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Ethical seed sourcing is a key issue in meeting global restoration targets
Abstract
The global demand for restoration has increased orders of magnitude in the last decade, and hundreds of thousands of tonnes of native seed are required to feed this restoration engine [ 1 ] ( Figure 1). But where are all the seeds required by restoration going to come from? Wild seed resources continue to be depleted by habitat loss, land degradation and climatic change, and over-collection of seed from wild populations threatens to erode these resources further. Ethical seed sourcing for restoration now represents a core issue in responsible restoration practice. Solutions include the introduction of regulatory frameworks controlling seed sourcing from wild populations, the development of seed farming capacity and advancement of seed enhancement technologies and precision delivery systems reducing seed wastage.
... Furthermore, it has been proven that provenance selection does affect pollinator abundance and diversity in the sown vegetation stands [53,60]. Due to the comparatively large area of solar parks and the corresponding high demand for available regional seed, the use of seed directly harvested from natural stands is usually not possible [61], and certified seed produced for restoration should be used. Certification schemes for seeds of regional provenance already exist in many European countries, including Germany, Austria, Italy, and France [62]. ...
... tion stands [53,60]. Due to the comparatively large area of solar parks and the corresponding high demand for available regional seed, the use of seed directly harvested from natural stands is usually not possible [61], and certified seed produced for restoration should be used. Certification schemes for seeds of regional provenance already exist in many European countries, including Germany, Austria, Italy, and France [62]. ...
... Due to the large area of a solar park, which can be up to several hundred hectares in size, seed availability plays a crucial role in the composition of native seed mixtures [79]. Seed availability can vary significantly at the national and regional levels [61,71,75]. Alternative, well-developed techniques, such as revegetation by hay transfer or on-site threshing [34,96], are often not feasible on the required scales and are only viable options for smaller solar farms or sub-areas. ...
Photovoltaics is one of the key technologies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and achieving climate neutrality for Europe by 2050, which has led to the promotion of solar parks. These parks can span up to several hundred hectares, and grassland vegetation is usually created between and under the panels. Establishing species-rich grasslands using native seed mixtures can enhance a variety of ecosystem services, including pollination. We present an overall concept for designing native seed mixtures to promote pollinators, especially wild bees, in solar parks. It takes into account the specific site conditions, the small-scale modified conditions caused by the solar panels, and the requirement to avoid panel shading. We highlight the challenges and constraints resulting from the availability of species on the seed market. Furthermore, we provide an easy-to-use index for determining the value of native seed mixtures for wild bee enhancement and apply it as an example to several mixtures specifically designed for solar parks. The increased availability of regional seed would allow a more thorough consideration of pollinator-relevant traits when composing native seed mixtures, thereby enhancing ecosystem services associated with pollinators such as wild bees.
... Importantly, rare, endemic and/or endangered species should not be prioritized for commercial seed collection programs to avoid impacts on native populations. In addition, seed suppliers should establish and observe the seed harvesting scale and frequency to allow natural regeneration of plant populations and food supply for granivores and frugivores (Nevill et al. 2018). In the Atlantic Forest in Brazil, collectors of the Vale do Ribeira Network agreed to not harvest at least half of the native seeds of the selected species. ...
... Community participation in the restoration economy is required beyond native seed supply systems. Native seed production areas and plant nurseries, for example, offer abundant opportunities to increase the availability of highquality plants for restoration, while strengthening economic returns (Nevill et al. 2018). In Western Australia, the partnership between different stakeholders and the Midwest Employment and Economic Development Aboriginal Corporation (MEEDAC) identified the role of Aboriginal leadership in implementing the first Australian Indigenous-owned native seed farm in Morawa for supplying local market needs in post-mining restoration. ...
... In Western Australia, the partnership between different stakeholders and the Midwest Employment and Economic Development Aboriginal Corporation (MEEDAC) identified the role of Aboriginal leadership in implementing the first Australian Indigenous-owned native seed farm in Morawa for supplying local market needs in post-mining restoration. Despite the costly initial financial and infrastructural investments, seed production areas in the long run upscale supply systems and improve the economic outcomes for producers as a better alternative to wild seed collection (Nevill et al. 2018). In this way, community groups can be active participants in the long term ecological, human health, and economic benefits of rebuilding nature and restoring global ecosystems. ...
The UN Decade of Ecosystem Restoration is poised to trigger the recovery of ecosystem services and transform structural injustices across the world in a way unparalleled in human history. The inclusion of diverse Indigenous and local communities to co-create robust native seed supply systems is the backbone to achieve the goals for the Decade. Here we show how community-based organizations have co-developed native seed supply strategies for landscape restoration from the bottom-up. We draw on the interconnections over two decades of seed networks in Brazil and the emerging Indigenous participation in native seed production in Australia. From an environmental justice perspective, we provide a participatory seed supply approach for local engagement, noting local geographical, social and cultural contexts. Meeting large-scale restoration goals requires the connection between local seed production and collaborative platforms to negotiate roles, rights and responsibilities between stakeholders. An enduring native seed supply must include a diversity of voices and autonomy of community groups that builds equitable participation in social, economic, and environmental benefits.
... Producing seed of appropriate quality and quantity is a major challenge for ecological restoration globally (Nevill et al. 2018). The need for seed to create de novo communities (Brudvig 2011), combined with larger restoration initiatives worldwide, requires massive, reliable, and cost-effective supplies of native seed (Broadhurst et al. 2008). ...
... In many contexts, using wildland-harvested seed is not a feasible strategy to meet these demands Cuneo et al. 2018), especially in degraded landscapes with substantial habitat destruction, where collection can compromise the long-term persistence of remnant populations (Nevill et al. 2016). Additionally, prospects for wildland seed harvests will likely worsen in many regions as climate change, habitat destruction, and degradation continue to erode or eliminate plant populations Nevill et al. 2018). ...
... Although SPAs can generate challenges, they have the potential to augment biodiversity protection by delivering large volumes of high-quality and diverse plant materials (Jones 2019). Therefore, we believe that SPAs are the most comprehensive solution for responsibly and expeditiously satisfying the increasing demands for native seed (see also Merritt and Dixon 2011;Nevill et al. 2016Nevill et al. , 2018. The importance and positive potential of SPAs drives the question: what should be done to maximize and enhance the use of SPAs? ...
Seed production areas (SPAs) are critical infrastructure for ecological restoration, particularly in fragmented landscapes where wildland seed crops are unavailable or wildland harvest is unsustainable. SPAs are useful for a wide range of species that are amenable to cultivation. Despite increasing research on SPAs, their value for biodiversity conservation has yet to be comprehensively described. Here, we highlight the key benefits of SPAs to biodiversity conservation. First, SPAs allow restoration to be conducted on a much greater scale than could be accomplished with wildland-harvested seed, thus protecting key biodiversity assets from harvest pressures. Second, the native seed production industry adds to the base of stakeholders who are invested in restoring and enhancing biodiversity. Third, SPAs provide novel opportunities for research and public exposure to native biodiversity. We also describe how cultivation can alter plant fitness compared to wildland plants, which acts as a multiplier to their conservation implications. SPAs could lead to two interrelated negative consequences that generate risks for taxonomic and genetic diversity at multiple scales: (1) SPAs can cause and multiply negative genetic legacies as a result of cultivation practices, and (2) SPA progenies can numerically and genetically dominate wildland plant populations. Nevertheless, SPA cultivation offers an opportunity to genetically diversify SPA-derived populations for success in restoration and enlarge the pool of species available for restoration, thus mitigating or solving some of these risks. Targeted government policies toward SPAs, additional research, and sound SPA management are necessary to minimize genetic risks and taxonomic redundancy, and also to maximize the conservation benefits of SPAs.
... Global initiatives in ecological restoration and forest landscape restoration (as defined in the International Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration; Gann et al. 2019) are increasing in both number and scale. Native seeds are the foundation of many ecological restoration projects (Nevill et al. 2018), and as the scale of restoration projects continue to increase, so too the demand for large quantities of native seeds is expected to grow. While the specific seed requirements of individual projects and initiatives will vary depending upon geographic location and land use context, the efficient and effective use of native seeds is a cornerstone of ecological restoration (Kirmer et al. 2012;Erickson et al. 2017). ...
... It is clear that the sustainable collection or procurement of native seeds in the required volumes and diversity for ecological restoration projects represents a significant constraint for restoration practitioners around the world (Merritt & Dixon 2011;Menz et al. 2013;Nevill et al. 2018). Additionally, the high rates of seed wastage associated with suboptimal native seed use are a major economic constraint, as the cost of native seeds can be considerable (Merritt & Dixon 2011;Nevill et al. 2018;Masarei et al. 2019). ...
... It is clear that the sustainable collection or procurement of native seeds in the required volumes and diversity for ecological restoration projects represents a significant constraint for restoration practitioners around the world (Merritt & Dixon 2011;Menz et al. 2013;Nevill et al. 2018). Additionally, the high rates of seed wastage associated with suboptimal native seed use are a major economic constraint, as the cost of native seeds can be considerable (Merritt & Dixon 2011;Nevill et al. 2018;Masarei et al. 2019). It is becoming evident that successful restoration requires practitioners incorporate seed procurement models and seed use planning into restoration projects at the earliest stages to ensure that seed demands can be matched by seed supply. ...
... Global initiatives in ecological restoration and forest landscape restoration (as defined in the International Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration; Gann et al. 2019) are increasing in both number and scale. Native seeds are the foundation of many ecological restoration projects (Nevill et al. 2018), and as the scale of restoration projects continue to increase, so too the demand for large quantities of native seeds is expected to grow. While the specific seed requirements of individual projects and initiatives will vary depending upon geographic location and land use context, the efficient and effective use of native seeds is a cornerstone of ecological restoration (Kirmer et al. 2012;Erickson et al. 2017). ...
... It is clear that the sustainable collection or procurement of native seeds in the required volumes and diversity for ecological restoration projects represents a significant constraint for restoration practitioners around the world (Merritt & Dixon 2011;Menz et al. 2013;Nevill et al. 2018). Additionally, the high rates of seed wastage associated with suboptimal native seed use are a major economic constraint, as the cost of native seeds can be considerable (Merritt & Dixon 2011;Nevill et al. 2018;Masarei et al. 2019). ...
... It is clear that the sustainable collection or procurement of native seeds in the required volumes and diversity for ecological restoration projects represents a significant constraint for restoration practitioners around the world (Merritt & Dixon 2011;Menz et al. 2013;Nevill et al. 2018). Additionally, the high rates of seed wastage associated with suboptimal native seed use are a major economic constraint, as the cost of native seeds can be considerable (Merritt & Dixon 2011;Nevill et al. 2018;Masarei et al. 2019). It is becoming evident that successful restoration requires practitioners incorporate seed procurement models and seed use planning into restoration projects at the earliest stages to ensure that seed demands can be matched by seed supply. ...
Restoration practitioners must increasingly incorporate seed procurement models and seed use planning early in project development, despite insufficient guidance about what are reasonable expectations for the sourcing and use of native seeds. This special issue presents a series of papers examining each key step in the native seed supply chain, and provides a framework for the ‘standards’ that need to be applied to native seed batches if the native seed supply chain is to achieve the levels of reliability and transparency required. These Standards provide seed buyers, end users and funding bodies with a level of confidence and reliability in the sourcing of quality native seeds, and a pathway toward global best practice in native seed use.
... Large quantities of native seed are now produced by native seed companies as small-scale agriculture , primarily in temperate regions. Where practical and economically feasible, genetic diversity, ploidy levels, and adaptive traits should be assessed and maintained within and among source populations of every target species intended for propagation and seeding (Leger et al., 2015;Durka et al., 2017), employing state-of-the-art genetic tests and common garden experiments (Nevill et al., 2018). ...
... While there are instances where reliable cultivars are used, a major task for restoration practitioners of grasslands is to replace the use of narrowly selected cultivars with locally-adapted, native seed of high genetic diversity (Oldfield et al., 2019;Schmidt et al., 2019;Table 2, BPs 14A-B). This might be facilitated by tax concessions to invest in plant material centers responsible for research and development of native propagule collection, selection, propagation, processing, and handling procedures (Nevill et al., 2018). International standards have been developed that define principles for the application of native seeds in ecological restorations forming a basis for developing quality measures and guidance statements . ...
... Degraded terrestrial ecosystems frequently lack diaspores for regenerating new communities, and successful restoration often requires the introduction of seeds from other sources (Elzenga et al., 2019;Hölzel et al., 2012). With upscaling restoration, the demand for native seeds is increasing, and seed shortage has become a major obstacles of restoration projects (Merritt & Dixon, 2011;Nevill et al., 2018). Harvesting seeds from the wild is not sustainable because seeds are the basic means of plant reproduction, and their excessive removal may threaten population persistence (Meissen et al., 2015). ...
... Harvesting seeds from the wild is not sustainable because seeds are the basic means of plant reproduction, and their excessive removal may threaten population persistence (Meissen et al., 2015). Consequently, wild-collected seeds are often first propagated on farms, and farm-produced seeds are then used for restoration projects Kiehl et al., 2014;Nevill et al., 2018). ...
A growing number of restoration projects require large amounts of seeds. As harvesting natural populations cannot cover the demand, wild plants are often propagated in large‐scale monocultures. There are concerns that this cultivation process may cause genetic drift and unintended selection, altering the genetic properties of the cultivated populations and reducing their genetic diversity. Such changes could reduce the pre‐existing adaptation of restored populations and limit their adaptability to environmental change.
We used single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers and a pool‐sequencing approach to test for genetic differentiation and changes in gene diversity during cultivation in 19 wild grassland species, comparing source populations and up to four consecutive cultivation generations. We linked the magnitudes of genetic changes to the species' breeding systems and seed dormancy to understand the roles of these traits in genetic change.
Cultivation changed the genetic composition across cultivated generations only moderately. The genetic differentiation resulting from cultivation was much lower than the natural genetic differentiation between different source regions. The propagated generations harboured even higher gene diversity than wild‐collected seeds. Genetic change was stronger in self‐compatible than self‐incompatible species, probably due to increased outcrossing in monocultures.
Synthesis and applications . Our study suggests that large‐scale seed production maintains the genetic integrity of natural populations. Increased genetic diversity may even indicate increased adaptive potential of propagated seeds, which would make them especially suitable for ecological restoration. Yet, it remains to be tested whether these molecular patterns will be mirrored also by plant phenotypes. Further, we used seeds from Germany and Austria, where the seed production is regulated and certified, and we do not know yet whether other seed production systems perform equally well.
... native seeds has become critical to ecological restoration and rehabilitation (Nevill et al. 2018;Cross et al. 2020). Dryland ecosystems (i.e. ...
... If we are to scale up effective ecological restoration to meet the goals and aspirations of global ecological recovery targets during the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, seed wastage rates of >90 % are no longer acceptable or economical (Nevill et al. 2018). Selection pressure is higher during germination and seedling establishment than during most other life stages (Moles and Westoby 2006), and environmental filtering through plantsoil interactions are expected to remove species with traits that are locally incongruous from developing seedling communities (Paine et al. 2012). ...
PurposeSeed-to-seedling transition is a primary bottleneck in dryland and post-mining ecological restoration. The role of internal seed nutrent characteristics in this critical transition remains poorly understood, despite its possible utility to inform species selection for restoration.Methods
Seed mass and nutrient characteristics were determined for 188 sclerophyll shrubland species from semi-arid Western Australia (35 % of regional floristic diversity) to determine the degree to which they were driven by functional traits. Additionally, seeds of 175 species were broadcast among different surface cover treatments in a dryland post-mining ecological restoration trial, to determine whether seed mass, seed nutrient concentration, or functional traits were informative at predicting seed-to-seedling transition.ResultsExamined functional traits explained 48 % of variation in seed mass and nutrient characteristics. Greatest effect sizes included embryo type for seed mass, and nutrient-acquisition strategy for the concentration and ratios of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. Seed-to-seedling transition was most significantly influenced by functional traits including nutrient-acquisition strategy, embryo type, dispersal syndrome, growth form, and life history, as well as increasing seed potassium concentration which may offer a nutritional advantage for germination and establishment on nutrient-poor substrates.Conclusion
This study helps bridge the science-practice gap in seed-based restoration, laying the foundations for evidence-based approaches to determining most effective use of limited seed resources. Seed- and species-trait filters should be applied when selecting species for restoration seed mixtures, improving cost-efficiency and ethical seed use by omitting species unlikely favoured on a given restoration substrate prior to seeding.
... While traditional reforestation approaches used a mix of wild and orchard produced seed, restoration plantings typically rely exclusively on the former. A growing body of literature helps to articulate the risks of overharvesting plant propagules (e.g., [59,60]). A clear understanding of the impacts of harvesting on plant populations among those involved in seed procurement, as well as the development of more robust systems of seed production (e.g., [60][61][62]), will ensure that target plants are grown with ethically sound protocols regarding the sourcing of genetic material. ...
... A growing body of literature helps to articulate the risks of overharvesting plant propagules (e.g., [59,60]). A clear understanding of the impacts of harvesting on plant populations among those involved in seed procurement, as well as the development of more robust systems of seed production (e.g., [60][61][62]), will ensure that target plants are grown with ethically sound protocols regarding the sourcing of genetic material. ...
Reforestation and restoration using nursery-produced seedlings is often the most reliable way to ensure successful establishment and rapid growth of native plants. Plant establishment success—that is, the ability for the plant to develop within a set period of time with minimal further interventions needed—depends greatly on decisions made prior to planting, and yet nursery-grown plants are often produced independently of considering the range of stressors encountered after nursery production. The optimal plant or seedling will vary greatly with species and site (depending on edaphic and environmental conditions), and in having the biological capacity to withstand human and wildlife pressures placed upon vegetative communities. However, when nursery production strategies incorporate knowledge of genetic variability, address limiting factors, and include potential mitigating measures, meeting the objectives of the planting project—be it reforestation or restoration—becomes more likely. The Target Plant Concept (TPC) is an effective framework for defining, producing, and handling seedlings and other types of plant material based on specific characteristics suited to a given site. These characteristics are often scientifically derived from testing factors that are linked to outplanting success, such as seedling morphology and physiology, genetic source, and capacity to overcome limiting factors on outplanting sites. This article briefly summarizes the current knowledge drawn from existing literature for each component of the TPC framework, thereby helping land managers and scientists to meet objectives and accelerate reforestation and restoration trajectories.
... Employing strategic seed-based approaches in wetland restoration is a first step to more quickly and completely recover the underlying vegetation structure and composition that supports these vital functions and services. Seed-based approaches are less expensive and more logistically feasible in treating larger areas than other wetland revegetation techniques (e.g., planting plugs, transplanting rhizomes, and installing sod mats) despite the high cost of native seed (Godefroid et al., 2011;Merritt and Dixon, 2011;Broadhurst et al., 2016;Nevill et al., 2018). However, seeding results can be unpredictable and mortality high Primack, 2000, 2012;Tilley and Hoag, 2006;Godefroid et al., 2011;Peralta et al., 2017;Matthews et al., 2019;Sloey and Hester, 2019;Greet et al., 2020). ...
... The risk of impacting wild populations through overharvesting increases substantially with the increasing global demand for native seed for restoration (Broadhurst et al., 2008;Merritt and Dixon, 2011;Nevill et al., 2018). Nonetheless it is unclear how much these principles and recommendations apply to wetland plants (Figure 2). ...
As we approach the Decade of Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030), there is renewed focus on improving wetland restoration practices to reestablish the habitat and climate mitigation functions and services that wetlands provide. A first step in restoring these functions and services is to reestablish the native vegetation structure and composition through strategic seed-based approaches. These approaches should be driven by ecological, genetic, and evolutionary principles, along with consideration for economics, logistics, and other social constraints. Effective seed-based approaches must consider the chosen species, seed sourcing, dormancy break and germination requirements, seed enhancement technologies, potential invaders, seeding densities, and long-term monitoring. Choice of species should reflect historical plant communities and future environmental conditions, species that support functional goals including invasion resistance, and seed availability constraints. Furthermore, seeds should be sourced to ensure ample genetic diversity to support multifunctionality and evolutionary capacity while also considering the broad natural dispersal of many wetland species. The decision to collect wild seeds or purchase seeds will also impact species choice and genetic diversity, which can have cascading effects for functional goals. To ensure seedling establishment, seed dormancy should be addressed through dormancy breaking treatments and the potentially narrow germination requirements of some species will require targeted sowing timing and location to align with safe sites. Other seed enhancements such as priming and coatings are poorly developed for wetland restoration and their potential for improving establishment is unknown. Because wetlands are highly invasion prone, potential invaders and their legacies should be addressed. Seeding densities should strike a balance between outcompeting invaders and preserving valuable seed resources. Invader control and long-term monitoring is key to improving revegetation and restoration. Here, we review scientific advances to improve revegetation outcomes, and provide methods and recommendations to help achieve the desired goals. Gaps in knowledge about seed-based wetland restoration currently exist, however, and untested practices will certainly increase risks in future efforts. These efforts can be used to better understand the ecological, genetic, and evolutionary processes related to wetland seeds, which will bring us one step closer to seed-based restoration of functions and services needed for human and ecological communities.
... At some point in time, the stored seeds will be sown in the field in an attempt to establish new populations [2] or in nurseries to generate plants for out-planting to sites that need to be restored [3][4][5]. The demand for seeds for restoration is enormous, and it has become very clear that the quantities of seeds needed for these endeavors cannot be obtained solely by collecting them from wild plants [2,[6][7][8][9][10][11]. Various solutions to the seed-shortage problem have been proposed, including the development of seed production areas for wild species [9,[12][13][14]; establishment of community seed banks [6]; and formation of regional [15] and national [16] strategies to deal with the collection, production and management of seeds needed for restoration. ...
... At some point in time, the stored seeds will be sown in the field in an attempt to establish new populations [2] or in nurseries to generate plants for out-planting to sites that need to be restored [3][4][5]. The demand for seeds for restoration is enormous, and it has become very clear that the quantities of seeds needed for these endeavors cannot be obtained solely by collecting them from wild plants [2,[6][7][8][9][10][11]. Various solutions to the seed-shortage problem have been proposed, including the development of seed production areas for wild species [9,[12][13][14]; establishment of community seed banks [6]; and formation of regional [15] and national [16] strategies to deal with the collection, production and management of seeds needed for restoration. Further, plans need to be developed to maximize the use of seeds that have been collected [17], for example, to ensure that seeds are viable and nondormant when sown, and León-Lobos et al. [11] advocate that additional research on seed dormancy-breaking and germination requirements needs to be conducted. ...
To facilitate the restoration of disturbed vegetation, seeds of wild species are collected and held in dry storage, but often there is a shortage of seeds for this purpose. Thus, much research effort is expended to maximize the use of the available seeds and to ensure that they are nondormant when sown. Sowing nondormant (versus dormant) seeds in the field should increase the success of the restoration. Of the various treatments available to break seed dormancy, afterripening, that is, dormancy break during dry storage, is the most cost-effective. Seeds that can undergo afterripening have nondeep physiological dormancy, and this includes members of common families such as Asteraceae and Poaceae. In this review, we consider differences between species in terms of seed moisture content, temperature and time required for afterripening and discuss the conditions in which afterripening is rapid but could lead to seed aging and death if storage is too long. Attention is given to the induction of secondary dormancy in seeds that have become nondormant via afterripening and to the biochemical and molecular changes occurring in seeds during dry storage. Some recommendations are made for managing afterripening so that seeds are nondormant at the time for sowing. The most important recommendation probably is that germination responses of the seeds need to be monitored for germinability/viability during the storage period.
... However, the rapidly expanding demand for native seed often surpasses the quantity that can be sustainably collected from natural populations (Nevill et al. 2018) where factors such as low or erratic seed set and quality, seed predation, habitat fragmentation, and invasive species all contribute to harvest limitations and increasing seed costs (Broadhurst et al. 2015). Some of these factors can be controlled, or manipulated, by managing natural populations with activities which include weed control, watering, fencing, and fertilization with the aim to improve harvest efficiency and seed yield. ...
... Particular care should be taken to avoid over harvesting natural populations, especially for small, rare, endangered, or isolated populations (Broadhurst et al. 2017;Nevill et al. 2018). Aim to carry out a pre-collection assessment immediately prior to collecting, to establish collecting limits. ...
The global push to achieve ecosystem restoration targets has resulted in an increased demand for native seeds that current production systems are not able to fulfil. In many countries, seeds used in ecological restoration are often sourced from natural populations. Though providing seed that is reflective of the genetic diversity of a species, wild harvesting often cannot meet the demands for large scale restoration and may also result in depletion of native seed resources through over‐harvesting. To improve seed production and decrease seed costs, seed production systems have been established in several countries to generate native seeds based on agricultural or horticultural production methods or by managing natural populations. However, there is a need to expand these production systems which have a primary focus on herbaceous species to also include slower maturing shrub and tree seed. Here we propose that to reduce the threat of overharvest on the viability of natural populations, seed collection from natural populations should be replaced or supplemented by seed production systems. This overview of seed production systems demonstrates how to maximize production and minimize unintended selection bias so that native seed batches maintain genetic diversity and adaptability to underpin the success of ecological restoration programs.
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... Traditionally, seeds for restoration activities have mainly been sourced from collections from the wild, but with the growing seed demand, this is increasingly becoming unsustainable [4]. Wild sourcing of seed can easily result in further loss of biodiversity and habitat, especially if unregulated, thereby making seed supply unpredictable from year to year [5,6]. In addition, climatic and environmental factors also greatly affect seed production and can contribute to unpredictable seed supply through their effect on phenology and masting. ...
The world is witnessing massive land degradation caused by climate change and various anthropogenic activities. There has been a significant increase in habitat restoration efforts, with demand for seeds to restore these degraded ecosystems in some cases outstripping supply. Traditionally, seeds for restoration activities have mainly been sourced through collections from the wild, but with the growing seed demand, this is increasingly becoming unsustainable. In order to ensure responsible restoration practice, restoration practitioners need to explore other options of economical, ethical and sustainable sourcing of seeds. Ex situ seed banks can leverage their technical and infrastructural capacity to play a greater and more direct role in supporting biodiversity and ecosystem conservation and restoration, particularly through the supply of quality ecologically and genetically suitable seed. In this paper, we review whether ex situ seed banks possess the capacity and competence for supporting habitat restoration and the challenges they are likely to face in these efforts. The review focuses on seed collecting, field-based seed bulking, seed handling and storage, seed quality control as well as experience and capacity in facilitating germplasm exchange. The availability of high-quality germplasm collections of documented provenance and with broad genetic diversity is arguably the greatest resource and asset that seed banks have in supporting habitat restoration.
... implementation, maintenance and monitoring) to be efficient. Bottlenecks in the supply chain, such as the lack of seedlings (Nevill et al., 2018;Silva et al., 2017) or specialized labour for different restoration activities, may constrain projects development, limit the amount and quality of restoration and prevent achieving both social and ecological benefits. ...
The central motivation to restore ecosystems at a planetary scale has been to reverse degradation and provide multiple environmental benefits, but key global players like governments may be more interested in social outcomes from undertaking restoration, such as job creation. Assessing the job opportunities stemming from ongoing restoration programmes can leverage additional investments for their implementation and support their long‐term maintenance.
Here, we aimed to understand and quantify current and potential ecosystem restoration jobs in Brazil, based on a widely distributed online survey performed in 2020 and led by the main restoration networks in the country. We explored the structure, job distribution and outputs of the national restoration supply chain.
At the beginning of 2020, 4713 temporary and 3510 permanent jobs were created, nearly 60% of which were generated by organizations specialized in restoration, mainly from the non‐profit (48%) and private (37%) sectors.
Restoration jobs were concentrated in organizations working in one (58%) or two (28%) biomes, and the vast majority were in the Atlantic Forest (85%). Similarly, most restoration jobs were concentrated in the southeast region (61%), with one‐third in the state of São Paulo. This geographical distribution was more strongly associated with the states' GDP than with the legal deficit of native vegetation area.
Nearly 20% of the restoration jobs were terminated during the COVID‐19 pandemic in 2020.
We estimate that restoration activities can generate 0.42 jobs per hectare undergoing restoration, which could potentially create 1.0–2.5 million direct jobs through the implementation of Brazil's target of restoring 12 million hectares.
We conclude by reinforcing the value of ecosystem restoration in promoting economic development and job creation, which can be crucial to promote countries' effective engagement in the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. We also highlight the critical role of grassroots organizations to maximize restoration opportunities for socioeconomic development during the post‐pandemic economic recovery.
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... For example, the Bonn Challenge is a global restoration effort that aims to restore 350 million hectares of degraded land by 2030 (IUCN 2011), and the United Nations General Assembly recently declared 2021-2030 as the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. Achieving ambitious global restoration targets will inherently require the collection of increasingly large quantities of biodiverse seed (Merritt & Dixon 2011;Nevill et al. 2018). Sourcing an adequate quantity of genetically appropriate seed, from either wild populations or seed production areas, will be paramount to success of global restoration efforts (Vander Mijnsbrugge et al. 2010;Broadhurst et al. 2015). ...
Restoration interventions require knowledge on the suitability of seed sources. Provenance delineation for ecological restoration of degraded environments has begun to incorporate genome-wide information on adaptive variation, but this has only been
completed on a small number of plant species. Rarely is provenance delineation using a genomics approach applied to species
occurring across different habitats, and in the context of future climate scenarios, despite their potential importance for successful long-term restoration. Here, we use neutral genetic data to investigate patterns of genetic differentiation and a landscape
genomics approach to model putatively adaptive genetic variation under multiple climate scenarios for two species cooccurring in a predominantly mesic environment, and two species co-occurring in a semi-arid environment. We then determine
the genetic similarity of seed sourcing locations to hypothetical restoration sites, both under current and future climate scenarios. We found that the geographical extent of provenances and the amount of genetic change required to track the projected
climatic conditions over time differed within the pairs of co-occurring species, and between habitats. Additionally, future climate scenarios had differing effects on provenance patterns between the two landscapes indicating a differential response to
changing climate between species from mesic and arid habitats. This implies that provenance guidelines can be both species
and habitat dependent. We discuss how these results can be utilized to design seed sourcing strategies for successful restoration,
and how these methods could be more broadly applied to delineate provenances of other species and locations.
... Seeds stored in restoration seedbanks are generally sourced each year from a similar suite of framework species and from regions in which seasonal seeding activities are to be undertaken (Erickson et al. 2017). In Australia, large volumes of seeds are sourced principally from wild populations at substantial environmental and economic cost rather than obtained from dedicated seed production areas that offer greater reliability and critically are far more sustainable in the medium to long-term (Nevill et al. 2018). Consequently, restoration seedbanks are an integral investment in terms of infrastructure, technical expertise and seed stock, and are crucial in supporting the complex and interdisciplinary process of re-establishing native vegetation on lands that have been damaged, degraded or modified by human disturbance (Mortlock 2000;Merritt & Dixon 2011;Erickson et al. 2017). ...
Restoration seedbanks have become a key infrastructure resource in efforts to restore damaged and degraded environments across the globe. Large‐scale ecological restoration typically utilises large volumes of valuable, usually wild‐collected seeds, but insufficient knowledge of seed biology (including storage requirements in some cases) and ecology for many species continues to hamper the utility of restoration seedbanks to meet this rising demand. Poor germination and establishment when seeds are deployed from seedbanks can stem from factors such as premature seed collection, low seed quality, poor processing, handling and storage, variable seed quality from year to year, and, critically, insufficient understanding of seed dormancy, seed germination traits and the ecological requirements for germination stimulation. While these factors may impact the success of seed‐based ecological restoration both synergistically and idiosyncratically, they can be universally addressed by adopting best practice principles in seedbank management and operation and through an improved understanding of the seed biology and ecology of stored species. Drawing upon an industry case study in seed banking for post‐mining ecological restoration ‐ we outline how optimising seed storage conditions and a focus on seed biology and ecology in the operation of a restoration seedbank can deliver broad and immediate benefit and cost‐efficiency to native seed use. Such improvements are crucial in developing more effective approaches for returning biodiverse plant communities to highly modified landscapes and are foundational for meeting the aspirations for ecological restoration at global scales in the coming decade. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... If we are successful in meeting global restoration goals for the coming decade (United Nations General Assembly 2019), the next century will see unprecedented demand for the plant materials (seeds, cuttings, container plants; hereafter "seed/s" for simplicity) needed to restore native plant communities. Wild populations are the ultimate source of the diversity of seeds used for restoration, but repeated collections can have detrimental impacts on the population trajectories of wild stands (Broadhurst et al. 2008;Nevill et al. 2018). For many species, restoration needs can outpace seed availability in wild populations (Ladouceur et al. 2018). ...
The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration will result in an unprecedented need for seeds. Agricultural production, or the growing of plants under controlled conditions to produce desired resources, can be a helpful tool for providing the quantities of seeds needed for large‐scale restoration. In some ecosystems, agricultural production of native plant seeds is part of the restoration process. This is particularly true for native plants that are similar to major food crops, such as native grasses. However, conventional crops have contrasting characteristics (e.g., fast‐growing, high yield for a focused use) from those desired in restored vegetation (plants capable of surviving and providing ecosystem services in variable environments). This contrast leads to significant, often opposing differences in desirable characteristics in crop vs. natural systems. Examples include rapid germination in domesticated crops vs. seed dormancy in wild plants, uniform germination, growth and flowering vs. bet‐ hedging strategies, or high seed retention vs. seed dispersal. While it may be useful to maximize productivity of native plants in agricultural environments with similar trait modifications, for restoration, the demands of the natural environment should be primary, and agricultural production should aim to maximize the diversity, function and evolutionary potential of native species. Any perceived benefits that come from the production of large quantities of inexpensive seeds that cannot meet the needs of wild communities are short‐sighted. We suggest research directions that will be needed to meld agricultural production needs with those of restoration practitioners, as a challenge for those invested in the procurement and use of wild seeds. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... Restoration of species-rich grasslands is therefore often seed-limited (Kiehl et al. 2010), and (re-) introduction of plant species therefore mandatory. Consequently, the demand for seeds has grown rapidly over the last few years (Broadhurst et al. 2015;Mortlock 2000;Nevill et al. 2018;Vander Mijnsbrugge et al. 2010). ...
Seed sourcing for restoration measures is a currently highly debated issue in conservation ecology. Where to take the seeds from, if reintroduction of plant species is necessary? In many countries, seed transfer zones have been defined to preserve genetic variability and to provide locally adapted plants. However, delineation of seed transfer zones mostly relies on climatic gradients, ignoring other abiotic factors such as bedrock and soil conditions. One of the main soil properties is soil reaction (pH), yet, it is still unclear whether pH is an important driver for local adaptation in plants. In this study, we tested whether plants are adapted to soil reaction across five common grassland species. For each species, we sampled seeds from two provenances, and within each provenance from two populations – one coming from basic and one from acidic soil. We grew the plants in a common garden in an artificial substrate with manipulated pH, which allowed us to test for the effect of soil reaction, isolated from other soil properties. All species produced more biomass on acidic substrate, in most cases independently of their original soil and provenance. Only one out of five species showed weak local adaptation to soil reaction. The experimental substrate by far explained most of the biomass production in all species. This suggests that adaptation to soil reaction is rare and of low importance in common species of temperate grasslands.
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... In most of these cases, seeds are directly sowed into the soil. However, several environmental factors influence the germination and establishment of native plants in the heavily degraded soils and result in a high failure rate (Nevill et al. 2018), and there is limited information available on collecting, cleaning, and quality testing of native plant seeds . Factors such as compacted soils, low nutrient and moisture, and lack of soil biota, which can potentially break the seed dormancy or pathogens that cause decay of seeds, can have significant impacts on the seed germination and growth. ...
Background
Using native wildflowers for restoring marginal lands has gained considerable popularity. Establishment of wildflowers can be challenging due to several environmental factors. Restoring the microbial community in degraded habitats can potentially result in the native plant performance and habitat restoration. This study was conducted to investigate the impact of native soil microbes and seeding depth on germination of south Texas native wildflowers. Two wildflower species, Ratibida columnifera (Nutt.) (Mexican Hat) and Verbesina encelioides (Cav.) (cowpen daisy), were treated with microbial wash extracted from native soils, and germination rate was recorded for 14-day period. We further analyzed the growth, biomass allocation, and root colonization by mycorrhizal fungi in these two plants growing them in a plant growth chamber for 6 weeks. To determine the impact of seeding depth, we planted the seeds of the two plant species at 2-cm, 6-cm, and 12-cm depth and monitored germination and plant growth.
Results
The two species responded differently to the seeding depth and microbial wash treatments. Microbial wash treatment resulted in higher germination rate in R. columnifera compared to control, while it did not have any impact on V. encelioides seed germination. While microbial treatment did not influence the total biomass, it had a significant impact on the biomass allocation in both the plant species. R. columnifera seeds germinated at both 2-cm and 6-cm depth and did not germinate at 12 cm, while the V. encelioides seeds germinated only at 2 cm and did not germinate at 6-cm or 12-cm seeding depth.
Conclusions
While our results are species specific, our results indicate that native soil microbes can potentially improve the seed germination and growth of wildflowers. Our results also indicate the importance of specific seeding depth when sowing wildflower seeds for habitat restoration.
... Monthly collections were carried out for ten days per month, with a total effort of 100 days of seed collection. To increase genetic diversity in our sampling, fruits were collected from as many individuals as possible for each species, with care to avoid compromising the viability of populations of the species sampled (Nevill et al., 2018). As the studied species have different distribution patterns, life histories and population sizes, including restricted range endemics and long-range endemics distributed beyond the studied area, seed collections for each species varied between the studied species. ...
Cangas (ironstone outcrops) host a specialized flora, characterized by high degree of edaphic endemism and an apparent lack of natural history knowledge of its flora. Due to intense pressure from iron ore mining this ecosystem is under threat and in need of restoration. We studied seed functional traits that are relevant for restoration, translocation and ex situ conservation in 48 species from cangas in eastern Amazon. Were determined the thermal niche breadth, classified seed dormancy and determined methods to overcome it, determined the effect of seed storage on germination, tested the association between germination traits and functional groups, and tested whether seed traits are phylogenetically conserved. We found a broad interspecific variation in most seed traits, except for seed water content. Large interspecific variation in the temperature niche breadth was found among the studied species, but only four species, showed optimum germination at high temperatures of 35°C to 40°C, despite high temperatures under natural conditions. Approximately 35% of the studied species produced dormant seeds. Mechanical scarification was effective in overcoming physical dormancy and application of gibberellic acid was effective in overcoming physiological dormancy in five species. For the 29 species that seeds were stored for 24 months, 76% showed decreases in the germination percentage. The weak association between germination traits and life-history traits indicate that no particular plant functional type requires specific methods for seed-based translocations. Exceptions were the lianas which showed relatively larger seeds compared to the other growth-forms. Dormancy was the only trait strongly related to phylogeny, suggesting that phylogenetic relatedness may not be a good predictor of regeneration from seeds in cangas. Our study provides support to better manage seed sourcing, use, storage and enhancement techniques with expected reduced costs and increased seedling establishment success.
... These collections are the first step in facilitating the commercial production of native plants for restoration, and collections are used to establish seed increase fields and grow woody plants for transplanting onto public lands. Providing seeds from wild collections for increase, rather than restoring directly from field collections, is an important way to provide the quantities of seed needed for restoration without compromising wild populations (Nevill, Cross, & Dixon, 2018). Seed collected by the program is also provided to research partners focused on agronomic production of native seed, improving the effectiveness of seeding treatments, and improving restoration practices. ...
Seeds of Success (SOS) is a national seed collection program led by the Bureau of Land Management. SOS represents the most comprehensive native seed repository in the United States, supporting native plant restoration, management, and research. Since inception in 2000, SOS has collected seeds from over 24,400 native plant populations from ~5,600 taxa from 43 states. Collections include species important to wildlife, pollinators, and indigenous people, and over 10,000 collections have been shared for restoration and research use. We asked how many SOS sites have burned since collection, and identified 662 fires at 631 sites. If fire continues at the pace observed since 2011, an estimated 14% of collection sites will burn by 2050 and over 24% by 2080, putting genetic diversity at risk in areas where fire is linked with invasion. Analysis of 14 native forb species from the western United States found that many collections were from the warmest and driest portions of their range, areas at the highest risk of wildfire, subsequent invasion, and local extinction. SOS provides an opportunity to understand change in natural populations, and represents a critical repository of native plant genetic resources for conservation and future use.
... However, fewer than 10% of seeds deployed to fieldbased successfully establish to produce a mature plant (James et al. 2011;Ceccon et al. 2016). Given the challenges and cost of procurement and production of native seeds and the potential negative impacts of increasing seed collection rates on wild populations (Nevill et al. 2018), such a high failure rate is unsustainable and severely limits the success of seed-based restoration at the scales that are now required (Menz et al. 2013). Thus, there is an emerging need and market demand for techniques and technologies that improve restoration outcomes associated with direct seeding. ...
Seed enhancement technologies such as seed priming and seed coating, developed by the agricultural seed industry, are standard procedures for the majority of crop and horticultural seeds. However, such technologies are only just being evaluated for native plant seeds despite the potential benefits of such treatments for improving restoration effectiveness. Key approaches applicable to native seed include: 1) seed priming, where seeds are hydrated under controlled conditions and (2) seed coating, in which external materials and compounds are applied onto seeds through a diversity of treatments. These technologies are commonly employed to accelerate and synchronize germination and to improve seed vigor, seedling emergence, establishment, and to facilitate mechanized seed delivery to site, through standardizing seed size and shape. Seed enhancement technologies have now been tested on native seeds to overcome logistical and ecological barriers in restoration. However, further research is needed to extend the application of seed enhancements to a broader array of species, ecosystems, and regions as well as to evaluate new and innovative approaches such as the incorporation of beneficial soil microorganisms and plant growth regulators in the coatings. As techniques in native seed enhancement develop, these approaches need to be capable of being scaled‐up to provide the tonnages of seed required for global restoration.
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... However, success in restoration practice is elusive 5,6 and restoration practitioners are struggling to keep pace with increased demand for their services 7 . Several unresolved factors are impeding the success of restoration at the scale required to meet its global targets, such as sourcing adequate and appropriate plants 7,8 and assessing and monitoring the success of restoration interventions 6,9 . ...
Billions of hectares of natural ecosystems have been degraded through human actions. The global community has agreed on targets to halt and reverse these declines, and the restoration sector faces the important but arduous task of implementing programmes to meet these objectives. Existing and emerging genomics tools offer the potential to improve the odds of achieving these targets. These tools include population genomics that can improve seed sourcing, meta-omics that can improve assessment and monitoring of restoration outcomes, and genome editing that can generate novel genotypes for restoring challenging environments. We identify barriers to adopting these tools in a restoration context and emphasize that regulatory and ethical frameworks are required to guide their use.
... High levels of mortality during the seed germination, seedling emergence and early establishment phases, often exceeding 95%, are considered the most significant bottleneck in ecological restoration [6,7]. The scale of seed-based ecological restoration projects has increased dramatically in recent decades [8], and it is now frequently undertaken in areas where traditional onfoot surveys of seedling emergence and early plant establishment can be challenging (e.g., large postmining landforms such as waste rock dumps and tailings storage facilities). Additionally, counting and classifying seedlings to species level can be time-consuming and extremely difficult in diverse seedling communities [9][10][11]. ...
Monitoring is a crucial component of ecological recovery projects, yet it can be challenging to achieve at scale and during the formative stages of plant establishment. The monitoring of seeds and seedlings, which represent extremely vulnerable stages in the plant life cycle, is particularly challenging due to their diminutive size and lack of distinctive morphological characteristics. Counting and classifying seedlings to species level can be time-consuming and extremely difficult, and there is a need for technological approaches offering restoration practitioners with fine-resolution, rapid and scalable plant-based monitoring solutions. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) offer a novel approach to seed and seedling monitoring, as the combination of high-resolution sensors and low flight altitudes allow for the detection and monitoring of small objects, even in challenging terrain and in remote areas. This study utilized low-altitude UAV imagery and an automated object-based image analysis software to detect and count target seeds and seedlings from a matrix of non-target grasses across a variety of substrates reflective of local restoration substrates. Automated classification of target seeds and target seedlings was achieved at accuracies exceeding 90% and 80%, respectively, although the classification accuracy decreased with increasing flight altitude (i.e., decreasing image resolution) and increasing background surface complexity (increasing percentage cover of non-target grasses and substrate surface texture). Results represent the first empirical evidence that small objects such as seeds and seedlings can be classified from complex ecological backgrounds using automated processes from UAV-imagery with high levels of accuracy. We suggest that this novel application of UAV use in ecological monitoring offers restoration practitioners an excellent tool for rapid, reliable and non-destructive early restoration trajectory assessment.
... transdisciplinary science-and ethics-driven sustainable development outcomes. 6. Green business models reflecting the extended time frames required to mature restoration outcomes and maximise social and ecological benefits (e.g., Nevill et al. 2018), where industry champions are willing to step up and achieve ambitious goals and aim for lofty targets without immediacy of economic return. This is a context in which public-private partnerships can truly work for the good of all -something which is not always the case. ...
The United Nations’ recent declaration of a Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030) conveys the immense scales of degradation we face and the urgency of ecological recovery. Yet it speaks predominantly to productivity‐based approaches that may poorly balance conservation and development goals. As a result, it overlooks or distorts the very real potential for the holistic restoration of natural and cultural ecosystems to achieve lasting social and human health and wellbeing benefits, and help stem the grotesque loss of biodiversity and ecosystem health in these timesThere is need for a profound paradigm shift to address the prevailing economic and political climate that is keeping our world and biosphere on their current ominous trajectory. Such a paradigm shift could be based on the idea of a ‘restorative culture’. Practically, this could proceed by coupling the foundational philosophies and modus operandi of restoration ecology with public health medicine. The outcome would be an era of more healthy and more science‐ and knowledge‐driven sustainable restoration and local redevelopment. A restorative culture would recognise the fundamental linkages between ecosystems and human health, and consider biodiversity as fundamental to personal, community, and cultural well‐being and resilience. This requires public‐private and community and individual partnerships at city, township and watershed scales, as well as progressive industry champions working in collaboration with governments and the U.N.
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Restoration practices in arid ecosystems based on native species are urgently required to face desertification. In this context, knowledge about germination of species of arid ecosystems and seed enhancement technologies, such as seed priming to improve plant establishment, could be a basis to plan a restoration project. We assessed the effect of priming treatments to enhance germination in Stipa lagascae and Cenchrus ciliaris. Pretreated S. lagascae and C. ciliaris seeds (two levels of hydropriming, osmopriming and hardening) were subjected to diverse temperatures (20°C, 25°C and 30°C) and increasing drought stress levels (Ψw: −0.3 to −2 MPa). The priming tools, successfully implemented, enhanced seed and seedling performance. Hardened and osmoprimed C. ciliaris and S. lagascae seeds were found to germinate the most at 25°C and 20°C, up to about 96.7% and 90.84%, respectively. At Ψw = −1.6 MPa, no seed germination was observed in the two species in all priming pre-treatments. Pretreated grass seedlings exhibited sturdy strategies (seedling vigour up to 343), great plasticity (RDPI over 0.5) and a significant resource use efficiency. The hydrotime model analysis showed that priming slightly aids seeds of the two species in germination under lower water potential. In conclusion, priming could be a useful tool to improve germination rates, seedling establishment and plasticity under stressful drought conditions. Considering these results in the field of seed-based restoration and the identification of the most urgent research lines is paramount to guide the restoration practices.
With the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, restoration of damaged ecosystems is turning into a global movement. Restoration actions that are not based on science and an understanding of ecosystem function can thwart desired restoration outcomes at best and cause further damage to ecosystems at worst. Restoration often includes revegetation using seed. Where we source seed for restoration can make a difference for species establishment, restoration outcomes, and recovery of ecosystem function. However, sourcing seeds of native species, let alone genetically appropriate seed, is not currently possible for many restoration projects. The process of increasing and sourcing suitable seed for restoration includes many steps that need to be addressed typically years before a restoration project is initiated. These steps of seed collection, evaluation and development, field establishment, production, certification and procurement, storage, and finally restoration, need to be considered ideally at a scale larger than individual restoration projects and with research conducted in each step. We describe these steps as implemented in the United States, the challenges therein, and provide suggestions and examples of how groups can make efficient and effective progress toward getting the right seed in the right place at the right time.
The Australian native seed sector is critical for undertaking ecological restoration but faces serious challenges from interacting factors, including native vegetation loss and habitat fragmentation, low funding levels, and climate change impacts. The Australian Native Seed Survey was conducted in 2016–2017 to better understand sector structure, practitioner perceptions, and practice. It found that most native seed is collected from small and fragmented tenures and from geographic ranges that greatly exceed ‘local provenance’; that the diversity of species available for restoration is typically low; that native seed is seldom quality tested; and that most annual seed collections (wild or production) are small in volume suggesting overall seed yields are modest in quantity and not sufficient to support large-scale restoration. Together, survey findings raise serious concerns about the ability of the sector, as currently constituted and resourced, to meet projected future increases in the demand for seed or for achieving the effectiveness and efficiency required to meet UN-Decade type ecological restoration outcomes. Central to recommendations for sector improvement are the following focus areas: maturing the native seed sector; sustainability; seed production; licensing; seed testing and tracking; research..
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The growing demand for native seeds in ecological restoration and rehabilitation, whether for mining, forest or ecosystem restoration, has resulted in a major global industry in the sourcing, supply and sale of native seeds. However, there are no international guidance documents for ensuring that native seeds have the same standards of quality assurance that are regular practice in the crop and horticultural industries globally. Using the International Principles and Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration as a foundation document, we provide for the first time a synthesis of general practices in the native seed supply chain to derive the Principles and Standards for Native Seeds (‘Standards’). These practices and the underpinning science provide the basis for developing quality measures and guidance statements that are adaptable at the local, biome or national scale. Importantly, these Standards define what is considered native seed in ecological restoration and highlight the differences between native seeds versus seeds of improved genetics. Seed testing approaches are provided within a logical framework that outline the many different dormancy states in native seed that can confound restoration outcomes. A ‘pro‐forma’ template for a production label is included as a practical tool that can be customised for local needs and to standardise reporting to end‐users on the level of seed quality and germinability to be expected in a native seed batch. These Standards are not intended to be mandatory, however, the guidance statements provide the foundation upon which regulatory approaches can be developed by constituencies and jurisdictions.
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We argue that the need for a quality seed supply chain is a major bottleneck for the restoration of Chile’s native ecosystems, thus supplementing the list of bottlenecks proposed by Bannister et al. (2018). Specifically, there is a need for defining seed transfer zones, developing standards and capacities for properly collecting and storing seeds, reducing information gaps on seed physiology and longevity, and implementing an efficient seed supply chain with certification of seed origin and quality. Without such capacities, countries are unlikely to meet their restoration commitments. Although we focus on bottlenecks in Chile, the issues we raise are relevant to other countries and thus the global agenda for ecological restoration.
Arid lands face numerous restoration challenges due to infrequent and irregular precipitation which impacts plant germination, growth, and survival. Abundant seed predators, harsh surface conditions, and native seeds often poorly suited to mechanical distribution compound restoration challenges. Seed pellets (a.k.a. pods, seed balls and seed bombs), an aggregation of clay, soil, water and multiple seeds, have the potential to reduce some of the challenges. However, no formal guidelines based on an aggregated research review exist. Available publications, both peer‐reviewed and any public domain, were reviewed. Of the 24 publications found (some describing multiple tests), seed pellets tested on rangelands had nine negative effects, 10 neutral effects, and eight positive effects. Greenhouse testing showed five negative effects, two neutral effects and four positive effects. Forest systems had three neutral effects and two positive effects. Advantages in mechanical distribution were not well quantified and other effects were lumped together in germination and seedling establishment totals. The use of pelleted seed would benefit from a more mechanistic understanding of the interaction between the pellets and the systemic constraints. As long as the pellets themselves do not greatly reduce germination or establishment, they appear a potentially viable method for improving seed distribution and seeding efficiency, protecting seeds, and adding amendments. While the evidence is far from conclusive, seed pellets may also hold some advantages in increasing germination and establishment. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
The large and widespread decline of European migratory birds spending the northern winter in the Sahel suggests – on top of adverse changes in the breeding quarters ‒ pivotal changes in African overwintering areas. This paper attempts to answer three questions related to the sub-Saharan region: (1) can a change in the woody vegetation explain the decline of migratory birds feeding in trees, (2) ditto for the ground vegetation and bird species searching for food on the ground, and (3) are African bird species also in decline? The analysis is confined to the western Sahel (annual rainfall 100–400 mm, 15.5–18°N and 14.7–16°W), a region intensively used as rangeland but too dry for agriculture. The woody cover, largely stable before 1970, declined in the driest zone by 90% between the 1960s and 2000s, and by 40% in the more humid zone where the woody cover was already low in the 1960s. The woody vegetation changed in many places from an Acacia savanna into an open savanna with scattered bushes and few trees, concomitant with a shift in species composition. These changes took place during a prolonged drought (1969–1992), and were aggravated by increased grazing pressure after the construction of boreholes as evident from the loss of woody cover close to boreholes. A comparison of bird composition and densities in grazed and ungrazed areas and in three study sites intermittently surveyed between 1960 and 1994, with our surveys in the same sites in 2014–2015, revealed about 80% losses for birds feeding on the ground. The increased grazing pressure of livestock must have caused a large reduction of the soil seed bank and most likely also of insects. Between 15 and 16°W an estimated 8 million arboreal birds, mainly migrants, and 30 million ground-feeding birds, mainly granivorous residents, lost their habitat. Assuming that this zone is representative for the Sahelian rangelands as a whole, 1.5–2.0 billion birds have lost their habitat in half a century.
1. Rates of land degradation have outpaced our capacity to achieve global restoration goals using seed sourced exclusively from local, wild seed collections
2. In order to overcome this challenge, Seed Production Areas (SPA) deserve broader application and greater conceptual and practical rigour in their design to produce seeds effectively for a variety of recipient ecological systems.
3. Synthesis and applications. We suggest that large-scale seed production for restoration requires an interdisciplinary approach (including genetics, pollination ecology, horticulture, and seed science) and highlight some key questions that must be addressed in the development of SPA. We caution against focusing solely on maximising seed production, and instead advocate that scientific methods are embraced in the design of SPA to ensure that seed produced will be of high quality, enhancing the likelihood of long-term restoration success.
Large tracts (>1000 ha) of prairie are essential to the sustainability of grassland ecosystem services, yet in many ecoregions only small fragments remain. Glacial Ridge is among the largest prairie-wetland restorations ever attempted. Started in 2000, the 9000 ha project in northwest Minnesota, USA, was initiated to reconnect 14 small tallgrass prairie remnants. In all, 15,200 ha of contiguous habitat comprise the project's direct accomplishment. We created a partnership of more than 30 organizations, filled 177 km of drainage ditch, restored 1240 ha of wetland, and replanted 8100 ha. Flooding has been mitigated, water quality improved, and native vegetation reestablished. Animals not documented for decades have again occupied the site. Despite these accomplishments, the project would have been unnecessary if the land had been purchased in the 1970s, prior to conversion to agriculture, at one-tenth the restoration cost. Our challenges related to funding, differences in partners' restoration philosophy, community concerns about floods and tax losses, difficulties in obtaining seed, and follow-up management of invasive weeds. We summarize the restoration process and share basic principles that will help others to develop large-scale prairie restoration projects in the future.
At the core of plant regeneration, temperature and water supply are critical drivers for seed dormancy (initiation, break) and germination. Hence, global climate change is altering these environmental cues and will preclude, delay, or enhance regeneration from seeds, as already documented in some cases. Along with compromised seedling emergence and vigour, shifts in germination phenology will influence population dynamics, and thus, species composition and diversity of communities. Altered seed maturation (including consequences for dispersal) and seed mass will have ramifications on life history traits of plants. Predicted changes in temperature and precipitation, and thus in soil moisture, will affect many components of seed persistence in soil, e.g. seed longevity, dormancy release and germination, and soil pathogen activity. More/less equitable climate will alter geographic distribution for species, but restricted migratory capacity in some will greatly limit their response. Seed traits for weedy species could evolve relatively quickly to keep pace with climate change enhancing their negative environmental and economic impact. Thus, increased research in understudied ecosystems, on key issues related to seed ecology, and on evolution of seed traits in nonweedy species is needed to more fully comprehend and plan for plant responses to global warming.
Removal of top predators from ecosystems can result in cascading effects through the trophic levels below, completely restructuring
the food web. Cascades have been observed in small-scale or simple food webs, but not in large, complex, open-ocean ecosystems.
Using data spanning many decades from a once cod-dominated northwest Atlantic ecosystem, we demonstrate a trophic cascade
in a large marine ecosystem. Several cod stocks in other geographic areas have also collapsed without recovery, suggesting
the existence of trophic cascades in these systems.
Seed coating is the practice of covering seeds with external materials to improve handling, protection, and, to a lesser extent, germination enhancement and plant establishment. With an annual value exceeding US$1 billion dollars, this technology is mostly the preserve of the private research sector, with few links to the scientific community. Here, we analyse the science and industry of seed coating and its contribution to seed establishment and plant performance. We posit that a closer collaboration between academia and industry is critical to realising the potential of seed coating both as a tool for enhancing plant establishment in the face of the challenges posed to agricultural systems and to propel the multibillion-dollar global push for ecological restoration of degraded ecosystems.
Seed supply often limits the size and scope of restoration projects that require active revegetation. To meet demand from more and larger tallgrass prairie restoration projects in the Great Plains, U.S.A., seed is wild-harvested-collected from remnant habitats-using agricultural combine harvesters. We investigated the potential impacts of wild-harvest by comparing prairie remnants of northwestern Minnesota that varied in their histories of harvest frequency but were otherwise similar. We asked: (1) Do wild-harvested prairies differ in species composition from unharvested prairies? (2) If so, can life history traits be used to predict the response of prairie communities to wild-harvest? We conducted a retrospective study of 17 prairies harvested for seed frequently (annually/biennially), infrequently (2-3 times), or not at all. We sampled vegetation at 45 points within each site, recording all species present within 0.25 m2 quadrats. To address the first question, we used non-metric multidimensional scaling and Mantel tests, followed by analysis of variance contrasts to identify any species less likely to occur on frequently harvested sites ("harvest-negative"). For the second question, we used logistic regression to test whether lifespan, clonality, and seed production predicted harvest-negative species. Plant community composition in frequently harvested prairies differed from that of infrequently or unharvested prairies. Fourteen species, generally short-lived and non-clonal, were classified as harvest-negative. Our results suggest that frequent wild-harvest disrupts reproduction of species relying on seed, and that life history traits may provide a basis for predicting a species' response to wild-harvest.
With nearly two-thirds of the world's ecosystems degraded ( 1 ), the October 2010 meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP-10) highlighted ecological restoration as a significant opportunity for achieving global conservation goals ( 2 ). The restoration of nature, natural assets, and biodiversity is now a global business worth at least $1.6 trillion annually and likely to grow substantially ( 3 ). Although seed banks have emerged as a tool to protect wild plant species ( 4 ), off-site (ex situ) conservation measures at seed banks must be complementary to “on the ground” management at the conservation site. For example, whereas global targets are for restoration or management of at least 15% of each ecological region or vegetation type ( 1 , 5 ), recognition of the mechanisms required to achieve these goals is largely absent from policies.
Despite a principal contributor to the rapid economic growth, the mining industry in China produced a large amount of wasteland and caused water pollution and soil erosion as well as other environmental damages. In 2002, this industry generated 265.4 Mt tailings, 130.4 Mt gangue and 107.8 Mt smelting slags. The degraded land associated with mining is estimated to be 3.2 Mha by the end of 2004, deteriorating the land shortage of China. Restoration of mine wasteland began in late 1970s but the restoration process was sluggish. The overall restoration rate (the ratio of reclaimed land area to the total degraded land area) of mine wasteland was some 10-12% with a higher rate for coal mine spoils but a lower rate for metal-mined derelict land. From 1994 to 2004, 149 research papers were published about the restoration of China's mining wasteland, of which 70 were on metal-mined land and 61 on the non-metal-mined land. Although 37 institutions in China were involved in the restoration research, only a few remained active and productive. Metal-mined derelict land is often more metal toxic and deficient of macronutrients and is tougher for revegetation. Many substrate amelioration techniques were proposed and tolerant plant species were tested for use of reclamation of the metal-mined tailings. Five hyperaccumulator species have been reported in China for the potential use in phytoremediation. However, these accomplishments were all at laboratory or small-scale field demonstration stage and still far from the practical use in reality. To accelerate the restoration and utilization of mine wasteland, several recommendations are put forward in this review. Above these suggestions, the commitment and efficiency of the government at all levels are vital.