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Abstract

This article reviews the background, introduction, and critical response to new criminal offenses of coercive control in England/Wales and Scotland. How the new Scottish offense is implemented will determine whether it can overcome the shortcomings of the English law. We then review new evidence on four dimensions of coercive control: the relationship between “control” and “violence,” coercive control in same-sex couples, measuring coercive control, and children’s experience of coercive control. Coercive control is not a type of violence. Indeed, level of control predicts a range of negative outcomes heretofore associated with physical abuse, including post-separation violence and sexual assault; important differences in coercive control dynamics distinguish male homosexual from lesbian couples; measuring coercive control requires innovative ways of aggregating and categorizing data; and how children experience coercive control is a problem area that offers enormous promise for the years ahead.


 !"#$%&#'%%
%!( )*(()+,,-
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)*(0$))123
,*)
 ()!)+!( )*((
,,-+"4*5!(
$ 6(71189*(!(((:
*!);!/<()(+!(*
<(!=5))!>(#"!
(!!?(+!(
!)!)!'<)!($"0
$4'!7!>(#"7@@A9"0
5!B(-)')7!.)C.)C9
7D!E1289
#' ((F0B +!!
(F0!!+(.!!!+
(*!/!"!)*!?+
!))+(!/F!?)
)(*+*?)G)
(?)!<)!(#B!
711897!! ,''+*!9(#!
5!)!"0711A97!6(9
*
5!!*))((
(G$'!!((
!!!!(!!,?
()(!!*
H4E4?)E)E
!4?(+(B
(()!(!!+*)
)<?))E((
+)!!?)(*)E)
I)+(CE!!?
*!(()(!+!21
B"*11@0$)*!B)H>)4
;!+<)**!
!)(!(<*!*)!
5!*!!(!(
)C)!)!
?)!(!
)+(!+!!!*))
+*+7.)&.<'+123E$
123E5123E>CF**$128E123E*1295!<
)!!!*!)!()(!
!!
B5!(6
5!((((:*!;
12D71AE$12@9E!(((*)
123E7.)&.<'+1239G(*+
5!B!)*123E,!B12@E5)7")
12D9!!(*)(+
5!"0 
5!))!!+((
(!*)*+)7*)(123E
12AE12A9'!((!!!
!()(!?J)J)))
)!(*+(!
+!?*++*)!
5!!)*4?(*)!!
?((*+++(*
4<)<((!!!!
))B!)+(
,!)*'711A9'&$711A9((
K@AL((((*))!(
+(!((7*)!(((9
:;.)*)!,)
+(4D1!((!!(7'&$11A9
!*()+(?))
'!!((((I)!+*)!)(
:!;*)!H((4!+(
)+J)))H4(!)+
*)(!)C(!5!(
(!+!!*))+!)!)!
/*+!*!)!!!!)(!)(((
)+!)!!*!)M((
!)!!(!((.)!+
!((!
(()*)(!?<*)
!)+(!+((+*5+
!4!!.$*+5&>
7129!)+($7$9*+
(!(((A!)*(!
)5!!!!)(!*
+11@!((!!((
)!)5!
)(*+!)*
()*)*)*+!(:!!<
(I)+(;!7$*+5&>129
5!(F
5!*4?!(((
!)(*)/+&$712A9!!!
(*))*!((
!!!+!(!
5!!C!H!*4)<*
)(!)(*!.+!
*)H*)4)!!)+!)!!(I)+
)+(!+?)!++!++
J)))7.12196J(+)(+
)((*)7.)!&$
12DG2AE
'"&>!+1219*+)+
(!!C!
((++!+!:<!;):(
C+;
5!!*)*+4?(*)!.!
'M(())*)12!!)*+(+H
479!*((:<;B!
)!)!H$"(47$"9(
):+((!
*!)*)*!2A!!*
(+*(?)+;7/'M((129
:+!!+?)(*)
*!)(:)*G*+
!()()?!)(
!(!()
!++;2>12<12!$"!+!
((!)!()+(*)
!)!)..)!(!
(!$")*)<
!2L*12<12D !+(:!;*+!
7'#B12D9'#B712E12D9!)*5!
2N))?((((12):
;
+(!!!
)!!)++()?)!
!!)((+J))
)!)!?!!(*:
;*)!+))+
+()+)+*(!*)
!:+J;<((!*)
F7'#B129!!
(!
/(+?!"*)
').07"'9(*)7*O1219
C!*"5!"'!!(
J))4!M+
!!:!!;!"'()!!(
B"07B"09!()*I)H(+4*+
#)<+<57#9!+M!
(())()!712A9
5!(B"0)((!!7+&
/+12A9.)!!+)!+!)
H(<!4I)(
!!!!$4:(;?<
!!+().)!(!))
!!((!<-((/+&/71289
!(!(*)P+!(
M@1?<*)!!(!*!*(
(5!((((I)
)!))(H(+45!()(
)+<!(()
729
B((!"'I)!(!
J)!!!<!+
?)*)!))(!
?(()71239
)4)!+!!
!+(*)!
5!!*)"*12D!!.! !)
(:*!(+!;((
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:!;!(!('5!*+!
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""'B
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D8A
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(()8A))!(!
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)(?))7$1239
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*)111!!?+*!)I)(
I)+D$!!*)4)!M((
)>7M >9 )((!!
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))(*)((
M>*)+123*+))722@<19!! 5!
"*)(123AB?+))
((!((4H*4)!!*!
(!!!!!!((!((*+!
5!(((*!)*)J
(((()(*!)!!+
(*)!(!'M(($"!!!*
)*+?!((5!"*)79(123
?)+(!'!)(2D+!?)(!
!*)(
9
5!(())
)*+!!**+!!)*(!*))*
(!!*(!(( )!+
!)(:;*(C!)(
+)J)(+!)+(+)
5!!712A9..<**)GG*11AIGGE
)*23GAG2AGG28
D5!!(*F,2@*+!!
(>("$7"$92@@"$(
(!)!I)+!(0$*+C!
)(4)*!!+I)!!(
((!:)+!*4*+J+!(
*(I)+!
A5!()?(!H.4*()
!GGG+*)G.G2133?
!)71239FJ)(*))
!()!H(4!!(!((+((
)*+?(<*5!)
(!()+<*(H(+4
H4B4?((*)
)*!+()+)!
)!+!?!!!((
!!()G+*
(*)+)+7123E$1239
"**)!!)!!
!():;*)!!
!+*(!!!!
)*(!!!((:;
(!+J)+)!*H4H)*47$*+&5
123E>CF**&$12895!(!
:+!*);:;)!4)
+)7.)&.<'+123E$*+&5128E>CF**
$128E (12A9()!!*
H4!+(!()*()+
!!)!G(7")12DE51239
>!!!G$((78A9
!!!
$!!!((!!(*)!
!()!()!!(!)+
((*!*++*)!(
*+!*+!+?!*+!!
+((!G$
+(8A!*!(:+!*);)
!(!+*H4*+(J)(++()!
)))!?(
(!)!!!!<()!
!)$*+5&>12E$*+
571289!!(!)!!)!)
!!F4!!)*(!
)!+!!!)*(H45!<
()!*
!!+)!(!+!!B
)!)?)!
!!H))()Q47")
12DE5123E (12A9
8A)!J))))I)!)(
)!*J)!C!)*J)*
!C)!:(;);:)*;!:)(
+;!!*(
))!!J)++)!(C!
I)?<*+(!*(7512395
! (712A2@9)!((H+!(()(
)!!!!!+45!
*+ (712A9!+!!J)
(+!)
5!)+(!+!!(*))C
!*)*!(*)!)
)(!!)!!H4
(!+!!<4(7)!
!!+9*+()+*)!+7.!.
1239
B!!!((5!
)*)!((*)(!811))8A
8(!!)()!
:*;!!!)(!!+)(+((!
!)(!)(*)!5!
J+((!*)!)!E!)!!()(
+
471239I)(3))8A)!!
*+!(*)!))(
E!)!+?)*)!!
H)((4I)*+!E!!J+(((!
()?)(AA+3M+!*
!!)()8A!!**!!+!(
*)!'(!)(8A
!)?))!)!!)(
!!!(*)!
F(!C!!))(

.+(+)()?))E
?(E((!!(!!(
!(!((!!*((!
)!<(8AB*!!
(((
)(*+ !J)+((*
8A*.)!)+(!
)*+!!! !J)+*
8B!23!(2-)+12A1-)128(@8*)+AAA72A@L9
!7!)()('(!*)+!!()(!()23
!9
35!)#$!42!(!(!!!+*):+
);!!!)!!!((+*!!!4(!
):!!!!!)!!
()!J)+;7"+#@12A9
((!!!*)!)(*!*)
!)*!+)*!?<*
H4(!+(!(
*)!)!C)+!!!+
!+J)+*!!!)!!!!
!!!!
BB5,!
(((!))
)()!)!)!!()*++
<(*))I)I)!
(+!+(++!(!
((*)(()?E(+!!(
!+!)!!*!!)(!E
!!G((<?))*7)!
I)+9!!!?<(E!)
C7!9(H(
4!((++5!*)(H4*+*)
)!H!+4H+4.)!)*
)))(()
()*+I)))*)*!!+*
!(!! 72@@@219@
'(!)!HQB!*)
)!(!*!!
.))*)(!+!!+*)
)!(!!!?*)6(
H4)I)((+!(.)!(!
!(*+:?(;
+:*)));(*)76118D9+!)(
!)*!)(?))
((H4(!!!!)+
()(H?)4*)*+H)4(
Q71289
!)H4!+(7-!
11@9E)(+!*)7'+&
((12A98AE(*+I)G)*J)
!+!!((Q+
!*!*(I)!!+(7-!1139
@!(!,R>0"!)!)B 0((
!!!
5!(!!4*!)
!4(E
5!(((())!4)((E
5!?*(*+!))I)!
*+
>0"Fourth Annual Report: January 2013 to December 2013, $'N12E>0"Fifth Report:
January 2014 to December 2015, $'N12A
+(7M&129M!)!
!!(*!
!!(!7'+12DEF!</&
!1139!!+I)(!)
!(!7'+&((
12A9+")F.72@@@9()!!!
I)(+!*!
5!(!())((!(((
E*+
!E)!4?(
0
71189(:!)((!)
;739!(:))((?
!*+;7@9$!)!
!)!):()(;71D9!?
#()!+G?))E*)(
76!2@@@E11@971139!L(!
!,0$)+7,0$9?!!
(*)+))*(!
B> 7119()!)(!!
*!++)((21+!!((
!+(*)!+)!?
)5!I)*)!(+*
H4!+
!)*)21
5!.>)&!71219.&!71219)
4!+!!4)4(C
)!+(!+?)!+)((71189!)
2@17@AD)9!!((?!)
CJ+(!
?!2!!DL
:;:!;21L!!!+*)5!+()
!!)(!(!!!+
*)*!4)()*!
!((+!*!*#
+31L(!!!++(?
!!((!)!!
)!*)!+5!)!!+!!
)!((((C(
(((H<!47)!
((9(*!!
21,5!!!*(!!(
)+)*)!*!!!*(*
!)(H)4?)!H?47$9H47'9
(!(+!)*)(
(+)(+(!)*))
6!751239!!!!*+(!5!
!((71189!!(H4+
4()(J)+7<9*)
)!))+*),!!!!
)))(?>?)
)+!!!*)!)!!+!
!!+)H*4+(E
H47-((12A29+)!!
(!*+))
!((!(((!!B
!)*+")712DAA9(!((+*?)
+?((C
'+-6712D9'+&((712A9!!
)!!+!!H4(!
+7(+)?9!
?5!+)!<)*(54
+!#($B+7 #$B9)H4)*
(!7,S289!(?(
B)*I)!!!!(!
(:!)!;!*!
!!!!
!(!?);+(!
)(:!)!(;B)!))
(!(+!(!)!(
!)*H)(+((!
(*!*+!!+4!
*!)()E!!+
+!!$!(*+
!T+!!!!+!++(!
((2<!7#S3"SA8!9
5!()*(!*+!
?(4!<*)(*).)
+(B!+!(()+
*!((*)H4!)+*(
E(<G?))((
5!()!!H(4(
(7F#*119!(
+*!*!((

?6.F5!
+*)*+?*+
(!!C)!
5!))+!!,0
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*+!72DL9!722L9!
788L9F(((!+(!(
+!!!+?))G
!!**!)((
*)7"&'129<)+(23(<(+
*()!I)++!
+):))+;72DL9!*!
)+7L9
7>&.129
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,)+!!***)!*+(!(
)((+*!)!
)<)I)+!!!H!?4
7')!&F1139
C72@@9!*!)!
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<?!!()!!!
*)(?*+)I)
B!!!+(!!!+
+!*)
7118E1239()?(HI)+4
!?)>71189!(!?)
!)!(!)()!
*+!!!)*)+(
)I)?*+*)((?)I)+
$!?!?)I)+!+!
*)?!)!*
!+I)(6.F5!
-!711A9!+*!?)*)?
?'!*+!(+)
!(?!*H4H!4
>I)((()!())+!!
+4!)!!)I)+
?)!!!)*H)47B
&62@@29(()()!(H!!
!447+11A29
M!J!(H!I)+6F.5!
*)(<.!!+/<6 
71229)!!)H+(!**)(?(
!))+(!
+47297119J!H4H4*+()
!?)?.!21+*!(H
(?)(!))*)!4711D89)
?(6F.5H*+4(H45!?(!?+
!**+(?P;.)!!+)
!))!?+4711D89
B!!B)56F.5N
)!*!!!?)(!!*)?
)(5!+()!?(*))
*+))()!+)+!U!!
()!+!(B))U*)*!(
(!71289
5(!(!HI)+4
"'7129)!!?(!!?)(+
H!4!?G)I))(*(
+()6F.5N!I)+(!
I)++!)*)?
!"'47129/6F.5)+)+
)+(8A6F.5)(<)!!
()(?!?+??)
!!*+*?)(!?)+(
*)7"09()!!)*(
+!<*(!((*)7
!+G?)9<)*+!+!!!
H))4*)))!C!*)*
5!(((*!)!
*)*+(!?)+'!+!++
?)+*)(?!
++)+?)5!)+
!!?!(++!!
?(?()C(()+!I)(
(?5!+(++?(*)5!)+
!!?!(+++!
)(?*)*!)$+
*!)(!*)*+(
"4'47129(<)!!!
?!FI)+*!()(*)
!$!+*H!)4*!C!
I)+(!?)(!*)!+<
!(!!7+!)+9!
)*(!((!*)!
!7+!(+9'*+)!!
*!)(*)!*)?
!?!**!++()*!)5!)"
'7129)!!)?*)!?)+

5!)!!!H+4(++(
*)6F.5!!))
!6F.5!+)*+*)
!(*)7"'129*))
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!1219
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+!$)!I))(+++(
(!!
?(!+!!*!:+*+)!
?!+)(!;:(!+)*+!!)+)
+);7A9(*)!
!!)((.+!!
!+(+!*)(!
?+)#+!4+()!+!71LS8@29
(!!(("0()?!)*
*)17ALSD9)*(+
7()(!113G11@$!!L(
2L(!??)"09?(
()(I)!+
+!)#+!712D9))
!!))!*!+!!)?)
!(-!7129)!
')71289))+"0*!)!
7(+9)I)?
I)()(!?)!?
!)*+!L(818!(
?!(("0
(!)!!!*!
H*4(!(!)+(+!
?(!!(++5!?!
!)!)*)(((
7H!4H4!H4((9!)!
!*()*!!*7)!'B0<B"9!!
)**+!!+(!+*)!
!()!+*!!!)
*!!*!))
(!**+
!?
5!)(?!)!))
+I)(!!*))!)
!4.!(!
!!?!C*
()((*)!++!!
!?!(!!)
HC4)(!!!
!H+45!*)!!!+)((
:;(+T<<*)*)!!
+*!!!+!!++)*!!$!!
!!)!!!!
()(!()
!!!*))!?7>1289
!()!!!!!!!(!
)?(!!7!2.)C.)C&12895!I)
(<?))*!+*!+
*H?)4)*<?)<
*!(!!!!)
+(H(4T!!?!*!
*+!)?)T*+!H4
?))
+!(!4?(*)!:;B
+(((!A@)(!"!
!!2AL(!)!()
*7.1229>!!)((
!!<!**+()(83L(!
*+!!!(
!!(!)!!V*:?);)!)
!)!!!!))(ADL3AL(
?)
(??+(<:+!;*)))+
()(*)*!+(!!)!
++)+!+M(!()+
):+!;*)!++
!)+(!C?(D@+)!1U28)*
-)+#+113*+!M(((-)-)"I)+
!,0!!(!?+!
!+*))!+I)*!)!+7D8LAAL9)
!(72AL28@L97'*+>!5)&M1229$!!
+!!!+)?*!+(*)!
!!++(!+!!)+)!
(*!!++!*)+(
+)+
M+!()(!!?!4?(+!?(
7!12AE/C12A95!!)(!
((!!(
+(!!E!!?!*(G
+)((
'+-6712D9'+&((712A9.&!
71229!!+(!
((4+!)(+)!
!*)?)!!7!)!#)11E
('1189B(!(?+)(!
I)/C712A9)<))!2D!!(
*)((D+2D(!!721U29
!H>4!!++!(!
4G(!4(!(!!
!!!4!)?))
5!<*!)(G(!!
!!)!!4
*)G*!)*
B!/)+!712A9!2!72@
*+3<23+9?!!79:!4?(*);
7*9!4?(!:;!E79:!
;5!!?!4(*!
!!(+!
5!!)+!)()C
+(*!)(!!)!5!
):!*);*!H4!!(?)*+
7:,;9((:)*);!)!
!4!!+*)(!*)4
)+(!E!!?!++!!*)
J!B!/C71289!71289!!+
!+!(C?(!71189
:!?(;
B!?:4H?)4!(
*!!)+!!!*+*)!
)<!!!(+*)<*)
?!J)++!?)))
).)?!)*)!
)+(!)(+())
!!!!)!!
!!!!!*!(+<*!
(+<*(!!!+()+))/C
7128!71289!J((!4H(+4
(+!!!C!*!
!*)7:(!!;9++)!!
)))(*!7/C12A9
5!+!!!!!!
))!!!+()(!())
!!4(!*!+()!
(!!)!+!4+!*)!
!!((!C.)!))**)
!*!!!<*+

(
/671139B!?(Q-)(#
>+8122D8<22A3
.-&!71229B*))+
5!(>+)379DDDUDAD
.!.071239)*!)!(
)!(((H*!)4B-)(
& (729U@
.#./.#-!F$#6##5!-
#712295!,B ?)0)+7#B09121
)+F,(BJ)+ (
"
.)#&.<'+M71239+Q5!(*)
((+-)3729A8<3
.)!/&$,712DG2A040  0
) !.)B2TA1<A
.)C.)CF71289"05!
B(-)')7D!95!)M

!-?-'?!B->671289.+$4
!4?("0*);
-)(B02U2
+#&/+671229B!)(>)6B
"0+!)*!*+!$*))+
6#+*
)()G!G)*G<<<
+!<(+G
5!)M
/'+-6&((#712A9:')!)+
!;#!4?()(
0$DU8
/&'+-671239 !$!!
(!QO +!+(0379
2@A<1A
"'#7129"0?)+U!4
!Q. + 
")'712D9"(((Q#*)+6
@79U82
")#F6&.672@@@9)<*4
5!(+!!+?)*)0
023@U21
>0'"-(671289+(
>(?C *!?B 0
>&.-7129<?B 0
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(,712A9*!)(+
!62@U2D2
#7119H?+( (0$'?)
!H0$378938U@11
M >7129- * !
M((& )>B!!*)*
 !GG()GG")G )Y +YF)G Y
Y#)Y(YG-L1"L1*)L1 L1<L1 M
L12(
- 72@@@9.$!)5! (-)
,!+ .
(6&'#711A9#!!)!"06-
/+
C#72@@90.+ *)6*!6
)*
-7119,#06*!6,=
)
-R 6 -71289B(C
B)5<G6F.5N4?(*+!
?)G212288G2AA182AA328
*6O121OOBO'O/!OO.O$
OFOO6O-/+
)*!O22@U23O
!F71289"*)79.I)+
*)!!F*
!GGG )*G128G1DG3D3G27-)+1289
!<-((,/+6&/712896-)+5>5!
! .(T#)

%%+-6.!/5+5&6#711A9B0#
<?!-)(>+027292<2Z
71189'#$ 6(M?( 
,=
71296*+ -)( 
,27
71239>(# *)!
/M)!;B,6*795!)'*(F
05+&>62D<23
71289H>4B6#M )-=6+<  79
(B ?)0)6??<??
712A9  *)!,(!
/"0279G#+GDD<DAAD<AA
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... Advocates and scholars seeking to understand experiences of interpersonal violence, particularly intimate partner and dating violence, often describe these experiences within the framework of coercive control theory (CCT) (Stark, 2007;Stark & Hester, 2019). CCT suggests that, rather than being solely or predominantly about physical violence, IPV involves a person using abuse and harm through a range of coercive, controlling, and threatening tactics to obtain very fine-grained control and power over an intimate partner. ...
... These tactics can include physical or sexual violence or threats thereof, but are also much more expansive, with a goal not necessarily of inflicting physical harm, but of reducing a survivor's personal autonomy, sense of self, and options for choice and freedom (Stark, 2007). Coercive control tactics may include monitoring, isolation, threats, manipulation, and intensive oversight of personal conduct, relations with others, and social connections (Stark & Hester, 2019). Because one purpose of education is to maximize personal autonomy and future options, it is uniquely important to consider the impact of coercive control on students. ...
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Purpose School sabotage is a type of intimate partner violence that includes tactics aimed at interrupting education. While qualitative studies have demonstrated the impact of school sabotage on students, a pragmatic quantitative measure is needed for use in research and to screening. This manuscript describes the development and testing of the School Sabotage (SAB) scale. Methods Data from two separate studies are presented. The first study of 435 community college students included a longer SAB scale, with analysis presented including univariate and bivariate findings. A process of scale adaptation is described, and results of a second study which fielded the shorter SAB scale are then presented. Data presented from the second study includes univariate and bivariate analysis, assessment of Cronbach’s alpha and correlations between SAB scale scores and linked constructs. Results The shorter SAB scale demonstrated convergent validity and strong internal reliability. Over 25% of participants in the second study reported at least 1 experience of School Sabotage since starting at university. The scale was correlated with other IPV tactics, increased PTSD symptomology, and academic disengagement behaviors, and functioned as expected in mediation analysis. Taken together, this provides initial evidence for the reliability and validity of the SAB Scale. Conclusions Campus advocacy professionals and researchers can use the SAB scale to explore the dynamics of school sabotage and to identify students who may be experiencing these tactics.
... This paper explores the long-term psychological and neurological effects of coercive manipulation tactics, particularly those resembling MK-Ultra-adjacent strategies and common patterns in emotional domestic violence. Without the use of substances or pharmacological agents, psychological conditioning methods such as gaslighting, emotional flooding, moral inversion, and trauma bonding are shown to produce chronic cognitive disruption, identity fragmentation, and loss of moral autonomy[1][2] [3]. Through trauma theory, neuroscience, and survivor-informed analysis, this paper identifies key zones of psychological impact and calls for renewed ethical recognition of emotional manipulation as a form of psychological torture. ...
... Because these forms of abuse do not leave bruises, they are often dismissed or misunderstood. Survivors, therefore, become fluent in suppression, learning to monitor their tone, facial expressions, and even thoughts for fear of retaliation [3] (Stark & Hester -coercive control). This adaptive performance is necessary for survival. ...
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This paper explores the long-term psychological and neurological effects of coercive manipulation tactics, particularly those resembling MK-Ultra-adjacent strategies and common patterns in emotional domestic violence. Without the use of substances or pharmacological agents, psychological conditioning methods such as gaslighting, emotional flooding, moral inversion, and trauma bonding are shown to produce chronic cognitive disruption, identity fragmentation, and loss of moral autonomy[1][2][3]. Through trauma theory, neuroscience, and survivor-informed analysis, this paper identifies key zones of psychological impact and calls for renewed ethical recognition of emotional manipulation as a form of psychological torture.
... Within the UK, existing gaps in understanding and interpretation of DA especially in the context of coercive control when making judgements about survivors and perpetrators are known to have serious implications for the efficacy of current approaches to DA (Barlow et al., 2020;Robinson et al., 2018;Stark & Hester, 2019). Current practices often reflect an incident-specific focus in assessing DA with physical violence placed at the top in the hierarchy of evidence with frontline services often lacking the understanding of power dynamics in controlling relationships (Brennan et al., 2019;Myhill, 2019;Robinson et al., 2018). ...
... An inaccurate recognition of DA apart from leading to an inconsistent DASH risk assessment score has also been identified as a factor that could result in risk escalation to the adult survivor and/or child survivor in cases mistakenly allocated a low score despite being a potentially high-risk case. This is specifically relevant as the DASH score is fundamental for the allocation of scarce resources as per a survivor's relative risk as determined at the scene (Stark & Hester, 2019). Inconsistent understanding and interpretation of domestic violence across agencies was also linked to increased pressure on DA specialists whilst negatively impacting the support provided to affected families. ...
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Purpose To examine the perspectives and experiences of multi–agency practitioners involved in supporting families affected by domestic abuse (DA) to inform changes that are required to better meet the needs of affected families. This article focuses on (a) how DA is differentially understood and interpreted, (b) the possible reasons identified for differential understanding and interpretation and (c) its perceived impact on risk assessment and service delivery. Methods A case study approach within a North East Local authority located in the United Kingdom (UK), was adopted. Thirty-one 1:1 online qualitative interviews were conducted with multidisciplinary professionals between June – December 2022. The findings are based upon a combination of deductive-inductive thematic analysis. Results There was an absence of a shared understanding of DA among practitioners involved in multi-agency working despite a national-level definition available in the UK. This was identified as one of the key barriers to multiagency working subsequently affecting consistent response to families affected by DA. Conclusion Data from this case study emphasizes the importance of developing a uniform understanding of DA among practitioners to adequately respond to the distinctive needs of families who are affected by it. The findings from the article can also inform broader debates in the DA literature related to complexities surrounding definitions and associated interpretations. Practice and policy implications are also discussed.
... Negative support encompasses domineering supervision, coercive control, or intimate partner violence. Coercive control, defined as 'making a person subordinate by isolating them from sources of support, exploiting their resources and capacities for personal gain, depriving them of the means needed for independence, resistance, and escape, and regulating their everyday lives' (Anderson 2009), is present in various intimate relationships (Stark and Hester 2019). Our focus is on coercive control by partners or parents. ...
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Aims To examine the correlation between family support and breastfeeding self‐efficacy among mothers of infants aged 0–6 months. Design This study employed a cross‐sectional design. Methods A sample of mothers with infants aged 0 to 6 months was selected from March to June 2023. Breastfeeding self‐efficacy and family support levels were evaluated using the Breastfeeding self‐efficacy scale and family support scale, respectively. The association between breastfeeding self‐efficacy and family support was analysed using Pearson correlation. We used independent sample t‐tests and chi‐square tests to conduct univariate analysis of the factors influencing breastfeeding self‐efficacy, and perform multiple linear regression analysis on the significant results. Results The breastfeeding self‐efficacy score was 55.37 ± 13.00, and the family support score was 9.89 ± 2.38. Mothers with high family support demonstrated significantly higher breastfeeding self‐efficacy scores compared to those with low levels of family support. The results of the univariate analysis showed that significant correlations with breastfeeding self‐efficacy were: whether there was a history of successful breastfeeding, whether there was a delay in initiating breastfeeding, and the primary caregiver after discharge. The results of the multiple linear regression analysis showed the positive influencing factors for breastfeeding self‐efficacy are: family support and a history of successful breastfeeding, while the negative influencing factors are: failure to start postpartum breastfeeding within 72 h and parents as postpartum caregivers. Conclusion This study found that family support for mothers of infants aged 0–6 months is positively correlated with breastfeeding self‐efficacy, providing a theoretical basis for nursing staff or midwives to implement family‐centred interventions to promote breastfeeding, and emphasising the importance of providing positive family support. Patient or Public Contribution No patients or members of the public participated in the study design, data analysis, or interpretation.
... Perpetrators often weaponise the UK immigration law to reinforce patriarchal control, using threats of deportation as a powerful tool to sustain abuse and oppression (Erez et al. 2009). The legal responsibility placed on sponsoring spouses to secure their partners' residency in Britain, reinforces gender inequality and sustains immigration-specific mechanisms of control (Stark 2019 Such narratives illustrate how the compounded oppression of gendered power dynamics and state-imposed legal vulnerability, creates a complex web of structural inequalities sanctioned by immigration law (Bhabha, 1994). The women understood the precarity of their dependent legal status and how their legal privileges were transformed to tools of subjugation by their abusers. ...
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Feminist migratory research has highlighted the gendered dimensions of migration, drawing attention to the compounded challenges migrant women face due to both gender and exclusionism in the migration process. Drawing on research that conceptualises legal consciousness and understanding of the law as both cognitive and behavioural, this study examines the gendered relationship between UK immigration regulations and African migrant women’s experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV) in the UK. Through qualitative interviews focusing on Nigerian migrant women on spouse visas, it explores survivors' informal understandings of their rights, duties, and justice in the face of violence and abuse. This paper identifies two key dynamics: first, the patriarchal inheritance of the law and its intersection with existing social contexts through its hegemonic and institutional power, shaping the women’s experiences; and second, the ways survivors exercise agency and show resistance by using the law to reduce or mitigate their vulnerabilities. It is argued that the UK immigration law within this context operates simultaneously both as a tool of oppression and as a legal pathway to safety and empowerment, with the women’s legal consciousness emerging at the intersection of these socio-legal structures.
Article
Gaslighting (manipulating perceptions and thoughts) is associated with worse health outcomes in adults, yet little is known about the association between gaslighting and other established domains of dating violence (i.e., cyber, verbal, physical, and sexual) nor the unique contribution of gaslighting to worse mental health in adolescents (ages 13–18 years). Drawing data from the Healthy Minds 2 study (high school), we examined the prevalence, correlation with other domains of dating violence, and an association between gaslighting and mental health symptoms (depression and anxiety) in 374 adolescents (36.9% male, 52.1% female, 11.0% nonbinary or another gender identity; average age = 15.68 years, 1.21 years standard deviation) who had reported dating in the prior year. Poisson multivariable regression models were used to evaluate the association between exposure to dating violence domains and anxiety and depressive symptoms. One in four adolescent daters reported gaslighting in the past year. When accounting for established domains of dating violence (physical, sexual, verbal, and cyber), age, gender, and school of attendance, gaslighting victimization was associated with greater self-reported anxiety (incident rate ratio = 1.125, p < .01) and depressive symptoms (incident rate ratio = 1.121, p < .01). Gaslighting is a prevalent behavior in adolescent dating relationships. It is significantly associated with worse adolescent mental health. Increased research and incorporation into surveillance, prevention, and intervention activities are critical to reducing the harm posed by gaslighting in adolescent romantic relationships.
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Psychological abuse within intimate relationships is a highly prevalent subtype of intimate partner violence (IPV) that is frequently associated with other types of IPV such as sexual or physical violence. Psychological abuse can cause enduring harm, including the loss of agency and self-belief, and entrapment in a relationship. Previous measures of psychological abuse have been characterized by inconsistencies in conceptualization and measurement contributing to problems in identifying its prevalence, impact, and patterns. To address many of the existing challenges and gaps, we developed a new measure of psychological abuse, building upon scale development work to date, and in consultation with lived experience and academic experts. A sample of 765 adult women in Australia completed our survey of 31 psychologically abusive behaviors to establish reliability and validity evidence for a new measure of psychological abuse victimization and impact. Exploratory factor analysis generated a scale comprising 20 items and four factors—Severe Psychological Abuse, Coercive Emotional Abuse, Restrictive Isolating Abuse, and Financial Abuse—with Cronbach’s alphas ranging from 0.73 to 0.85 and overall explained variance of 57.2%. Exhibiting evidence of validity and reliability, the Psychological Abuse in Relationships Scale is a contemporary, concise, and comprehensive measure of psychological IPV that will improve the ability of researchers to identify this common and harmful type of abuse.
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Purpose Women abused by intimate partners (IPV) are often concerned about their mothering, how well their children are faring, and what parenting/children’s services might assist them. Method This mixed-methods secondary analysis examines 372 Canadian mothers of children younger than 18 years. Results These mothers had as good or higher scores on parenting efficacy and satisfaction compared to norms for non-abused Canadian and Australian mothers. On average, the mothers in our study rated their children’s behaviors as “of little” or “somewhat” a concern. To learn about coping and healing strategies we asked mothers what supports they used and their perceptions of helpfulness. Of the programs mothers accessed, women’s groups, groups for children exposed to IPV, generic parenting programs, and generic counseling, were rated the most positive. Conclusions The current study supports the contention that mothers affected by IPV are generally positive about their parenting competence and had very few concerns about their children’s behaviors and emotional reactions. Further, many with concerns had actively sought counseling for their children and support for their own mothering.
Article
Relational forms of romantic victimization characterized by attempts to ignore, exclude, or covertly manipulate a romantic partner is an understudied and often overlooked form of intimate partner violence. While cross sectional research demonstrates associations with mental health difficulties, longitudinal patterns of romantic relational victimization (RRV) independent of physical forms of aggression have received relatively less attention, particularly with regards to how patterns of RRV change over the course of adolescence to young adulthood. The current study identifies longitudinal trajectories of RRV in a sample of adolescents (ages 12–18) followed biennially across 10 years (N = 532). We also assessed how changes in youths’ perceptions of personal mastery and control (i.e., environmental mastery) relate to differences in youths’ longitudinal trajectories of RRV as developmental gains in these competencies may mitigate RRV. Findings from growth mixture models revealed three patterns of RRV characterized by low stable levels across adolescence and young adulthood (87.4%); an adolescent limited trajectory where RRV peaks in adolescence and declines into young adulthood (9.4%); and a young adulthood limited trajectory where RRV increases during young adulthood (3.2%). Our results show that diminished environmental mastery at both life stages was associated with higher rates of victimization. Moreover, the change in mastery over time was also associated with victimization. Trajectories were also associated with relational worries and additional forms of victimization, offering insight into poly-victimization and its negative effects. Our findings reveal heterogeneous patterns of RRV during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood that are differentially related to changes in youths’ development of mastery and control. These findings offer potential targets for prevention.
Thesis
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Background: Intimate partner violence (IPV) is the most prevalent expression of violence against women, with at least one in three women experiencing it at some point in their lives. IPV is a type of gender-based violence which is a major global public health problem due to its high prevalence and profound impact on the health and well-being of not only individuals but also local and global communities. Survivors of IPV are at a higher risk of poor health outcomes compared to those who have not experienced IPV, and they are at least three times more likely to have mental health conditions. The public health approach to IPV by no means replaces the human rights and criminal justice responses to violence: instead, it highlights the complexity of the problem and complements them by offering additional understanding, perspectives, evidence, tools, and sources of collaboration. Objectives: The main objectives of this study are to assess the prevalence of IPV and mental health conditions among IPV survivors in Portugal and Lithuania; and to analyse and compare responses to the mental health needs of IPV survivors within the existing mental healthcare systems in both countries. Methods: This cross-sectional study employed a mixed-methods approach. Nationally representative data from two surveys was analysed: one survey conducted in Portugal (n=3849) and another in Lithuania (n=1001). Additionally, two online surveys were designed and conducted in both countries (n=92 and n=134): both quantitative and qualitative data were collected in these online surveys. Qualitative data was also collected through a total of 6 focus groups with mental health and social care professionals and 28 semi-structured interviews with IPV survivors, including those with disabilities. Statistical analysis included logistic regression models and was conducted using the R software. Qualitative data was analysed thematically with the aid of the MAXQDA software. Results: The study resulted in 6 scientific papers, two focusing on the situation in Portugal and four in Lithuania. Study findings highlight and confirm the importance of mental health support for IPV survivors’ recovery. The needed complex approaches include trauma- and violence-informed care, holistic, multi-disciplinary, and inter-sectoral efforts. The study shows that the current profile, organisation, and provision of mental healthcare services in Portugal and Lithuania generally have significant gaps when it comes to addressing such a complex public mental health concern as IPV. Most of the studied mental healthcare services in these two countries are not equipped well enough to effectively and appropriately respond to the individual needs of IPV survivors. The only exception is the unique mental healthcare unit in the Portuguese region of Coimbra, which specialises in providing mental health support specifically to survivors and perpetrators of domestic violence, including IPV. Apart from this one mental healthcare unit, which is unique not only in Portugal but also in Europe, many of the generic mental healthcare services and professionals in both countries often demonstrate a lack of recognition that IPV is a public mental health concern: it is regularly perceived as more of a “social problem”, which is then not necessarily recognised as being relevant to the provision of mental healthcare services. Generally, a lack of effective interventions has been observed. Trauma- and violence-informed care approaches are often missing, and both countries would benefit from a better inclusion of IPV survivors with lived experiences of mental health conditions into the related policy and practice planning and implementation. Conclusions: Further quantitative and qualitative research is needed to explore the specificities of the utilisation of mental healthcare services by IPV survivors, as well as determine what interventions might be the most effective for this population, in different geographical and cultural contexts. Implications for the public health policy and practice include the need for mainstreaming of IPV-related knowledge and skills among professionals in mental healthcare services; elimination of both the mental health and IPV stigma and victim-blaming attitudes in society; ensuring multi-disciplinary and inter-sectoral working models between the mental healthcare sector, social care services, law enforcement, judiciary, and other relevant stakeholders.
Chapter
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In December 2015, a new offence was introduced in England and Wales: controlling or coercive behaviour in an intimate or family relationship. This chapter reviews the societal, political, and legislative developments that paved the way for the introduction of that offence. In particular, this chapter discusses an apparent frustration with societal and governmental understandings of what constitutes domestic abuse, particularly in light of continued resistance to utilising the Protection from Harassment Act 1997 (UK) to prosecute domestic abuse offenders. A change to those understandings was made possible by the groundbreaking work of Evan Stark, who highlighted that domestic abuse could be better understood as an ongoing strategy of domination, and that the harm inflicted on victims is as much structural (the deprivation of liberty) and psychological (emotional) as it is physical (injuries). This chapter describes and evaluates the attempt in England and Wales to translate Stark’s construct of ‘coercive control’ into the criminal offence of ‘controlling or coercive behaviour’.
Article
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Criminalizing coercive or controlling behaviour in an intimate relationship, as has been done in England and Wales and is proposed in Scotland, has the advantage of offering an offence structure to match the operation and wrong of intimate partner violence. This article raises the question as to whether other jurisdictions should follow suit. It argues that the successful implementation of such an offence may require a complexity of analysis that the criminal justice system is not currently equipped to provide and will require significant reforms in practice and thinking. If it is not successful such an offence could conceivably operate to minimize the criminal justice response to intimate partner violence and be used to charge primary victims.
Article
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In 2015 in England and Wales a new offence of controlling or coercive behaviour was introduced with the aim of improving legal responses to intimate partner violence. Recognizing the historical limits of legal interventions in this area, this article examines the efficacy of coercive control as a conceptual device for improving access to law and justice outcomes for women victims. To do so, it considers the problems and possibilities of translating a concept generated from clinical practice into legal practice alongside an exploration of the potential unintended consequences of this new offence. The gendered analysis undertaken here reveals the limitations of framing women’s experiences as ‘coercive control’ in law and concludes that, in the case of coercive control, more law is not the answer to improving responses to intimate partner violence.
Article
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In 2015 an offence of ‘controlling or coercive behaviour’ was introduced under the Serious Crime Act, criminalising for the first time the non-physical abuse which so often occurs in the domestic context. This new offence implicitly recognises the psychological and emotional harm which can result from an ongoing pattern of behaviour, and the need to consider the controlling or coercive nature of this behaviour in the context of the power dynamics of the relationship in question. Unique evidential difficulties are raised by this offence, in part because of the ways in which gendered expectations can disguise the controlling and coercive nature of certain behaviours. At the same time, to increase the number of prosecutions for domestic violence offences, including under the new offence, acknowledgement of the ongoing trauma often experienced by victims, and the ways in which this may hinder their ability to safely and effectively participate in the criminal justice process, is required. We will outline recommendations to enable this participation, whilst also asserting the need for creative prosecution methods which allow these type of cases to be prosecuted without being solely reliant upon the victim’s oral testimony in court.
Book
This book provides the first detailed discussion in the UK of domestic violence and abuse (DVA) in same sex relationships, offering a unique comparison with DVA experienced by heterosexual women and men. It examines how experiences of DVA may be shaped by gender, sexuality and age, including whether and how victims/survivors seek help, and asks, what’s love got to do with it? A pioneering methodology, using both quantitative and qualitative research, challenges the heteronormative model in domestic violence research, policy and practice. The findings show similarities and differences in experiences of DVA across sexuality and gender, although DVA in both same sex and heterosexual relationships can be characterised as the exertion of power and control. There are differences by gender in same sex DVA relationships, with gay men significantly more likely to experience sexual violence and have their spending controlled. Young age, low income and low education predict particular vulnerabilities to DVA in same sex relationships, and being newly out can position somebody as younger and more vulnerable to abuse regardless of biological age. Practices of love are instrumental in establishing relationship rules across sexuality and gender, and are gendered in complex ways: an abusive partner can be needy/express need (associated with femininity) whilst also being the key decision-maker in the relationship (associated with masculinity. The book concludes with implications for practice and service development, including the new COHSAR wheel, building on the Duluth wheel by incorporating intersectionality, relationship rules and practices of love as well as power and control.
Article
Since 2000, the Scottish Government has adopted a gendered definition of domestic abuse which explicitly positions it as both a cause and a consequence of gender inequality. Following the launch of a new strategy to prevent and eradicate violence against women and girls, the Scottish Government announced proposals to create, for the first time, a bespoke offence of domestic abuse, designed to encompass the spectrum of abusive acts that constitute domestic abuse, including emotional and psychological abuse. The new offence is intended to better reflect the experience of victims subject to coercive control, improve the criminal justice response and facilitate access to justice. It represents one of the most radical attempts yet to align the criminal justice response with contemporary policy and feminist conceptual understanding of domestic abuse as a form of coercive control. Drawing on feminist scholarship which has interrogated the value of law reform, we critically assess the scope of the legislation, the likely challenges associated with its use in the Scottish context, and the potential for unintended consequences.