Underground quarries in the area of Agiades, Samos Island, Greece: Notes on historical topography and chronology

Abstract

This paper shows the need for cataloguing and comparing tool marks left on the quarries’ front in order for the chronological sequence of the different phases of limestone exposed in underground quarries at Agiades, Chora Samos, to be assessed. Up to now, an archaic and a roman phase of exploitation is inferred by surface pottery, tools, tool marks, the monuments themselves, and parallels from underground quarries on the island of Crete. The proximity of the quarries to a temenos of Apollo and the Nymphs is comparable to other cases from the Greek world. In an attempt to understand the social status of the quarrymen and their level of literacy, data from the graffiti observed in Eupalinos’ tunnel were correlated with the lack of patronym and ethnonym observed in quarries in the Aegean, and related to the characterization of the Samians as «πολυγράμματοι». A control of Hera’s sanctuary over the quarries at Agiades is implied by the frequent appearance of the letters HP on slabs used in Eupalinos’ tunnel.

Full text

Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece
Vol. 53, 2018
Underground quarries in the area of Agiades,
Samos Island, Greece: Notes on historical
topography and chronology
Tziligkaki Eleni
Stamatakis Michael Department of Geology and
Geoenvironment, National
and Kapodistrian University
of Athens
http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/bgsg.18835
Copyright © 2018 Eleni Tziligkaki, Michael
Stamatakis
To cite this article:
Tziligkaki, E., & Stamatakis, M. (2018). Underground quarries in the area of Agiades, Samos Island, Greece: Notes on
historical topography and chronology. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece, 53(1), 161-192.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/bgsg.18835
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Geological Society of Greece 161
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Research Paper
UNDERGROUND QUARRIES IN THE AREA OF AGIADES,
SAMOS ISLAND, GREECE: NOTES ON HISTORICAL
TOPOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY
Eleni K. Tziligkaki1 and Michael G. Stamatakis2
(1) Saranta Ekklēsion 39, GR-17124 Nea Smyrnē, Athens, Greece. e-mail:
eletzili@gmail.com
(2) Department of Geology and Geoenvironment, National and Kapodistrian
University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Ano Ilissia 157 84, Athens, Greece. e-
mail: stamatakis@geol.uoa.gr
Abstract
This paper shows the need for cataloguing and comparing tool marks left on the
quarries’ front in order for the chronological sequence of the different phases
of limestone exposed in underground quarries at Agiades, Chora Samos, to be
assessed. Up to now, an archaic and a roman phase of exploitation is inferred
by surface pottery, tools, tool marks, the monuments themselves, and parallels
from underground quarries on the island of Crete. The proximity of the quarries
to a temenos of Apollo and the Nymphs is comparable to other cases from the
Greek world. In an attempt to understand the social status of the quarrymen and
their level of literacy, data from the graffiti observed in Eupalinos’ tunnel were
correlated with the lack of patronym and ethnonym observed in quarries in the
Aegean, and related to the characterization of the Samians as «πολυγράμματοι».
A control of Hera’s sanctuary over the quarries at Agiades is implied by the
frequent appearance of the letters HP on slabs used in Eupalinos’ tunnel.
Keywords: Samos, quarries, tools, slaves, Nymphs, Crete.
Correspondence to:
Michael Stamatakis
stamatakis@geol.uoa.gr
DOI number:
http://dx.doi.org/10.126
81/bgsg.18835
Keywords:
Samos, quarries, tools,
slaves, Nymphs, Crete.
Citation:
Tziligkaki Eleni K. and
Stamatakis Michael G.,
(2018), Underground
quarries in the area of
Agiades, Samos Island,
Greece: Notes on historical
topography and
chronology. Bulletin
Geological Society of
Greece, 53, 161-192.
Publication History:
Received: 07/10/2018
Accepted: 10/11/2018
Accepted article online:
10/11/2018
The Editor wishes to thank
Prof. M. Stamatakis, Prof.
Hara Drinia and Ms Erietta
Vlachou for editorial
assistance.
©2018. The Author
This is an open access
article under the
terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution
License, which permits
use, distribution and
reproduction in any
medium, provided the
original work is
properly cited
Received:
BGSG
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Περίληψη
Η εργασία παρουσιάζει την ανάγκη για την καταγραφή και την σύγκριση των
ιχνών που αφήνουν τα εργαλεία στο μέτωπο ενός λατομείου, με στόχο να συναχθεί
η χρονολογική διαδοχή των διαφορετικών φάσεων εξόρυξης του ασβεστόλιθου
στα υπόγεια λατομεία των Αγιάδων Χώρας Σάμου. Μέχρι τώρα συμπεραίνουμε
μια αρχαϊκή και μια ρωμαϊκή φάση εκμετάλλευσης βάσει της επιφανειακής
κεραμικής, των εργαλείων, αλλά και των ιχνών που άφησαν οι ακμές των
εργαλείων στον λίθο. Παράλληλα εξετάζονται συγκριτικά, τα ίδια τα μνημεία και
ανάλογα υπόγεια λατομεία στην Κρήτη. Η εγγύτητα των λατομείων με τέμενος του
Απόλλωνος και των Νυμφών συγκρίνεται με άλλες περιπτώσεις στον ελληνικό
κόσμο. Σε μια προσπάθεια να κατανοηθεί η κοινωνική θέση των λατόμων και το
επίπεδο της γνώσης ανάγνωσης και γραφής αυτών συσχετίστηκαν στοιχεία από τα
χαράγματα (graffiti) στο Ευπαλίνειο όρυγμα με την απουσία πατρικού και εθνικού
ονόματος, απουσία που παρατηρείται σε άλλα λατομεία στο Αιγαίο. Τα στοιχεία
αυτά συνδυάστηκαν με τον χαρακτηρισμό των Σαμίων ως «πολυγραμμάτων». Η
συχνή εμφάνιση των αρχικών ΗΡ σε πλάκες του Ευπαλινείου ορύγματος ίσως
αποτελεί έναν υπαινιγμό για τον έλεγχο του Ηραίου στα λατομεία των Αγιάδων.
Λέξεις κλειδιά: Σάμος, λατομεία, εργαλεία, δούλοι, Νύμφες, Κρήτη.
1. Introduction
Herodotus (III,60) mentioned Samos in his history due to three major
technological projects: the temple of Hera, the aqueduct of Eupalinos and the
breakwater in the harbour of Samos. All three of them are in fact a result of
specialised knowledge on techniques of quarrying and mining. Most of the
building stones used for construction of the public and private buildings in
ancient Samos was extracted from open and underground limestone quarries,
located in the Agiades Hill, close to Chora Samos.
The impression of the temple of Hera must have been that of a forest of columns.
The tunnel of Eupalinos comprised skills in topography and underground
excavation for a length of 1036m and a maximum of 167m below ground level
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(Kienast, 1995, 37). The breakwater (called “χῶμα” by Herodotus, i.e. soil,
earth) demanded the use of immense amounts of stone for its construction
(Tölle-Kastenbein, 1976; 72ff; Kienast, 1978). Archaic Samos could have just
as well been the equivalent of Pericles’ classical Athens in terms of building
programs and employment of workmen, if these achievements had not been the
result of tyranny, the initiative of tyrant Polykrates (Mikrogiannakis, 1992;
Tziligkaki, 2013). It is even mentioned that tyrant Polykrates had a secret tunnel
dug from his residence in the acropolis to the harbor, so that he could secure a
safe exodus in case of danger (Herodotus III 146. Tölle-Kastenbein, 1976, 86-
89).
Part of Samos’ history is represented in its fortifications, where different
masonry styles depict analogous reconstruction phases (Kienast, 1978). The
trench around the city walls was dug by captives from Lesbos after a successive
siege by Polykrates (Herodotus III 39).
2. Method
The present paper projects the necessity of studying the tool marks left on the
rock at Agiades’ quarries, and attempts a synthesis of ancient texts, inscriptions,
and graffiti in order to shed light on the topography of the surrounding area, as
well as the level of literacy of the quarry workers. The majority of the data come
from the Eupalinos’ tunnel which is contemporary to the big three-aisled
underground chain of Agiades quarries, whose operation dates to the 6th century
BC based on scattered pottery in its vicinity. The usual practice for the
chronology of a quarry focuses on the identification of the quarry’s stone in
ancient monuments (Bessac, 1993, 213; Kokkorou- Alevras et al., 2010, 77) and
the dimensions of unfinished blocks in the interior or close to the quarry. In some
places, the “negative” print of an extracted block left on the rock may lead to
some speculations about the monument for which it was destined. The
observation of the tool marks left on the rock remains, however, the most
effective means for the identification of a possible evolution in quarrying
techniques through time (Bessac, 1993, 213).
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2.1 The quarries
Stamatiadēs (1866, 62) refers to an ancient quarry between Chora village and
the ancient port in Pythagorion, that in his day was a cave with a small church
in its interior, dedicated to the Presentation of the Virgin Mary (Παναγία
Σπηλιανή, Panagia Spēlianē). In front of its entrance is a church dedicated to St.
George. According to tradition, the cave was the residence of the Samian
Sibylla, Herophile, or Phyto/ Phoito (Pausanias X, 12.5; RE s.v. Phyto; s.v.
Herophile). The cave is deep and dark (Stamatiadēs, 1866, 62). Another ancient
quarry is located to the north of Kastro, at Haghia Trias Monastery (Karakasi,
2001, 18). Almost 45 galleries at an altitude of 150 m were quarried at the slopes
of Kastri Mountain and of the mountain lying to the NW (Tournefort, 1727 II,
119; Stamatiadēs, 1866, 63; Stamatakis, 1990, 2044; Fig. 1, 2045). The latter is
separated from Tatarouga Mountain by a ravine (Stamatiadēs, 1866, 63). The
name Tartarouga derives from the name of birds, which nestle in large numbers
in that mountain (Stamatiadēs, 1866, 63). The galleries are arranged at two levels
along the slope of Agiades hill with an altitude difference of 10m between them
(Stamatakis, 1990, 2044; Fig. 1, 2045) (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1: Samos, Agiades hill. The underground galleries arranged in two levels.
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As the altitude increases, so does the size of the underground galleries (Kienast,
1992, 208). The extraction site falls within the hard porcelaneous yellowish –
brown limestones of the Pythagorion Formation (Stamatakis, 1990, 2044 Fig. 1,
2045). The underground galleries are orientated North-South, their entrance
pointing to the South or to the Southeast (Stamatakis 1990, 2044 Fig. 1. Kienast,
1992, 208). Some small galleries were exploited until the 20th century for the
extraction of small and light limestone slabs (Kienast, 1992, 206). The big and
most impressive quarry was first mentioned by Pococke (1745) and then by
Stamatiadēs (1866, 63). A more detailed (but not final) report about the quarry
dimensions followed by H. Kienast (1992).
The big underground quarry is almost 50 m deep, on average 5 m high and
altogether about 20 m wide (Kienast, 1992, 208, Fig. 48 a.b). It is divided into
three aisles that were originally separated by ca. 1.50m broad walls; these walls
were gradually taken down until they reached the form of big pillars (3×8 m)
(Kienast, 1992, op.cit.), Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Samos, Agiades hill. The pillars of the three-aisled underground quarry.
On the quarry floor, one can still see the channels cut for the extraction of
angular blocks (Stamatiadēs, 1866, 63) Fig. 3.
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Fig. 3: Samos, Agiades hill. In the interior of the big underground quarry the
channels cut for the extraction of angular blocks are still visible.
In some places on the floor, traces of wedge slots for the extraction of a 120
cm×90 cm block are still seen (Kienast, 1992, 208).
Scattered shards found in the area of the quarries date it to the first half of the
6th c. BC, a period of intense building activity on the island (Kienast, 1992, 210).
The quarry also provided nitrate salts for the production of gunpowder during
the Greek Revolution in 1821 (Tournefort, 1727 II, 119; Stamatakis and
Zagkouroglou, 1984). Niter (KNO3) still occurs as white fluffy material in
fissures and joints of the beds in the lowermost series of galleries (Fig. 4).
High up, at an altitude of 280 m, a 10 m deep shaft has been located, but remains
unexplored (Vlastaridis and Evelpidou, s.d.).
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Fig. 4: Samos, Agiades hill. Niter (KNO3) still occurs as white fluffy material
in fissures and joints of the beds in the lowermost row of galleries.
3. Results
3.1 Proximity of quarries to a temenos of Nymphs and/or Apollo. The
Samian case.
In Samos’ tradition, the Nymphs along with the Leleges founded Heras’
sanctuary («Ἀδμήτην γάρ φησι, […] ἐπιμεληθῆναι τοῦ ἱεροῦ τοῦ καί νῦν
ὑπάρχοντος, πρότερον δὲ ὑπό Λελέγων καί Νυμφῶν καθιδρυμένου», FHG III,
Menodotus Perinthius vel Samius, p.103 fr.1). A reconstruction of the landscape
around Agiades quarries would comprise a stream and the spring of Eupalinos’
aqueduct, while swarms of birds called Tatarouga (hence the name of the nearby
hill) would fly around; a quite idyllic landscape, that would have been ideal for
the cult of Nymphs. A temenos of Apollo Nymphegetes and the Nymphs is
situated at Vrogana, a location 6km to the west of Chora village, according to an
inscribed slab found in an ancient well (Stamatiadēs, 1866, I, p.224; RE IA 2,
s.v. Samos, 2200; Tsakos, 1977, 75. Museum of Vathy cat.nr. 9). But the site of
Vrogana lies far away from the area of the quarries.
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Dunst (1972, 162-3) on the other hand adds a similar horos slab to the Museum
of Vathy, which also refers to Apollo Nymphegetes. Dunst locates the existence
of a temenos of the Nymphs in the area of Agiades, in accordance to Th.
Wiegand (Dunst, 1972, 163), who supports the transformation of the Nymphs
into frightening beings and reports the following custom back in 1910; when the
women went to wash in the Agiades spring, first they made the symbol of the
cross. Then it is a strict custom during the washing not to swear or speak
boisterously, so that the Najades (Ναϊάδες, Nymphs) would hear (Wiegand,
1970, 151; Dunst, 1972, 163; for the continuity of the characteristics of the
ancient Nymphs in the Greek folklore tradition, see Kamaretta, 1986, 284, 286).
Tsakos (1977, 76 nr.31) is reluctant to accept Dunst’s interpretation, but he
asserts that the cult of Nymphs must be considered absolutely certain inside the
cave behind Panagia Spēlianē Monastery. The practice of a cult would explain
the presence of piles of shards and handles from hydrias and stamped amphorae
(Tsakos, 1977, 76 nr.31). One of those stamped amphorae bears the letter
gamma, “an uncommon letter to stand alone in an amphora stamp”, see Grace,
1971, 63 nr.25, 90 nr.50). Last but not least, the 6th century BC Kore bearing the
dedicatory inscription [ὁ δεῖνα ἀ] νέθηκεν Νύμφη[ι]σιν ὁ Μάνδριος, was found
in the area of Panagia Spēlianē Monastery (Dunst, 1972, 162; Tsakos, 1977, 76
nr.31 does not correlate the statue with any of the aforementioned sanctuaries of
Apollo and the Nymphs).
The proximity of quarries to sanctuaries of Nymphs (and Pan), as well as Apollo
is also attested elsewhere in the Greek world (for a synthesis and cases from
Crete, see Tziligkaki, 2014).
a) At the underground marble quarry of Marathi on the island of Paros (Cyclades),
a person called Ἀδάμας Ὀδρύσης dedicated a relief placed at the entrance of the
quarry to the Nymphs (Tournefort, 1727 I, 239-240; Bodnar, 1973, 271; Bruno
2000, 92).
b) In Attica, at Vari Cave or the cave of “Νυμφολήπτου” (i.e. seized by the
Nymphs) the quarryman «Ἀρχέδημος ὁ Θηραῖος καὶ Χολ(λ)είδης ταῖς νύμφαῖς
ᾠκοδόμησε» and «φραδαῖσι νυμφῶν τἄντρον ἐξηργάσατο» (=Archedemos from
Thera and the deme of Cholleidai constructed this for the Nymphs and
rearranged the cave of the Nymphs on their suggestion. Archedemos is depicted
holding the tools of his craft, a pick and a chisel (Orlandos, 1994, 82 Fig.26, 83
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n.6; Schörner and Goette, 2004, 42 Pl. 29). At the interior of Vari Cave the
names of Pan (Schörner and Goette, 2004, 49 nr.6, 50 nr.8, Pl.33, Pl. 35) and
Apollo (Schörner and Goette, 2004, 47 nr.5, Pl.22.1, Pl.25.1) have been
inscribed as well.
c) At Palaiopolis on the island of Andros (Cyclades), two inscriptions – horoi of
the 4th century BC possibly indicate the existence of a quarry (Palaiokrassa-
Kopitsa, 2007, 41 Fig.60, 42). These horoi, inscribed on a vertically quarried
rock, are related to a sanctuary of the Nymphs, which according to Palaiokrassa-
Kopitsa (2007, 42) is probably located in the area of Apollo’s sanctuary.
d) The sanctuary of Apollo Marmarinos at Marmarion in southern Euboea,
mentioned by Strabo (10.1.6; C 446) and Eustathios (281, 4; Index s.v.
Μαρμάριον) could have been associated with the cult of Apollo by the
quarrymen and craftsmen working at the marble quarries of the area (Carpenter
and Boyd, 1977, 208).
e) Black-glazed shards of archaic and classical date with inscribed dedications to
Pan and the Nymphs were found in the Lera Cave, also known as the Cave of
Pan (Faure, 1962, 47; Davaras, 1967, 497, Pl. 369b). The cave lies close to the
coastal site of Stavros, at Akrotēri Peninsula, in western Crete (Davaras, 1967),
where extensive sandstone quarries with different phases of exploitation are
situated (Kelletat, 1979, 47; Zamani and Maroukian, 1981, 156 fig.4; Raab,
2001, 126 site SV7; Tziligkaki, 2014, site X5, 58-62, fig.X35- X81).
f) The name of Apollo, along with engraved footprints, has been inscribed thrice
(Ἀπόλλωνος Ἀπόλλωνος Ἀπόλλωνι) on a rock at the area of the limestone
quarries of Sopata Vernegadi at Cavo Sidero, the northeastern cape of Crete (ICr
III, vii 19; Tziligkaki, 2014, 403-404).
g) On Kythera Island, at Site II of Avlemonas quarries, an hermaic stele similar to
the Laconian ones of Apollo Karneios (SE Peloponnese], was deposited in a
niche carved in a rock-cut room that presumably served as a sanctuary of the
god (Kokkorou-Alevras et al., 2009, 179, Fig. 6, Pl. 1.ii).
h) In the Hellenistic acropolis of the city of Rhodes, artificial caves are linked with
the so called Nymphaia, underground constructions that are however open to the
sky (Rice, 1995, 388, 392, Fig. 10-15, 393 Figs. 16 and 20, 395 Fig.22).
Underground caves, water, the Nymphs and Pan are correlated in this case as
well (Rice, 1995, 402).
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3.2 The quarry workers
Apart from Herodotus’ information about the origin of the people who dug
Samos’ fortification trench, nothing else is known yet about the identity, origin
or working conditions of the quarry workers employed in the Agiades’ quarries.
The study of Eupalinos’ aqueduct may offer some hints about the archaic period;
the remains of rock in the meeting point of the tunnels implies that two workmen
worked side by side digging the aqueduct’s tunnel and perhaps a third one was
shovelling and carrying outside the extracted material (Kienast, 1995, 94, Pl. 23,
Fig.17). The two cisterns in the southern tunnel entrance (Kienast, 1995, 123-
126) must have supplied the water needed for the workmen and the tempering
of their metal tools.
Mason’s marks are painted with red paint on the tunnel walls in the form of
letters used as numbers (Kienast, 1995, 193). Male names are also written in the
genitive form, such as ΑΡΙΣΤΙΔΩ, ΑΣΒΙΔΕΩ, ΦΑΙΔΕΩ, ΖΩΙΛΩ, ΞΑΝΘΙΩ,
ΠΟΣΕΔΕΩΝΙΩ, ΠΥΘΩ, as well as two names in the nominative: ΑΣΠΡΑΤΙΟΣ
and ΠΥΘΙΔΟΚΡΑΤΗΣ, the latter in smaller letter form (Kienast 1995, 193, Pl.
40.4 with the name of Άσβιδέω written from right to left). Kienast (1995, 194)
regards that the names reveal the person responsible for each section, even
though their task is not clear.
Eupalinos on the other hand, the architect of the tunnel, conceals his name; his
“signature” and heritage to posterity is the inscription ΠΑΡΑΔΕΓΜΑ -more of
an enigma, but also the key to anyone who can understand his engineering
masterpiece (Kienast, 2004, 88-89). It is thanks to Herodotus (III, 60) that his
name and descend comes down to us: Μεγαρεύς Εὐπαλῖνος Ναυστρόφου (i.e.
Eupalinos, son of Naustrophos, from the city of Megara). To the curiosities of
Samos, listed by the Samian Menodotus, one could include the way the Samians
chose to write their names in inscriptions; «ἐπέγραφον γάρ πατρόθεν
προτάσσοντες τὸν πατέρα», so that the name in genitive comes first, followed
by the name in nominative (FHG III, Menodotus Perinthius vel Samius, p.105
fr.2; Gregorius Cor. p.50-51; Corpus parœmiographorum Graecorum, p.386 10
C). But the names in genitive at Eupalinos’ tunnel do not seem to apply to that
case.
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If we accept Kienast’s interpretation about names of persons responsible for
each section (Kienast, 1995, 194), then the lack of patronym in the graffiti of the
tunnel is striking. A family tradition is meaningless in the community of slaves,
because there is no legal relationship of the children to their parents (Solin, 2008,
122; Faraguna, 2014, 172). At the marble quarries of Karystos the name of
ΔΙΟΚΛΗC (Lambraki 1980, 47, Fig.10a) is inscribed without a patronym or
ethnic name. Single names in the genitive can indicate the name of the slave
rather than his master (Baldwin Bowsky, 2009, 213-214). In that context, the
genitives ΠΥΡΡΟΥ and ΠΑΡ ΣΟ inscribed on quarries of the roman period on
Thasos Island (Kozelj and Wurch –Kozelj, 2009) could reflect their status.
In the quarry area of Sopata Vernegadi at Cavo Sidero (the outmost northeastern
cape of the island of Crete) a quarryman named Pythas took the initiative to
inscribe his name and profession, but not his patronym or ethnic name: Πυθάς
λιθοκόπος (ICr III, vii.6. About the quarry, Papadakis 1983, 384). Fraser and
Matthews (1987, sv. Πυθάς) reluctantly date the inscription to the 2nd c. BC. [the
word λιθοκόπος appears twice in Attica; in an inscription of the Roman period
(IG III.1, n.307), and in one of the Byzantine period (IG III.2, n.3455)].
The names in the nominative may either belong to free men or to slaves; In a 6th
century BC building inscription -engraved on a rock on the road leading from
the village Skoureika to the village Neochori- the names of two τέκτονες
(Εὐρυκλῆς and Χαρμόφιλος) who built a (wooden) bridge, are referred in the
nominative without their patronym; instead, their profession is emphasized
(Dunst, 1972, 124-126). The lack of patronym is also observed in the name of
the citizens (Tελέσανδρος and Δημαγόρης) appointed by the city to supervise the
construction, but here the absence of any details in -what appears to be- an
abridged version of the original archival copy is expected (for discrepancies in
public documents, see Faraguna, 2014, 167). However, the profession of
τέκτονες (craftsmen, carpenters) is usually related to people of lower strata or
slaves (Dunst, 1972, 125 nr.46).
In the 6th century BC slavery was practiced in the island of Samos, according to
the data provided by Herodotus; the captives from Lesvos were used to dig the
trench of Samos fortifications (Herodotus III 39). In the time of pharaoh Amasis,
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a courtesan (ἑταίρα) of Thracian origin, named Rhodōpis, was a slave to Iadmōn
of Samos, the same man who owned the famous Aesop (Herodotus ΙΙ 134:
«γενεὴν μὲν ἀπὸ Θρηίκης, δούλη δὲ ἦν Ἰάδμονος τοῦ Ἡφαιστοπόλιος ἀνδρὸς
Σαμίου, σύνδουλος δὲ Αἰσώπου τοῦ λογοποιοῦ». Zelnick-Abramovitz 2005,
63). She was brought to Egypt by Xanthes of Samos (Herodotus II, 135:
«Ῥοδῶπις δὲ ἐς Αἴγυπτον ἀπίκετο Ξάνθεω τοῦ Σαμίου κομίσαντος…»),
probably a slave of Thracian origin according to Zelnick-Abramovitz (2005,
171). The name Ξανθίας is common in slaves and implies a northern origin (see
Zelnick-Abramovitz 2005, 172 note 79 for examples in Greek comedy). In that
context, the name Ξανθίας, painted in Eupalinos’ tunnel, points to a slave of
northern origin. Additionally, the name of Ποσειδώνιος could belong to a slave
named after his qualities, analogous to god Poseidon (see Masson 1990, 152,
despite the fact that he excluded the case of naming slaves after Zeus, Apollo or
Poseidon). The Samians were called πολυγράμματοι by Aristotle (FHG II 160
frg. 181; RE IA 2, s.v. Samos, p. 2206), because they granted citizenship to
slaves on payment of 5 staters. The reason for such an action was the scarcity of
citizens due to their sufferings by the tyrants (Photius Lex.v. «Σαμίων ὁ δῆμος
ὡς πολυγράμματος…Οἱ γὰρ Σάμιοι καταπονηθέντες ὑπό τῶν τυράννων, σπάνει
τῶν πολιτευομένων ἐπέγραψαν τοῖς δούλοις ἐκ πέντε στατήρων τὴν
ἰσοπολιτείαν, ὡς Ἀριστοτέλης ἐν τῇ Σαμίων πολιτείᾳ»).
The word πολυγράμματος means the one marked with many letters (LSJ, 1968,
s.v. πολυγράμματος, and s.v. στιγματίας, one who bears tattoo-marks, esp.
branded culprit or runaway slave. The branding of the Samian captives with the
Athenian owl, and the equivalent branding of the Athenian captives with the
samian boat samaina, is considered to be a fiction of Duris, FHG II 452 nr.59).
The word also means of great knowledge, very learned (LSJ, 1968, s.v.
πολυγράμματος ΙΙ). According to Andron Ephesius (FHG II 348 nr.7), the
Samians were called πολυγράμματοι because they introduced the 24 Greek
letters (Suidas: «Σαμίων ὁ δῆμος ὡς πολυγράμματος…ὅτι παρά Σαμίοις εὑρέθη
πρώτοις τὰ κδ΄ γράμματα ὑπό Καλλιστράτου, ὡς Ἄνδρων ἐν Τριπόδι»). Indeed,
the 24 letters of the Greek alphabet are painted in the walls of the Eupalinos’
tunnel as a representation of numbers (Kienast 1995, 193. Kienast, 2004, 81
n.23). The level of literacy in archaic Samos is also reflected in a passage from
Herodotus; the tyrant Polykrates employed the citizen Maiandrios, son of
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Maiandrios, as a scribe (Herodotus III 123: «ὁ Πολυκράτης [….] ἀποπέμπει
πρῶτα κατοψόμενον Μαιάνδριον Μαιανδρίου ἄνδρα τῶν ἀστῶν, ὅς οἱ ἦν
γραμματιστής»).
The evidence from the Eupalinos’ aqueduct is most informative about the
literacy of the workmen engaged in the tunnel construction, whether they were
freemen or slaves. There are numerous symbols inscribed on the cover slabs, for
instance the letters AP. The letter M appears 6 times, the letter H once (Kienast,
1995, 194). The combination HP appears strikingly often, but not as many times
as the combination HΡΦ that appears 25 times in all possible scripts, (Keinast,
1995, 194). The published figures of ΗΡΦ (Kienast, 1995, Pl. 37, 3-5) are
indicative of at least three handwritings. The most striking feature at the same
time is the cursive script (Kienast, 1995, 194). Kienast (1995, 194) suggested
that these symbols could be interpreted as simple signs of the carriers or sellers
and therefore as monograms of their names. In our view, the often combination
of the letters HP is rather conspicuous; the monogram could stand for Hera or
her sanctuary, as in some stamped Samian amphorae (see Grace, 1971, 93 nr.77).
After all, the quarries of Agiades provided the building stone for Rhoikos’ Hera
temple. An interference or even control of Heras’ sanctuary over the exploitation
of the limestone quarried from Agiades seems to be quite intriguing.
Unfortunately, masons’ marks are not reported so far from the underground
quarries of Agiades. However, one fact is certain; the quarry workers at Agiades
hill knew well the topography and petrology of the area. They rejected the
possibility of exploiting the soft and unconsolidated diatomic limestones of the
Chora Beds and preferred the well-bedded, porous bitumen-bearing limestones
of the Pythagorion Formation (Stamatakis, 1990, 2045; Owen et al., 2011). The
rooms and pillars technique of the big quarry reveals expertise in mining and
quarrying techniques and implies the employment of a wide range of skilled
workmen. During the morning, the sunlight would have sufficiently brightened
the interior of those galleries whose entrance pointed to the Southeast (Fig. 1).
Rock stratification dictated the quarry opening to the East-West axis. An
entrance to the East indicates that the quarry is lit better during the day, whereas
an entrance to the west allows better lighting later in the day (Younes and Ouaja,
2009, 233).
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3.3 Tool marks
Marks that seem to have been made by a double – dented pick (see Bessac, 1997,
25 Fig.1b; Bessac, 2002, 35 Fig.21 nr.2) and a tool with levelled point occur in
the walls of the lower row of Agiades underground quarries (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5: Samos. Tool marks observed in the walls of the lower row of Agiades
underground quarries. Height of the image 0.60 m.
A quarrying pick with a sharp point was also used in smoothing out the sidewalls
of Eupalinos’ tunnel (Kienast, 1995, Pl.41,7-8) and at the interior of one of the
one-aisled underground quarries at the lower row of Agiades hill. (Figs 6 and 7).
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Fig. 6: Samos, Agiades hill. A quarrying pick with a sharp point used in
smoothing out the sidewalls of a one-aisled underground quarry. Height of the
outcrop approximately 2 m.
Fig. 7: Samos, Agiades hill. Interior of a one-aisled quarry.
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The skeparnon (= short-handed axe) was the characteristic tool of the
stonemasons for the working on the soft calcium marl (Kienast, 1995, 45 n. 126,
Pl. 16.4-5). With the use of harder stone in the Late Archaic period, the
skeparnon went out of use (Reuther, 1957, 22. Kienast, 1995, op.cit.). The
breadth of its cutting edge is estimated to have been almost 0.06 m. (Reuther,
1957, 24, 33). The metallic pickaxe found in Cistern 2 of Eupalinos’ aqueduct
(Jantzen et al., 2004, 130 n. 810, Pl. 24) is suggested to be correlated with the
quarrying activity at Agiades hill during the Roman and perhaps Early Byzantine
period. It is paralleled with tools of the Roman and Early Byzantine period in
Italy and Sardis (Jantzen et al., 2004, 130 n. 810.; For Sardis: Waldbaum, 1983,
48-49, Pl.11 nr.132, nr.136, nr.140). Only a few clay oil lamps dating to the
imperial times were found in the tunnel, the majority of them being byzantine
(Jantzen et al., 2004, 13). The presence of water springs and/ or cisterns close to
quarries was necessary not only due to the hard labour of the quarry workers
(notice the hydria of the second half of the 6th century BC found in Eupalinos’
tunnel; Jantzen et al., 2004, 200 n.1291, Pl.40) but also for the tempering of their
metallic tools. Whatever the case might have been, Cistern 2 seems the
appropriate place for a workman to lose his tool. The pickaxe is 0.24 m long; its
oval wooden shaft –now lost- measured 0.03 m in diameter (Jantzen et al., 2004,
130 n.810, Pl. 24). According to the published sketch and measurements, its
sharp end is 0.06 m long and almost 0.015 m wide, and its wide end measures
0.045 m. Its weight is not recorded. The tool belongs to the type 3 “Marteau
taillant” by Bessac (1986b, 39, 40 n.2, Fig.10 nr.5).
3.4 The identification of the quarried limestone in Samian monuments
3.4.1 The Heraion
The research of the German Archaeological Institute of Athens conducted on
Samos, based on the material and the size of the quarries at Agiades, concluded
that they provided the limestone for the Rhoikos-temple of Hera (Kienast, 1992,
210). Stamatiadēs (1866, 63) and Stamatakis (1990) attributed the building
material of the city walls to the underground quarries of Agiades area.
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Unfortunately the site of Hera’s temple was exploited as a quarry itself as soon
as the 3rd century AD (Kyrieleis et al., 1985, 400 n.65), thus providing ready
blocks of stone that most probably were transferred overseas (Reuther, 1957,
39). As a result, there is not a single block of stone in situ that can with certainty
be attributed to the archaic temple, a temple whose stone masonry comprised
almost 6000m³ of limestone blocks (Reuther, 1957, 39). Despite this loss, the
brown limestone blocks used in the exterior peristasis foundation were used as
though they had come from the quarry; their faces are not parallelepiped, but are
blunt pyramid like, steep faced (Reuther, 1957, 33). In some of them the bosses
used for the hoisting of the blocks were left in place (Reuther, 1957, 24). Their
outer faces are rectangular with large strokes of a pointed tool, like the modern
skeparnon (Reuther, 1957, 33).
3.4.2 The Sacred Way
Luckily enough, the limestone of Agiades was used for the slabs that paved the
Sacred Way. That means that the quarries operated in the late 2nd century AD
and in the beginning of the 3rd century AD, if we judge from a Samian bronze
coin of Caracalla found in the compressed filling of the Sacred Way (Kyrieleis
et al., 1985, 399, 404, 406 Fig.31). The slabs used were almost 4.5m wide,
around 0.30m thick and up to more than 2m² in volume (Kyrieleis et al., 1985,
399, 401 Fig. 27, 405 Fig.30). Their dimensions do not coincide with the
dimensions of an extracted block from the floor of the big underground quarry
reported by Kienast (1992, 208). Unless such dimensions coincide with the slabs
used for the slightly raised pavement of the Sacred Way (for the pavement, see
Kyrieleis et al., 1985, 399). It is estimated that 10000m³ of limestone was
extracted to pave the Sacred Way with slabs (Kyrieleis et al., 1985, 399 n.61).
If to those 10000m³ one adds the estimated 6000m³ for the construction of the
Heraion, then an approximate volume of 16000m³ must have been extracted
from the quarries of the Agiades hill. The dimensions of the big three-aisled
underground quarry reported by Pococke (1745), Stamatiadēs (1866) and
Kienast (1992), do not seem to correspond to the volume of such an exploitation.
The nearby one-aisled galleries could be considered as possible roman quarries,
but a detailed examination of the tool marks left on the rock is strongly advised
before the deduction of any conclusions.
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3.4.3 The renovated Rhoikos altar (?)
Two large decorative ornaments, made of brown porous limestone, a large ionic
kymation and a large ovum (ᾠόν), may be of a Roman age. The dimensions of
the ovum match the marble ones of the large renovated Rhoikos altar – an altar
that dates to the Roman period (Reuther, 1957, 40, Zeichnung Z49 and Z48).
Their place at the epistepsis of the cella walls is disputed by Reuther (1957, 40)
due to their large dimensions and corroded surface that implies a long-term
exposure to weather conditions.
4. Discussion
4.1 The fortifications
The quarries entrance at an altitude of 145 m, are not visible from ground level,
but the city walls must have had a view and control of them. Even though the
archaic wall had few towers (Kienast, 1978, 72; Tsakos, 2006, 301), Tower 28
on the top of the mountain must be the one mentioned by Herodotus (III, 54.
Tsakos, 2006, 295 Fig.1, 302). Samos’ city walls are well preserved but the
stones do not come from the Agiades quarry. Their building material comes
mainly from the quarry close to the Monastery of Panagia Spēlianē (RE IA 2,
s.v. Samos, p. 2185). So far, four construction phases of the city walls have been
identified; the polygonal one dates to the archaic period before Polykrates’ era
or at least at the first years of his reign (Kienast, 1978, 102). It is assumed that
the city walls pre-existed when the captives from Lesbos dug the trench around
it (Kienast, 1978, 93 n.284, 102). The isodomic construction phase dates in the
years between 310-290 B.C. Such an expensive project is attributed either to
Demetrius Poliorketes or to tyrant Duris (Kienast, 1978, 97). The siege of Philip
V caused damage to the fortifications that were repaired with large rectangular
dressed stones (Tsakos, 2006, 298 figs. 4-5, 299). The last phase, of pseudo-
polygonal masonry, most probably dates to the first decade of the 2nd c. B.C.,
especially in the time span of the Rhodian dominion on Samos in the years 197-
190 B.C. (Kienast, 1978, 99).
Therefore, it is expected that traces of tools that were used in the last
reconstruction phase of Samos’ city walls would most probably survive on the
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faces of the quarries, unless of course all the construction phases are represented
in different quarry faces. In that case, any surviving marks of tools or wedges
should be recorded and then compared to other well dated marks primarily on
the island of Samos and secondarily elsewhere. The usual practice is to use the
stone extracted from the trench as building material for the fortifications. But it
seems that this was not the case on Samos, since Herodotus’ information may
imply that the city walls already existed by the time Polykrates made the captives
dig the trench (Kienast, 1978, 93 n.284). In that case, the vertical and “well
sharpened” surfaces of the trench (Kienast, 1978, 93, Pl. 37-37) could provide
important data for any surviving tool marks on the rock and therefore serve as a
guide for tool marks in the archaic period.
4.2. Eupalinos’s Aqueduct
The Eupalinos’ Aqueduct may offer more evidence. The stream bed of the spring
of Eupalinos’ aqueduct was straightened and technically smoothed out. The side
walls are vertically worked in a height between 1.50 and 2.50 m in a length of
ca. 18m upstream (Kienast, 1995, 89, Fig. 26b). Unfortunately, the clear tool
marks on the surfaces of the rock could not be satisfactorily photographed due
to the dense vegetation (Kienast, 1995, 89 n.169), but another visit at the site
may turn out more fruitful. Kienast interpreted the tool marks left on the tunnel
walls as a result of the use of hammer and chisel (Kienast, 1995, 94). Despite
the fact that special quarrying techniques were not detected and that small stone
chippings were extracted (op. cit.), the most common tool of quarrymen was the
pick (Orlandos, 1994, 116.; Bessac, 1986b, 293; Id., 1997, 9, 25 Fig.1.; Korres,
2000, 72 Fig. 9). It is the friable nature of the rock that gives the impression that
small stones were extracted. It is worth wondering though whether the extracted
stone from the tunnel was exploited for the construction of the «χῶμα» (the
breakwater). An analogous case comes from Melos Island, in the western
Cyclades (Aegean Sea); the debris dug out for the construction of a Nazi Bunker
at Adamas (the island’s port) was used for the formation of a small plateau at
the quay entrance. This area was then further expanded, so that the destruction
by the sea would be prevented (Karnava s.d.).
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4.3. The underground quarries of Crete Island
Crete Island offers a variety of underground limestone quarries (see Tziligkaki,
2014) that could be compared with those of Samos. Such quarries are situated at
the site of Vintzi in Kalathas (Akrotēri Peninsula), at Kato Galatas in north-
western Crete, Peristeres and Sternes at Eleutherna (Stampolidis, 2004), Spēlios
at Haghioi Apostoloi (Hood et al., 1964, 71-72, fig. 11G), Maroulas at Maroulas
village of Rethymnon Prefecture, Labyrinthos (Spratt, 1865. Petrocheilou, 1990.
Zoupis, 1998. Patroudakis, 2004a; 2004b) and Mikrē Labyrinthos (Fig. 8) at
Messara, as well as the quarry of Chatzidaki-Niva in the Knossos area (Evans,
1921, 533, Fig.388; Id., 1928, 62.; Shaw, 1971, 38-41, fig.30a-c.; Kalokairinos,
1989-1990). The quarries belong to the type of pillars and galleries with the
exception of the smaller Kalathas and Spēlios quarry (for the type see, Bessac
1986; also Korres, 2000).
Fig. 8: Crete Island. The underground quarry of Mikrē Lavyrinthos at Mesara.
The site of Spēlia (Σπήλια) close to Knossos owes its name to the numerous
underground quarries along the sides of the hill (Spratt, 1865. Kalokairinos
1989-1990, 28-31. Alexiou, 1973, 464) Fig. 9.
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Fig. 9: Crete Island. Two one-aisled underground quarries at Spēlia, in the area
of Knossos.
At the site of Haghia Eirini two one-aisled quarries are situated side by side
(Fig. 10).
Fig. 10: Crete Island. The one-aisled underground quarries at Haghia Eirini,
close to Knossos.
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One of them is 7 m long, 3 m wide and 4 m high. They both resemble two places
from Agiades; the three one-aisled quarries mentioned by Kienast (1992, 208
Fig. 46-47), and the original stage of extraction at the big underground quarry
of Agiades, where a wall divided the aisles before it gradually took the shape of
pillars (Fig. 3). The majority of the Cretan underground quarries exhibit faces
that date to the Roman period. However, there are hints that the two big Sternes
and the lower strata of Peristeres at Eleutherna–now covered by earth and debris-
may have an archaic age (Tziligkaki, 2014). In that case, the comparison of the
tools and techniques used in Eleutherna and Samos could be priceless.
The use of underground artificial spaces as refuge sites was common in both
Samos and Crete; Eupalinos’ tunnel served as a refuge from the end of the 6th
century AD until the middle of the 7th century AD, a time when the aqueduct
was out of use (Jantzen et al., 2004, 5, 12-13). During the continuous revolutions
of Cretans in the Ottoman period, the Labyrinth [Lavyrinthos] of Gortys served
as a refuge for whole villages of the Messara plain; each village occupied a room
of this vast underground artificial cave and named the room after the village
(Patroudakis, 2004a, 32). Captain T.A.B. Spratt (1865 II, 47) mentioned that in
the years of the Greek Independence War (1822-1828) the villagers built narrow
rooms with rubble walls along the sides of the wider corridors, close to the
entrance. The relief oil lamps found in the interior of Lavyrinthos are now lost
(Patroudakis, 2004b, 54).
5. Conclusions
The underground quarries at Agiades represent the following types: a) one –
aisled gallery, and b) underground spaces supported by pillars. The stratigraphy
of the porous limestone must have dictated the North – South axis, which
prevented the opening of an eastern entrance. Such an orientation would have
allowed more light during the morning. The social status of the quarrymen is
inferred by the data offered by the archaic Eupalinos’ tunnel. The names in
genitive, especially those of Ξανθίας and Ποσειδώνιος, as well as the lack of
patronym are indicatives of slaves. The level of literacy in archaic Samos is
correlated with the characterization of the Samians as πολυγράμματοι; it is
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reported by Aristotle that in Samos the citizenship was granted to slaves due to
lack of men due to the sufferings of the citizens by the tyrants.
The quarries provided ample building stone for the Hera temple. In the temple
foundation, traces of tool marks from the quarry are still seen in the surface of
blocks of the brown porous limestone. The marks are made by a tool whose
cutting edge is 0.06m wide. The same tool was used for the decoration motifs
and the symbols inscribed on limestone slabs used at Eupalineion. The often
appearance of the monogram HP on these slabs perhaps implies the control of
Hera’s sanctuary over the exploitation of the extracted limestone; the large three-
aisled underground quarry of Agiades seems to be the best candidate for an
archaic exploitation, due to the 6th century pottery scattered in the area.
On the other hand, the lower row of Agiades with the one-aisled galleries recall
in arrangement the ones in the vicinity of roman Knossos. It is possible that the
extraction of the slabs used for the renovation of the Sacred Way at Heraion in
the 2nd century AD took place in these underground quarries. Dense, curvy
strokes are observed on their surfaces. There is also a hint for the use of the
double dented pick. A roman pickaxe found in Cistern 2 of Eupalinos’ aqueduct
is related to the quarrying activity at Agiades.
This paper suggests the necessity of cataloguing and comparing the tool marks
observed in the underground quarries of Agiades to a) the tool marks at
Eupalinos’ stream bed, b) to the possible ones at the trench of Samos
fortifications, and c) to those on the rough blocks of Heraion foundations. The
tool marks at Eupalinos’ tunnel indicate the use of a pointed pick, but the density
and orientation of the strokes may have been the result of the narrow space
available to the quarry men, and therefore they cannot provide a successful
parallel.
The site of the quarries exhibits a continuous use, if we judge from the use of
the extracted limestone in ancient monuments; during the archaic period the
quarries operated for the Rhoikos temple and the archaic one. Their operation in
the Roman period is primarily deduced by the renovation of the Sacred Way and
secondarily by the fragment of a large porous ovule that matches the marble
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ovules of the renovated Rhoikos altar. The proximity of the quarries with a
temenos dedicated to Apollo and the Nymphs should not be surprising at all;
instead, the case of Agiades should be added to the list of several other analogous
cases in the Greek world.
6. Acknowledgements
Special thanks are owed to Dr. Demetrius Bosnakis, Assistant Professor in the
University of Crete, for his remark about the lack of patronym in the names of
the slaves. The shrine of Apollo at Kythera Island was kindly indicated by Dr.
Manolis Stefanakis, Associate Professor in the University of Aegean. The
authors would like to thank Dr. Panos Valavanis, Professor in the National and
Kapodistrian University of Athens, for his review. Thanks are expressed to Dr.
James R. Hein, United States Geological Survey, California, for revising the
final version of the manuscript.
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