
The Life-As-Burden Mapping
Weight corresponds to life
To carry weight corresponds to living disappointed life
Getting rid of weight corresponds to become hopeful and free of despair
and emotional stress.
The Life-As-Burden Entailment
To carry weight requires great effort and stamina, to live a life with
despair takes a lot of energy and effort.
Weight makes people tired after sometime; people get disappointed after
doing a fruitless activity and stop struggle.
When people get rid of weight they feel relaxed, when people get out of
despair they feel hopeful and happy.
3.7 Life is a Gamble
Metaphorical Linguistic Expressions
…
27
28
26Salim Raz,
(Trans./Being Killed Every Moment), (Peshawar: Master
Printers, JangiMohalla, 2009), 75
27Ikram Uddin Mafton, (Welcoming Death),
https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wb/ps/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%AA%
D9%87_%D9%87%D8%B1%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C Retrieved on 25/1/2018
28 Khyber News, (Trans. Karachi Public
Gathering was PTI’s Deal with MQM)
http://www.khybernews.tv/pashto/newsDetails.php?cat=19&key=NjU5Mjg= Retrieved
on 125/1/2017
83 Conceptual Metaphors for Life in Pashto
…29
The Life-As- Gamble Mapping
Gambling corresponds to life.
Gambler corresponds to the person living life.
Gamblers correspond to people in a society involved in activities such as
keeping relationships, playing sports, politics etc.
Losing in gamble corresponds to losing something important such as
life, honor etc.
Moves in gamble correspond to strategies applied to win a life
competition.
Losing everything in gamble corresponds to complete failure in life.
Winning gamble corresponds to success.
The Life-As- Gamble Entailment
Since gamble require gambler, life require person.
Since gamble requires other gamblers, life requires people as
competitors.
Since gamble has risk, life has risks.
Since gambler loses assets or money, people loses life, honor etc.
Sometime gambler loses everything; sometime people fail completely
doing a risky business or an activity.
Gambler sometime wins, people achieve success doing risky tasks.
Gamble require good moves to win, life require skill to take part in risky
tasks to complete them.
3.8 Life is a Trial
29Nasiri. (Trans; Elections or Poisoned honey)
http://www.benawa.com/pashto/print.php?id=24014 Retried 22/1/2018
Imran Khan & Shuja Ahmad 84
One of the conceptual understandings of life in Pashto language is that
Life is a trial. This metaphor is greatly influenced by religious discourse.
Metaphorical Linguistic Expressions
30
The Life-As-Trial Mapping
Trial corresponds to life
Witness in trial corresponds to bad action in life. (According to religious
discourse in Pashto language and culture, it is believed that our organs
such as hands, eyes etc., would be witnesses to our bad actions, and they
would speak about our wrong doings on the Day of Judgment)
Public prosecutors or lawyers corresponds to Prophets, sages, wise
people and political leaders
Judgecorresponds to God
Judgment day corresponds to Dooms day
Criminals corresponds to sinners
Punishment of criminals corresponds to punishment of sinners.
The Life-As-Trial Entailment
Since trial has a specific period, life has a specific period.
Since trial requires witnesses to the crime, our bad actions cannot be
kept hidden and our organs such as hands, eyes and ear would be
witness to our sins.
Since lawyer defend their clients, prophets, sages, wise men and
political leaders defend people and advise them not to engage in bad
actions.
Since trial requires a judge, people will face God as judge of their life
actions in after life.
Decision of a trail is announced on judgment day, God will decide about
good and bad actions of people on doomsday.
Judge punish criminals, God punish sinners.
30
/ (Trans. Pashto Text Book for Class 8tt ), ( Peshawar: Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa Text Book Board, 2017), 18
85 Conceptual Metaphors for Life in Pashto
Discussion and Conclusion
Section 3.1 shows that the vocabulary pertaining to source domain food
such as
/ tastes,
/thorn in the pudding,
/
sweetness
/ bitterness,
/ relish,
/tasteless,
/
tasteless,
/food without salt were mapped onto target domain
life. Hence, life is understood as food. Moreover, the conceptual metaphor
life as food is an ontological metaphor that highlights qualitative aspect of
life while hides other aspects of life such as purpose etc.
Section 3.2 indicates that the vocabulary pertaining to source domain
journey such as
/straight,
/zigzag,
/path,
/straight,
/journey,
/start,
/escape,
,/in front,
/paths,
/wrong,
/traveler,
/destination,
/forest,
/destination,
/destinations,
/wrong,
/corrects,
/ well of water,
/towards,
closed,
/lost,
/guide,
/two,
/boats,
/do not stand,
/pits,
/travel,
/ditch,
/dig,
/fall into,
/stumbles,
/place,
/reaches,
/mountain,
/top,
/path,
/road,
/walk,
/steps,
/shackles,
/robbers,
/on the way with you,
reached,
/ journey,
/ on a straight
path were mapped onto target domain life. Moreover, the conceptual
metaphor life as journey is a structural metaphor that highlights the purpose
and progress aspect of life while hides other aspects of life such as quality
etc. at the same time. Life as journey metaphor shows that Pashtuns
understand life is a purposeful activity.
Section 3.3 demonstrates that the vocabulary pertaining to source
domain person such as
/ restless,
/ run,
/ silent,
/ fed-
up,
/ stumbling, healthy /
, life /
, Love /
, loyalty /
, offers
/
, tired /
,
/killed,
/ sobbing,
/breath in
the body,
/ throat,
/ Crucified, executed, killed, were mapped
onto target domain life. Moreover, the conceptual metaphor life as person is
an ontological metaphor that highlights the qualitative aspect of life while
hides other aspects of life such as purpose at the same time. Life as person
metaphor shows that Pashtuns understand life as a qualitative entity.
Section 3.4 exhibits that the vocabulary pertaining to source domain
container such as
/empty,
/ full/ complete,
/ full was
mapped onto target domain life. Moreover, the conceptual metaphor life as
container is an ontological metaphor that highlights the qualitative and
Imran Khan & Shuja Ahmad 86
quantitative aspect of life while hides other aspects of life such as purpose,
entertainment etc., at the same time. Life as container metaphor shows that
Pashtuns understand life as a qualitative and quantitative entity.
Section 3.5 shows that the vocabulary pertaining to source domain
music such as
/ strings,
/ touch/ play,
/ rabab a musical
instrument,
/ play,
/ high & low melody,
/ singers,
/ sing,
/ musical compositions,
/ song,
/ pathos,
/
song,
/ play,
/ soft,
/ musical sound,
/ musical sound
were mapped onto target domain life. Moreover, the conceptual metaphor
life as music is a structural metaphor that highlights the entertainment and
creative aspect of life while hides other aspects of life such as quality,
quantity and purpose at the same time. Life as music metaphor shows that
Pashtuns understand life as an entertainment and a thing of joy.
Section 3.6 indicates that the vocabulary pertaining to source domain
burden such as
/ burden,
/ weight on shoulders,
/
weak shoulders,
/big/ heavy ,
/ heavy,
/ dead body,
/ tired,
/ weight,
/ carry,
/ small,
/ I lifted the
[weight],
/ dead body [weight]were mapped onto target domain life.
Moreover, the conceptual metaphor life as burden is an ontological metaphor
that highlights the difficulties and hopelessness about life while hides other
aspects of life such as creativity and entertainment, quality, quantity and
purpose eat the same time. Life as burden metaphor shows that Pashtuns
understand life as a hopeless event.
Section 3.7 exhibits that the vocabulary pertaining to source domain
gamble such as
/ lost,
/ lose,
/put at stake,
/move / trick ,
/trump card ,
/trickster ,(
/ youth,
/
mind / brain,
/ religion,
/ faith, peace/
,
/ beloved
as metaphorical wealth and assets) ,
/ gambler,
/ gold/ wealth,
/
wealth,
/ win,
/ self ,
/ cheap were mapped onto target domain
life. Moreover, the conceptual metaphor life as gamble is a structural
metaphor that highlights risk aspect of life while hides other aspects of life
such as creativity and entertainment, quality, quantity, challenge,
hopelessness and purpose at the same time. Life as gamble metaphor shows
that Pashtuns understand life as an event that includes high risks.
The vocabulary pertaining to source domain trial such as
/ appear before God,
/ verdict / decision,
/ announce,
/ plead,
/ released,
/ reason,
/ witness,
/ body
parts [metaphorically as people], were mapped onto target domain life.
Moreover, the conceptual metaphor life as trial is a structural metaphor that
highlights the moral judgment and justice aspect about life while hides other
87 Conceptual Metaphors for Life in Pashto
aspects of life such as creativity and entertainment, quality, quantity, high-
risk event at the same time. Life as trial metaphor shows that Pashtuns
understand life as an activity based on retributive justice.
Sections 3.1 to 3.8 indicates that life is understood as food, journey,
person, container, music, burden, gamble and trial in the Pashto language
and culture because the lexicon pertaining to these source domains are used
to talk about life rather than these domains. Each mapping in all sections is a
single instance of the conceptual metaphor life as food, journey, person,
container, music, burden, gamble and trial respectively. The knowledge of
Pashtuns about these source domains is explicit and detailed as compared to
life because these domains are concrete repetitive bodily experience in
Pashtun culture that gets a structure in the mind through persistent
recurrence.
Looking at the importance of Pashto language, Pashto linguistics has yet
to look outside traditional Aristotelian view of metaphor and encounter the
conceptual metaphor theory. This study applies conceptual metaphor theory
on Pashto language for the first time and breaks the ground by identifying,
analyzing and establishing conceptual metaphors for life in Pashto. Further,
by demonstrating conceptual metaphors for life in Pashto speech
community, this study shall also contribute to a body of literature that
collectively demonstrates that Metaphor is inherent in human conceptual
system, reasoning and speech. Furthermore, it shall pave way for upcoming
research scholars to conduct research on various conceptual metaphors such
as love, happiness, peace, anger, fear, time, cause, self, mind, sacrifice,
violence, death, State etc. Moreover, it shall open a window to apply CMT
in various academic fields such as English language teaching, discourse
analysis, political studies and peace and conflict studies in Pashto speech
community
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Internet Sources
Ezzat..
(Trans. Rights of husband and wife). 2011,
http://www.quranawsunnat.com/?p=3109 Retrieved on 20/4/ 2014.
Khyber News, (Trans.
Karachi Public Gathering was PTI’s Deal with MQM)
http://www.khybernews.tv/pashto/newsDetails.php?cat=19&key=NjU5
Mjg= Retrieved on 125/1/2017
Mafton, Ikram Uddin. (Trans. Welcoming Death)
https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wb/ps/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8
%B1_%D8%AA%D9%87_%D9%87%D8%B1%DA%A9%D9%84%
DB%8C Retrieved on 25/1/2018
Nasiri.
(Trans; Elections or Poisoned honey)
http://www.benawa.com/pashto/print.php?id=24014 Retried 22/1/2018