Advertising (in)equality: the impacts of sexist advertising on women’s health and wellbeing Issues Paper

Abstract

The aim of this issues paper is to provide an overview of significant literature currently published on the nature of gender portrayals in advertising, and the impacts of these representations on women's health and wellbeing, gender inequality and attitudes and behaviours that support violence against women. This issues paper found that the continued use of gender stereotypes and increasing reliance on images that sexualise and objectify women in advertisements undermines efforts to promote gender equality in Australia. Gender-stereotyped portrayals limit the aspirations, expectations, interests and participation of women and men in our society. These portrayals are associated with a range of negative health and wellbeing outcomes and are highly problematic for the prevention of family violence and other forms of violence against women. The studies cited in this paper demonstrate that there is a clear business case for change. Brands, businesses and creative agencies can benefit from portraying both women and men proportionately, respectfully and realistically. ABOUT WOMEN'S HEALTH VICTORIA Women's Health Victoria (WHV) is a statewide women's health promotion, advocacy and support service. We work collaboratively with women, health professionals, policy makers and community organisations to influence systems, policies and services to be more gender equitable to support better outcomes for women.

Full text

THE IMPACTS OF SEXIST ADVERTISING
ON WOMEN’S HEALTH AND WELLBEING
ADVERTISING
INEQUALITY
ISSUES
DECEMBER 2018 ISSUE 14
A Women’s Health Victoria Issues Paper

Abstract
The aim of this issues paper is to provide an overview of significant literature
currently published on the nature of gender portrayals in advertising, and the
impacts of these representations on women’s health and wellbeing, gender
inequality and attitudes and behaviours that support violence against women.
This issues paper found that the continued use of gender stereotypes
and increasing reliance on images that sexualise and objectify women in
advertisements undermines efforts to promote gender equality in Australia.
Gender-stereotyped portrayals limit the aspirations, expectations, interests and
participation of women and men in our society. These portrayals are associated
with a range of negative health and wellbeing outcomes and are highly
problematic for the prevention of family violence and other forms of violence
against women.
The studies cited in this paper demonstrate that there is a clear business
case for change. Brands, businesses and creative agencies can benefit from
portraying both women and men proportionately, respectfully and realistically.
ABOUT WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA
Women’s Health Victoria (WHV) is a statewide women’s health promotion, advocacy and support
service. We work collaboratively with women, health professionals, policy makers and community
organisations to influence systems, policies and services to be more gender equitable to support
better outcomes for women.
As a statewide body, WHV works with the nine regional and two statewide services that make
up the Victorian Women’s Health Program. WHV is also a member of Gender Equity Victoria
(GEN VIC), the Victorian peak body for gender equity, women’s health and the prevention of
violence against women.
Researched and written by Mandy McKenzie, Megan Bugden, Dr Amy Webster and Mischa Barr.

1ISSUES PAPER
Advertising (in)equality at a glance 2
Executive summary 4
Key findings 4
Introduction 7
Aim of this paper 8
Methodology 9
Terminology 9
Gender portrayals in advertising 10
Gender and diversity of representations 11
Stereotyped representations of men
and women 12
Sexualised and objectifying representations 15
Portrayal of masculine peer cultures 19
Depictions of male dominance and
violence against women 19
Impacts of advertising on gender
inequality and women’s health
and wellbeing 20
Reinforcement of gender stereotypes 21
Impacts on health and wellbeing 22
Impacts on attitudes and perceptions
of women 26
A business case for equality
in advertising 29
Gender stereotypes, consumer attitudes
and purchase intentions 30
Diversity in the advertising industry 30
Industry awareness of harms 31
Consumer support for gender equality 31
Conclusion 33
References 35
Contents

WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA2
Advertising (in)equality
at a glance
Ads that show women as
sexually powerful still have a
negative impact
on women’s body image
Most ads show
people who are
young, white,
able-bodied &
heterosexual
In magazine ads,
more than 50%
of women are shown as
sex objects
Men are more
likely than
women to be
shown as
funny, smart & powerful
Toy ads have become
more gender stereotyped
Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media,
J Walter Thompson Intelligence 2017
Stankiewicz & Rosselli 2008
Sweet 2014Halliwell, Malson & Tischner 2011
Rubie-Davies et al. 2013; Peruta & Powers 2017

3ISSUES PAPER
Realistic portrayals of women in ads
increased purchase intent
by 26% among all consumers and
45% among women
Sexual objectification in ads
causes people to see women as
animals or objects
Sexual
appeals
do not sell
products
When men are exposed
to images that objectify
women they are
more tolerant of
sexual harassment
and interpersonal
violence
Ward 2016; Reichl, Ali & Uyeda 2018
Ward 2016
Wirtz, Sparks & Zimbres 2017Association of National Advertisers (US) 2018

WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA4
Executive summary
Our everyday lives are saturated with
advertisements, which consciously and
unconsciously shape our beliefs, values, attitudes
and behaviours. Alongside other forms of media,
advertisements shape and reinforce gendered
ideas about what it means to be a woman or
man and how women and men are valued in our
society.
Inequalities based on gender result in significant
differences for men and women in terms of
their education, income, employment, caring
responsibilities, social status and participation
in public and private life across their lifespan.
Gender inequality is also recognised as the key
underlying cause of violence against women.
A comprehensive body of research now exists
which links family violence, sexual assault, sexual
harassment and other forms of violence against
women to expressions of gender inequality.
This paper examines the links between advertising
and gender inequality and women’s health and
wellbeing. Research shows that advertising has
historically under-represented girls and women
and depicted them in stereotyped ways, and that,
over time, portrayals of girls and women have
become more sexualised and objectifying. This
has helped to perpetuate inequalities based on
gender in broader society. Advertising has also
relied on stereotyped portrayals of men; however,
the evidence shows that impacts of stereotyped
and sexualised representations are not the same
for men as they are for women.
This evidence paper explores how gender is
represented in advertising today, and the impacts
of these portrayals on the health and wellbeing
of women and men, and boys and girls, in our
society. The final section explores the evidence
relating to consumer perceptions of gender
portrayals in advertising, identifying evidence to
support a business case for advertising equality.
KEY FINDINGS
Gender portrayals in advertising
• Girls and women are under-represented in
advertisements. Boys and men provide more
voiceovers and appear more often than girls
and women.
• Advertising portrayals do not accurately reflect
the diversity of our community. Advertising is
dominated by representations of people who
are white, young, able-bodied and heterosexual.
• Marketing to children has become increasingly
gender-stereotyped, with colour used as a
marker to indicate whether or not a product
is considered appropriate for boys or girls
to use. Toys and games marketed to girls
are associated with a focus on appearance,
nurturing and cooperative play, while those
for boys are associated with competition,
dominance, independence, and physical
activity.
• Adult women continue to be portrayed
in stereotypical roles such as housewives,
mothers, wives and girlfriends, and the
products they are associated with are
appliances, furniture and products related
to health, cleaning, beauty and fashion.
Men are typically depicted as powerful and
independent, are frequently shown in work
settings and are used to advertise electronic,
automotive, finance and insurance products,
food and beverages.

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
5ISSUES PAPER
• There is some evidence that gender role
portrayals are becoming more egalitarian
in some aspects. For example, women are
increasingly portrayed in work roles, and men
are increasingly depicted in more egalitarian
roles or interacting with their children.
• However, the sexualisation and objectification
of women is increasing. Women are more
likely than men to be shown wearing revealing
clothing or simulating sex acts, being
dominated or portrayed as objects or animals.
Digital technology enables images of women’s
bodies to be altered, producing even narrower
conceptualisations of female attractiveness
and helping to facilitate the objectification of
women. There is also evidence that men are
increasingly portrayed in sexualised ways.
• Problematic portrayals of masculine peer
cultures are evident in marketing targeted to
men. Gambling and alcohol advertisements
are particularly likely to depict women in
sexualised or subordinate roles, or as interfering
with men’s freedom, leisure time and their
relationships with male friends.
Impacts of advertising on gender
inequality and women’s health and
wellbeing
• Children’s understandings of gender, and
their interests, behaviours and aspirations, are
influenced by the advertising of toys and other
products. Girls learn that they are expected
to be attractive, cooperative and caring, while
boys learn that they are expected to be strong,
active and independent. Both boys and girls
learn that activities and behaviours associated
with masculinity have a higher social status.
• The sexualisation and objectification of women
in advertising and other mass media has
a negative impact on women’s health and
wellbeing. The ubiquity of sexualising and
objectifying portrayals of women in advertising
and other media causes girls and women
to understand that they will be viewed and
evaluated based on their appearance. Girls
and women who are regularly exposed to
sexually objectifying media content are more
likely to objectify themselves and internalise
unrealistic appearance-related ideals. In turn,
this increases body dissatisfaction, contributes
to disordered eating, lower self-esteem and
reduced mental health and results in reduced
satisfaction in sexual relationships and reduced
participation in physical activity and exercise.
Evidence suggests that, regardless of whether
women are depicted as sexually passive or
sexually powerful in advertising imagery,
women’s body satisfaction is negatively
affected by sexualised portrayals. There is also
evidence that women feel less comfortable
and less safe in situations in which sexualised
imagery is used to advertise events and
products.
… regardless of whether
women are depicted as sexually
passive or sexually powerful in
advertising imagery, women’s
body satisfaction is negatively
affected by sexualised
portrayals
• Sexualised portrayals of men are increasing and
have been found to reduce men’s satisfaction
with their bodies and increase their self-
objectification. While some of the impacts of
sexualisation on men are similar to the impacts
on women, sexualised portrayals of men tend
to be associated with power and dominance.
These representations have different social
meanings than sexualised representations of
women.
• Sexualised and objectifying representations
influence how women are perceived and
treated. Sexualised representations in
advertising and other media can cause women
and men to have a diminished view of women’s
humanity, competence and morality. Women
are perceived as less capable, less intelligent
and more animal-like when they are portrayed
in sexualised ways.
• Objectifying and sexualised media content
is associated with attitudes that support
violence against women. Specifically, exposure

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA6
to advertisements and media content that
objectifies or sexualises women is associated
with a greater support for sexist beliefs,
attitudes that blame victims for sexual violence,
a greater tolerance of sexual aggression, and
men’s use of sexually coercive behaviour.
Attitudes and beliefs that condone violence
against women are recognised as an important
underlying cause of violence against women.
A business case for equality
in advertising
• Gender stereotypical advertisements are
out of step with public opinion. International
research shows that children and adults
perceive advertising depictions of men, women
and families to be clichéd, stereotypical and
lacking diversity. Many consumers – particularly
women and younger people – want more
realistic gender portrayals that are in keeping
with modern-day roles.
Advertising representations
that challenge gender
stereotypes are positively
received, particularly by women
• Advertising representations that challenge
gender stereotypes are positively received,
particularly by women. The depiction of non-
stereotypical gender role portrayals generates
more positive reactions than traditional
advertising campaigns and leads to positive
attitudes towards the brand.
• The advertising industry lacks diversity and is
dominated by men. Research indicates that
many in the industry perceive that gender-
stereotyped representations are more readily
received by consumers. Industry professionals
tend to be unaware of the harmful impacts of
stereotyped and sexualised portrayals.
The evidence summarised in this paper suggests
that advertising, along with other everyday forms
of media, contributes to gender inequality by
offering a limited and stereotypical portrayal
of the roles, aspirations and abilities of women
and men. Further, adherence to rigid gender
stereotypes is recognised as one of the key
underlying causes of violence against women.
Other factors that have consistently been shown
to predict violence against women – including
beliefs that condone or excuse violence, male
dominance, and male peer relations that
emphasise aggression and disrespect for women
– are also reinforced by advertising portrayals.
Advertising is all around us and plays a profound
role in shaping community attitudes and
expectations. Because advertising is so influential,
it also has the potential to positively transform
gender norms and to support and normalise
gender equality. Until recently, media and
advertising as a setting for the promotion of
gender equality and the prevention of violence
against women and children has remained
relatively unexplored; however, recent Victorian
and Australian frameworks and strategies have
identified the need to focus on this.
While advertising is only one factor that
contributes to harmful gender norms, practices
and structures, it impacts on the entire
community and increasingly pervades our
public, private and online spaces. The findings
from this paper highlight that the effectiveness
of interventions to promote gender equality
and reduce violence against women in other
settings, such as in schools and workplaces,
will be undermined if businesses, brands and
the advertising industry continue to rely on
stereotyped and sexualised portrayals.
Evidence also demonstrates that there
is increasing momentum for change.
Advertisements that challenge traditional gender
stereotypes are positively received by many in
the community, and advertisers are increasingly
recognising the benefits of advertising equality.
There is now compelling evidence to suggest that
advertisements that provide realistic, respectful
and diverse portrayals of women and men
not only increase purchase intentions among
consumers, but also help to improve health and
wellbeing and promote gender equality in our
society.

7ISSUES PAPER
Advertising pervades all aspects of our everyday
lives, infiltrating our homes, shopping centres,
streets, transport and online activities. Market
research in the US indicates that adults are
exposed to over 360 advertisements per day
via television, radio, internet, newspapers and
magazines (Johnson 2014). Rates of exposure
in Australia are likely to be similar, considering
that everyday media use is high. The average
Australian adult is estimated to watch 17.5 hours
of television or video content each week (Deloitte
Australia 2017) and Australian teenagers spend
3.3 hours a day on social media (Australian
Psychological Society 2017).
Along with other media, advertising plays a
powerful role in helping to shape social norms.
It helps set the bar for what constitutes
acceptable attitudes or behaviour for men and
women, and influences how men and women
are valued in our society.
Inequalities based on gender
are so interwoven into the
fabric and traditions of our
society that they often seem
invisible
This paper explores the links between advertising,
gender inequality and women’s health and
wellbeing. All Australians have a right to live
in a safe society, have equal access to power,
resources and opportunities, and be treated with
dignity, respect and fairness. However, in Australia
and elsewhere, entrenched inequalities based
on gender result in significant differences for
men and women in terms of their income and
education, employment, caring responsibilities,
social status and participation in public and
private life across their lifespan.
Inequalities based on gender are so interwoven
into the fabric and traditions of our society that
they often seem invisible. These inequalities are
expressed and maintained through longstanding
social norms, practices and structures that
support rigid gender stereotypes and the unequal
distribution of power between men and women
at every level of society. Gender stereotyping and
inequality have negative effects for both men
and women. However, because masculine roles,
occupations and behaviours are associated with
higher financial and social status compared to
feminine ones, the consequences of inequality
are particularly profound and harmful for girls
and women.
Gender inequality is also recognised as the
key underlying cause of violence against
women. There is a comprehensive body of
research that identifies that family violence,
sexual assault, sexual harassment and other
forms of violence against women are linked
to particular expressions of gender inequality,
including stereotyped ideas about masculinity
and femininity, male peer cultures that promote
aggression and disrespect for women, men’s
control of decision-making in public and private
life, and attitudes and norms that condone
violence against women (Our Watch, ANROWS
& VicHealth 2015). Australian frameworks to
address violence against women, such as
Change the Story: A shared framework for the
primary prevention of violence against women
Introduction

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA8
in Australia (Our Watch, ANROWS & VicHealth
2015) and the Victorian Government’s Free from
Violence: Victoria’s strategy to prevent family
violence and all forms of violence against women
(Department of Premier and Cabinet 2017) are
based on this evidence.
Gender inequality operates
in intersection with other
inequalities and has different
impacts on different
demographic groups
It is important to acknowledge that gender
inequality is not experienced in the same way by
all Australian women, and it cannot be considered
in isolation from other forms of oppression and
discrimination. Gender inequality operates in
intersection with other inequalities and has
different impacts on different demographic
groups (Our Watch, ANROWS & VicHealth 2015).
Feminist community activists and women’s
organisations have long identified the influential
role of everyday media in perpetuating gender
norms and stereotypes, as well as its potential
to contribute to their transformation. Women’s
Health Victoria’s work has included contributing
to research on the health and other impacts
of exposure to sexualised and objectified
representations of women in popular media (eds
Greaves, Pederson & Poole 2014), advocating for
stronger regulation of sexist advertising, and
supporting community conversations on these
issues through our well-attended ‘Making Space
for Women’ events held during the annual ‘16
Days of Activism against Gender-Based Violence’
campaign. Other Australian organisations that
have campaigned against the objectification
and sexualisation of women and girls in media
include the feminist activist group Collective
Shout, community organisations and professional
associations (such as Plan International and the
Australian Psychological Association, who have
undertaken research or collated resources to raise
community awareness about stereotyping and
sexualisation in advertising) and local councils
(such as the City of Melbourne, which has
developed guidelines to encourage community
reporting of sexist advertising).
Until recently, government initiatives to prevent
violence against women and promote gender
equality in Australia have paid limited attention
to the critical role of advertising. Although there
have been some promising initiatives focused on
the media setting, these have tended to focus on
how the news media reports on violence against
women.1 More recently, Australian and Victorian
government frameworks and strategies such as
Change the Story, Safe and Strong: a Victorian
Gender Equality Strategy (Department of Premier
and Cabinet 2016) and Victoria’s Free from
Violence: First action plan 2018–21 (Department
of Health and Human Services 2018) have
recognised advertising and everyday media as
a priority setting for preventing violence against
women and promoting gender equality.
Australian and Victorian
government frameworks and
strategies … have recognised
advertising and everyday
media as a priority setting for
preventing violence against
women and promoting gender
equality
AIM OF THIS PAPER
The aim of this evidence paper is to provide
an overview of significant literature currently
published on the nature of gender portrayals
in advertising, and the impacts of these
representations on women’s health and
wellbeing, gender inequality and attitudes and
behaviours that support violence against women.
1 These initiatives include Domestic Violence Victoria’s
advocacy work to improve news media reporting of violence
against women, and further research and guidelines for the
news media developed by Our Watch.

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
9ISSUES PAPER
METHODOLOGY
This paper reviews existing literature, with a focus
on studies conducted in Australia. We conducted
a desktop search for articles and research in
academic databases and ‘grey’ literature. The
search combined terms (and variations of
terms) related to ‘advertising’ or ‘media’; terms
relating to ‘gender’ or ‘women’; and terms
relating to ‘impacts’, ‘stereotyping’, ‘sexualisation’,
‘objectification’ or ‘violence’. The search included
academic databases, Google and Google Scholar,
as well as browsing through the reference lists of
existing research. Initially the search was limited to
studies published after 2010, but after identifying
that there were some important studies –
particularly Australian studies – conducted prior
to then, we also included selected studies before
2010 in our discussion.
The search identified that many of the studies of
the impacts of sexualisation, objectification and
gender stereotyping explore the impacts of a
range of media – including television programs,
magazines, music videos, online gaming and
social media – in addition to advertising. This
paper summarises the findings f rom those
studies, and where possible provides examples
of studies specifically focused on exposure to
advertising.
The search also identified several gaps in the
available research. While there is considerable
evidence on gender stereotyping or sexualisation
in print or television advertising, there is little
research on social media or online marketing
(Grau & Zotos 2016; Ward 2016). The majority of the
literature is from the US, while a smaller number
of studies have been undertaken in Australia.
Further, most of the available research is based on
samples of adolescents or young adults attending
universities, with few studies having been
undertaken on the impacts on children or older
adults (Ward 2016). The majority of studies have
been based on experimental designs (for example,
by exposing participants to advertisements or
other media content) while fewer have examined
everyday exposure to advertising and its impacts
(Ward 2016).
TERMINOLOGY
There are considerable overlaps between the
terminology below (Ward 2016). However, for the
purposes of this paper, the following definitions
will be used:
• Gender stereotype: a widely-held, over-
simplified idea about a group or individual
based on their gender. Gender stereotypes
are shaped by gendered norms. These are
beliefs and rules of conduct that a society
considers appropriate in relation to the types
of roles, interests, behaviours and contributions
expected from boys and girls, men and women
(Our Watch, ANROWS & VicHealth 2015).
• Objectification: when a person’s body or body
parts are separated from them as a person so
that they are reduced to the status of a mere
object. Sexual objectification is when a person
is viewed primarily as an object of sexual desire
(Szymanski, Moffitt & Carr 2010).
• Sexualisation: when a person’s value comes
only from their sexual appeal or behaviour;
or a person is held to a standard that equates
physical attractiveness with being sexy; or
sexuality is inappropriately imposed on a
person; or a person is sexually objectified
(American Psychological Association 2007).
• Self-objectification: viewing or experiencing
oneself as an object to be looked at and
evaluated by others on the basis of appearance,
due to repeated exposure to cultural
experiences of objectification over time
(Szymanski, Moffitt & Carr 2010; Ward 2016).

WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA10
Gender portrayals
in advertising
Toy ads reinforce
male dominance,
independence
and power
Auster & Mansbach 2012; Bush & Furnham 2013

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
11ISSUES PAPER
A variety of studies have examined gender
differences in advertising portrayals of the
traits, images, statuses, settings and product
categories associated with men and women.
The research reveals that, although there have
been some positive developments, women are
still under-represented, depicted in negative and
stereotyped ways, and are increasingly sexualised
and objectified.
GENDER AND DIVERSITY
OF REPRESENTATIONS
For many years, research has consistently
identified that men appear more often than
women in television advertisements (Matthes,
Prieler & Adam 2016). Some studies suggest that
this is still the case today, though the evidence
is mixed. For example, a 2016 analysis of more
than 2000 English-language advertisements
in the US, the UK, Canada, Australia and New
Zealand found that there were twice as many
male characters as female characters, with
women accounting for only 37 per cent of all
characters in television commercials (Geena Davis
Institute on Gender in Media 2017). In addition,
women typically appeared on screen for a shorter
duration of time than men. Men got about four
times as much screen time as women, and this
was consistent over a ten-year period from 2006
to 2016 (Geena Davis Institute on Gender in
Media 2017). A recent study of children’s television
advertisements in the US also found that women
were under-represented as lead presenters
(Peruta & Powers 2017). However, a global review
in 2014 of television advertisements from 13 Asian,
American and European countries found that
the number of advertisements in which men and
women appeared was relatively equal (Matthes,
Prieler & Adam 2016).2 Similarly, a relatively equal
representation of men and women was found
in a New Zealand study of over 3000 television
advertisements in 2008–09 (Rubie-Davies, Liu &
Lee 2013), and in an analysis of 394 US television
advertisements in 2013 (Prieler 2015).
2 Australia was not included in this study.
A consistent finding is that men provide a
greater number of voiceovers in advertisements
compared to women. Matthes, Prieler and Adam
(2016) found that men provided 62 per cent
of voiceovers across the 13 countries studied.
Similar findings were identified in an earlier
multi-country review of research on television
advertisements (Furnham & Paltzer 2010), a review
of US television advertisements (Prieler 2015),
and a review of advertisements during popular
children’s television in the US (Peruta & Powers
2017). Additionally, advertisements with only
male voices have also been found to be much
more common than those with only female
voices, with a multi-country study finding 18 per
cent of advertisements had male-only voices,
while 3 per cent had female-only voices (Geena
Davis Institute on Gender in Media 2017). While
voiceovers may be a subtle aspect of gender
representation, the unequal inclusion of women’s
voices reinforces the social and cultural power
and authority of men in our society, which is
closely linked to the underlying causes of violence
against women.
Advertising … typically relies on
representations of individuals
who are predominantly white,
able-bodied and heterosexual
The unequal representation of women in
advertising is further compounded by a lack
of diversity. Advertising has been found to
significantly under-represent the diversity of our
community and typically relies on representations
of individuals who are predominantly white,
able-bodied and heterosexual. Rubie-Davies,
Liu and Lee (2013) found that in New Zealand
television advertisements, people from European
backgrounds were over-represented whereas
Maori and Pacific Island people were only
proportionally represented in government
advertisements or those that used negative
stereotypes. Similarly, the representation of
people from Asian backgrounds also appeared
to be based on stereotypes, as they were only
proportionally represented in advertisements

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA12
for finance products. Corroborating the finding
that disadvantaged or marginalised groups rarely
appear in advertising, Lloyds Banking Group (2016)
examined 1300 advertisements in the UK and
found that only 19 per cent included people from
minority groups. People with disabilities, single
parents and gay and bisexual people appeared in
fewer than 1 per cent of advertisements.3 Those
aged over 65 and from Asian backgrounds were
also significantly under-represented. Similarly,
a US study of advertisements during children’s
television programming found Indigenous people
and those from Asian or Hispanic backgrounds
were grossly under-represented (Peruta & Powers
2017).
The majority of advertisements
feature younger people
The majority of advertisements feature younger
people (Matthes, Prieler & Adam 2016; Prieler 2015).
When older women do appear in advertisements
it is often in relation to health and beauty
products, with ageing being framed as unhealthy,
ugly, and undesirable (Brown & Knight 2015; Del
Rosso 2017). An analysis of Australian women’s
magazines from 1960 to 2010 found that since
the 1960s, the pressure on women of all ages
to remain looking youthful and mask all signs
of ageing has increased. In more recent years,
both younger women and older women have
been targeted by advertising selling anti-ageing
products (Brown & Knight 2015).
The limited range of advertising representations
acts to support other forms of structural inequality
and disadvantage, including inequalities based on
race, class, age, ethnicity, ability and sexuality. The
depiction of marginalised groups – where they
are depicted at all – often relies on stereotypes
that are used to maintain oppression and justify
inequality.4
3 For example, the study found that although 17.9 per cent
of people in the UK have a disability, just 0.06 per cent of
people featured in the UK advertisements appeared to have
a disability.
4 There are signs this may be gradually improving, with
several recent examples of Australian advertisements
featuring people from a more diverse range of cultural
backgrounds and people with disabilities (such as Kmart
and Target in Australia) (Elsworth 2017).
STEREOTYPED
REPRESENTATIONS OF MEN
AND WOMEN
From a very early age, children are influenced by
advertising representations. The marketing of
children’s toys, clothes and other products both
mirrors and perpetuates the gender norms and
practices held by the wider community.
There is evidence that toy marketing has become
increasingly gendered.5 An examination of
more than 3000 advertisements over almost
a century of Sears’ toy catalogues from 1905
to 1995 found that toy marketing had become
more gender-stereotyped over time (Sweet
2013). Advertisements now appear to rely less on
explicitly stereotyped messages (for example,
messages that explicitly promote tea sets to girls
to prepare them for a life of homemaking) and
more on implicit gender cues such as colour, and
fantasy roles such as the muscled, aggressive,
action hero and the little princess (Sweet 2014).
Advertisements for toys and other products
reinforce harmful and rigid gender stereotypes
in a variety of ways (Peruta & Powers 2017).
Advertisements influence children’s judgements
of whether toys are ‘for boys’ or ‘for girls’. One US
study with primary-school age children found
that the gender of the model in commercials
affected children’s perceptions of who should play
with particular toys (Pike & Jennings 2005). Colour
(predominantly pink and blue) is consistently
used as a marker for gender in advertising
children’s clothing and toys. Cunningham and
Macrae (2011) found that of the pink coloured
toys in toy catalogues, 97 per cent were listed
in the ‘girls’ section of the catalogue. Another
study reviewed toy advertisements on the Disney
corporation’s website and found that nearly all
of the action toys, small vehicles, weapons, and
5 The gender stereotypes used in marketing of toys also
reflects the ways in which toys are designed. Evidence
indicates that toys have become increasingly gendered in
their design, with girls’ toys increasingly sexualised and boys’
toys suggesting male dominance. For example, a recent
US study found that 62 per cent of popular dolls targeted
to girls had a noticeably thin body and were portrayed in
sexualised ways in relation to the clothing and body position
used in the design. In contrast, 42.3 per cent of action
figures targeted to boys had noticeably muscular bodies
and those figures were more likely than less muscular
figures to be shown with hands in fists and with an angry
expression (Boyd & Murnen 2017).

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
13ISSUES PAPER
building toys were for ‘boys only’, while nearly all
of the toys that were dolls or related to beauty,
cosmetics, jewellery, and domestic work were for
‘girls only’, reflecting stereotypes that associate
masculinity with physicality and action, and
femininity with nurturing and a concern with
physical attractiveness (Auster & Mansbach 2012).
Similar findings have been reported in studies in
the UK (Lewin‐Jones & Mitra 2009). One UK study
of television commercials found that children’s
toy advertisements often showed boys and girls
playing separately in stereotypical ways, with girls
shown as less physically active, with an emphasis
on appearance, performance, nurturing and
relationships (Let Toys Be Toys Campaign 2015).
Advertisements targeted at children frequently
reinforce male dominance, independence
and power. A study in the UK of television
advertisements for children’s games found
that males tended to be shown as the main
characters, were portrayed in dominant roles
and were most often the verbal narrators of
advertisements. Further, while males were shown
playing alone, females were typically supervised
by adults, suggesting that ‘males … are seen as
independent and in control of themselves and
their surroundings’ (Bush & Furnham 2013). Along
similar lines, a study of advertisements on the US
children’s television network Nickelodeon found
that commercials reinforced traditional gender
stereotypes through showing female characters in
cooperative play situations, while male characters
were portrayed in competitive interactions
(Kahlenberg & Hein 2010).
In advertising targeted to adults, the types of
products male and female characters advertise
tend to be associated with gender stereotypes.
A variety of studies have established that men
are more often used to advertise electronic,
automotive, finance or insurance products and
food and beverages, while women frequently
appear in advertisements for health, cleaning,
Incredible Hulk.
Photograph by Dan Forbes (Daly 2017).
My Little Pony.
Photograph by Dan Forbes (Daly 2017).
Advertisements targeted
at children frequently
reinforce male dominance,
independence and power

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA14
appliances, furniture, beauty and fashion products
(Eisend 2009; Furnham & Paltzer 2010; Matthes,
Prieler & Adam 2016; Plakoyiannaki & Zotos 2009;
Prieler 2015; Rubie-Davies, Liu & Lee 2013).
The roles and settings used
in advertisements targeted
to adults also tend to be
stereotypical
The roles and settings used in advertisements
targeted to adults also tend to be stereotypical.
A meta-analysis of 64 studies on gender roles
in television and radio advertising found that
occupational status showed the highest degree
of stereotyping (Eisend 2009). Consistent with
this, a recent study of 394 Spanish- and English-
language television advertisements in the US
found a high prevalence of gender stereotypes
in both samples, with women more often than
men depicted as young and usually shown at
home (Prieler 2016). One of the few Australian
studies to review gender portrayals in television
commercials identified that women were often
portrayed in home or retail settings, while men
were shown in outdoor or employment settings
and typically portrayed in senior work roles (Milner
& Higgs 2004). Based on the findings, the authors
suggested that gender portrayals were becoming
more stereotypical compared to earlier Australian
studies. It appears no comparative study reviewing
gender stereotypes in Australian advertising
content has been published since that time.
These stereotypical associations with products
and roles are reinforced by other, more subtle,
gender differences in advertising portrayals.
A study of television commercials in several
countries, including Australia, found that men
were almost twice as likely as women to be
portrayed as funny, 62 per cent more likely to
be shown as intelligent (for example, playing
the character of a doctor or scientist), 29 per
cent more likely to speak words associated with
power and 28 per cent more likely to speak
words associated with achievement (Geena Davis
Institute on Gender in Media 2017).6 In a study of
UK television commercials, women were often
portrayed in home settings, interacting with
children or others through smiling or touching,
while men were portrayed in work settings as
experts and tended to address the audience
directly (Rubio Milagros Del 2018).
However, other studies have found evidence
of positive shifts. An analysis of 1755 television
advertisements from 13 Asian, American and
European countries found some evidence that
aspects of gender role portrayals in television
advertising have improved, at least in some
countries. In the US, the UK and several European
countries, men and women were evenly portrayed
in work roles (Matthes, Prieler & Adam 2016).7
Improvements in portrayals were also identified
in a longitudinal comparison of television
commercials aired during the Super Bowl sports
event in the US across a 20-year period between
1990 and 2010. The study found that women
were depicted less often as dependent upon
men, and more often shown involved in non-
stereotypical activities, while men were being
portrayed less frequently as authority figures
(Hatzithomas, Boutsouki & Ziamou 2016). Further,
a study of over 3000 television advertisements
in New Zealand found that while there was
evidence of men and women being associated
with stereotypical product categories, there
was less evidence of gender stereotyping than
has been previously reported. Women were
equally likely to be depicted in roles outside
of the home and men were almost equally
likely to appear in advertisements for children’s
products (Rubie-Davies, Liu & Lee 2013). Similarly,
a recent review of the literature in advertising
and marketing journals published between 2010
and 2016 found some evidence to suggest that
men are increasingly depicted in ‘softer’ or more
egalitarian roles, or interacting with their children
(Grau & Zotos 2016).
6 Additional data on these findings is available from the
J Walter Thompson website: https://www.jwt.com/en/news/
unpacking-gender-bias-in-advertising
7 It is unclear from this study if the portrayals of men
and women in work roles reflected traditional gender-
stereotyped occupations for men and women.

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
15ISSUES PAPER
SEXUALISED AND
OBJECTIFYING
REPRESENTATIONS
Research consistently finds that women are
sexualised and objectified in advertising and mass
media (Ward 2016). A recent study of television
advertisements in the US found that women were
more likely to be dressed suggestively while men
were fully clothed (Prieler 2015).
A study of almost 2000 advertisements from
popular magazines in the US found that in over
half women were portrayed as sex objects. This
was particularly the case in men’s magazines,
in which three-quarters of the images of
women were sexualised (Stankiewicz & Rosselli
2008). Similarly, a cross-cultural comparison of
newspaper advertisements in the Netherlands
and Italy found that in both countries women
were more often seductively dressed and
portrayed in an objectified manner, though
this was a stronger phenomenon in Italian
advertisements than those in the Netherlands
(Tartaglia & Rollero 2015).
There is evidence that advertising and mass
media representations of women have become
increasingly sexualised (Zotos & Tsichla 2014). A
review of 40 years of representations in Rolling
Stone magazine found that ‘hypersexualised’
representations of women (for example, those
that depict women with their legs spread or
Images from Honey Birdette ‘Office party time’ campaign (Wolfe 2017).
Australian lingerie brand Honey Birdette
recently advertised a line of lingerie entitled
‘office party time’, in which women were
shown wearing lingerie and surrounded by
fully clothed men. These images appeal to
the male gaze, suggesting that the women,
rather than the lingerie, are the product
for consumption, and that women’s role in
workplaces is to be subservient and to titillate.
By the end of September 2018, the Australian
body that regulates complaints about
advertising in Australia, Ad Standards, had
received 12 community complaints against
Honey Birdette based on concerns that these
advertisements sexualised and objectified
women.
Honey Birdette has a history of using
sexualised images of women to sell their
products and arguing that this imagery
empowers women; however, health
implications of exposure to sexualised and
objectified images of women exist regardless
of whether the intention of the images is to
empower.
HONEY BIRDETTE

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA16
pulling down their pants, lying on a bed or
simulating sex acts) have become significantly
more common (Hatton & Trautner 2011). The
study also found some evidence that depictions
of men have become increasingly sexualised,
though women continue to be more frequently
sexualised than men. Increased male sexualisation
has also been identified in a small number of
other studies of media portrayals (Karsay, Knoll &
Matthes 2018).
Increased sexualisation in portrayals of women
was also identified in a review of magazines for
teen and pre-teen girls, which found that the
use of ‘sexualised’ clothing (for example, tight-
fitting clothing, low-cut tops, make-up and high
heels) had significantly increased in the period
between 1979 and 2011 (Graff, Murnen & Krause
2013). Sexualised depictions of women and female
athletes in sports advertisements have also
become more common (Kim & Sagas 2014; Sherry,
Osborne & Nicholson 2015). The sexualisation
of girls in media and advertising has also been
highlighted in government-commissioned
reviews in the US (American Psychological
Association 2007), UK (Papadopoulos 2010)
and Australia (New South Wales, Parliament
2016). Some have linked these changes in
the representation of girls and women to the
influence of the pornography industry, arguing
that pornography now constructs standards
of beauty and fashion, and this is reflected by
the prevalence of pornographic imagery and
iconography in advertising and other popular
media (Tyler & Quek 2016).
The practice of digitally altering women’s bodies
in advertisements has become widespread (Bury,
Tiggemann & Slater 2016; Tiggemann & Brown
2018). Images are routinely altered to remove
blemishes, elongate legs, reduce waist and hip
sizes, and increase bust sizes (Tiggemann &
Brown 2018). This practice has helped facilitate
objectification and produce even narrower
and more unrealistic conceptualisations of
female attractiveness, portraying women as
unrealistically thin, large-busted, long-limbed,
unblemished, wrinkle-free and hairless.
Technology has helped to extend the reach of
the beauty industry ‘across new areas of the body
requiring product solutions’, such as ‘upper arm
definition’ and ‘thigh gaps’ (Gill 2017).
Objectification and sexualisation may operate in
different ways for different women. Studies in the
US have found that African-American women are
portrayed in advertisements as having the least
facial prominence of all demographic groups and
are more frequently depicted as animals, while
Asian-American women are more frequently
depicted as exotic and subservient, when
compared to other groups (Vance et al. 2015).
Alcohol and gambling advertisements are
particularly likely to rely on sexualised portrayals of
women (Towns, Parker & Chase 2012; Ward 2016).
These products are frequently targeted to men
(Lyons, Dalton & Hoy 2006; Towns, Parker & Chase
2012). An analysis of 85 gambling advertisements
from 11 Australian and international companies
found that men were the central actors, while
women featured in secondary, service or
subordinate roles (Deans et al. 2016). Just under
half used gender stereotypes, and about a quarter
objectified women. For example, onedescribed
the bikini as ‘one of man’s greatest inventions’,
while another presented a James Bond–
Image from American Apparel campaign
(Stampler 2014)

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
17ISSUES PAPER
Image from General Pants ‘Wet dreams’ campaign
(Collective Shout 2014).
Images from General Pants ‘Fit in’ campaign
(Alison 2016).
Image from General Pants ‘Fit in’ campaign
(Alison 2016).
GENERAL PANTS
General Pants is an Australian fashion retailer
that sells denim, street and surf wear. On
its website, it explains it aims to ‘disrupt
the average and bring together the best
global trends and fashion to inspire young-
blooded individuals’. Yet General Pants
regularly comes under scrutiny for its use
of sexist advertisements and advertising
that objectifies women. For example, in 2011,
teenage staff were asked to wear ‘I love sex’
badges. In 2014, its ‘Wet dreams’ campaign
showed women wearing bikinis lying in a
bathtub with sultry facial expressions, and
its 2016 ‘Fit in’ campaign featured partially-
clothed women. Most recently, its 2018
‘#NoFilter’ campaign, with tag lines such
as ‘Raw and real – it’s a thing’ (Davis 2018)
promised a shift towards embracing women’s
bodies and their ‘personally perceived flaws’,
using no airbrushing or editing. However, the
advertisements show women undressing
to reveal their bikinis, and use only young,
able-bodied and slim models, with the
camera zooming in on the models’ breasts,
groins and buttocks. Even if the images show
stretch marks on women’s skin, General Pants
continues to sexualise and objectify women’s
bodies, despite its professed intention to
empower women.

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA18
typecharacter in a suit playing table tennis with
a woman wearing a bikini, with the voiceover:
‘When you have power, you can do what you
want. With whoever you want, whenever you
want, wherever you want, as many different ways
as you want’ (Deans et al. 2016).
This increase in sexualisation is not only linked
to a desire on the part of advertisers to ‘satisfy
the male gaze, provoke, and stimulate hype’
(Zotos & Tsichla 2014), but also to shifting
conceptualisations of female empowerment in
Western cultures. Influenced by ‘post-feminist’
notions of women’s liberation and equality,
traditional images of women as mothers or
housewives have been replaced by portrayals of
women as sexually assertive, independent and
ambitious (Gill 2007; Gill 2012; Malson et al. 2011).
Advertisers have embraced these changing
cultural ideals, often presenting women as
sexually powerful and in control, rather than as
passive objects (Malson et al. 2011). Advertising
agencies frequently defend their use of these
portrayals by framing them as progressive
and empowering. The influence of ideas about
women’s empowerment is evident in some of the
determinations of the Australian Ad Standards
Community Panel, which are considered in
relation to the Australian Association of National
Advertisers’ Code of Ethics regarding the use of
sexual appeal in advertising. Commenting on
the determinations of the community panel in
relation to fashion and lingerie complaints and
whether or not they are ‘exploitative or degrading’
under the Code, the Ad Standards summary says:
‘Advertisements for fashion or perfume which
depict women in stylised sexual poses may be
considered exploitative, but are not considered
degrading if the women are shown to be
confident and in control’ (Ad Standards 2018).8
8 For a recent example in which complaints about
objectifying, exploitative and degrading advertising imagery
were dismissed by the Ad Standards community panel
on the basis that the advertisement showed the woman’s
pose as ‘confident and in control’, see the Ad Standards
case report from 7/3/2018, no. 0083/18 in relation to a Honey
Birdette lingerie poster advertisement, available at https://
adstandards.com.au/cases/2018/March.
However, these representations ultimately
undermine efforts to promote gender equality by
constructing female success as being predicated
on physical attractiveness, by relying on limiting,
unrealistic images of women’s bodies and by
linking women’s power to their sexual desirability
to men. As discussed in the next section, these
‘empowered’ portrayals have been shown to have
damaging impacts on women’s body image.
NEDS
One advertisement in Neds’ 2017 ‘Time
to bet’ campaign depicts a man trying to
escape a family gathering with his wife
and in-laws in order to bet. Gambling is
portrayed as a fun and relaxing way to
escape family obligations.
Another advertisement depicts a woman
shopping for clothes with her male
partner. He encourages her to try on
clothes in the fitting room and she praises
him for his generosity. However, in reality
he is using the time as an opportunity to
continue betting on his phone.
Ogilvy Brisbane’s strategy director, Ewen
Pettit, says the advertisements offer ‘Aussie
blokes’ a ‘fun little escape’, considering
that ‘After some research with Australian
blokes we uncovered a startling truth – 80
per cent of our audience feel pressured by
the demands of modern life and yearn for
“me time”’ (Campaign Brief 2017).
Complaints regarding these
advertisements were made to Ad
Standards (Ad Standards case no. 0460/17
and 0461/17 and 0475/17, available at
adstandards.com.au/cases). These were
predominantly based on concerns that
the advertisements promote gambling
behaviour, in addition to concerns about
deceptive, condescending and dismissive
behaviour towards women and family
members. Ad Standards dismissed the
complaints.

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
19ISSUES PAPER
PORTRAYAL OF MASCULINE
PEER CULTURES
As identified in Australia’s framework for violence
prevention, Change the Story, male peer cultures
that promote hostility or disrespect towards
women are one of the key underlying causes of
violence against women (Our Watch, ANROWS &
VicHealth 2015). The available research suggests
that advertising targeted at men contributes to
this by reinforcing masculine peer cultures that
exclude or denigrate women.
Women tend to be shown
as peripheral in men’s lives
A review of the research literature on alcohol
advertisements has found these tend to promote
disrespectful views of women. Based on a review
of 80 studies of alcohol advertising over a ten-
year period, Towns, Parker and Chase (2012)
identified that the dominant representations
of masculinity in these advertisements draw on
stereotypes of the ‘everyday guy’ and the ‘lovable
larrikin’. Women tend to be shown as peripheral
in men’s lives, are frequently sexualised as ‘hotties’
or portrayed as demanding and interfering with
men’s freedom, leisure time and relationships
with male friends. A common theme is that the
demands of female partners can be managed by
men with lies and deception, presented under
the veil of humour. The authors conclude that
such messages undermine equal relationships
between men and women, promote a masculinity
that marginalises or objectifies women and are
problematic for the prevention of family violence.
Similarly, a comparison of advertisements for
alcohol in UK magazines for young women and
men found that in men’s magazines, young
women’s behaviour and the ways in which they
drink are ‘described in derogatory terms and
generally devalued’ (Lyons, Dalton & Hoy 2006).
Gambling advertisements also rely on excluding
and denigrating portrayals of women (Deans
et al. 2016). Although gambling advertisements
are targeted to adult men, it is likely that these
representations affect children, considering that
a recent Australian study found that children
aged 8–16 had a detailed recall of the content of
sports betting advertisements they had seen on
television and an extensive knowledge of sports
betting products (Pitt et al. 2017).
DEPICTIONS OF MALE
DOMINANCE AND VIOLENCE
AGAINST WOMEN
Violence against women may be exploited
by advertisers seeking to create controversy
and attract attention (Gurrieri, Brace-Govan &
Cherrier 2016). Although there is limited research
on depictions of violence against women in
advertising, the available evidence suggests
that images of women being subordinated or
victimised are not uncommon. One analysis of
almost 2000 magazine advertisements in the
US examined the extent to which women were
presented as victims (for example, portrayals
of acts of violence towards a woman; a woman
being overpowered, watched or tricked by a man;
or appearing lifeless, distressed or vulnerable in
other ways). The analysis identified that women
were presented as victims in just over 15 per cent
of advertisements in both men’s magazines
and women’s fashion magazines (Stankiewicz &
Rosselli 2008). In the majority of these portrayals,
women were simultaneously portrayed as sex
objects.
The widespread use of violent representations
of women in advertising was also noted in a
recent content analysis (Gurrieri, Brace-Govan
& Cherrier 2016). The advertisements selected
as the focus of the analysis were from a variety
of locations including Australia, were mostly
aimed at a younger female demographic, and
promoted fashion and alcohol products. In
the advertisements, women were presented
as passive and shown in a sexualised manner,
portrayed in animal-like ways (for example, as a
piece of meat), or depicted as being conquered,
held down, assaulted or watched by a male. The
advertising agencies involved justified their use of
such imagery by constructing it as art or arguing
that the representations were intended to be
lighthearted and humorous (Gurrieri, Brace-
Govan & Cherrier 2016).

WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA20
Impacts of advertising on
gender inequality and women’s
health and wellbeing
adult women
may have reduced
satisfaction with
sex & relationships
girls
may internalise
body ideals
Sexual objectification
in ads affects women
across their lifespan
young women
may develop low-
self-esteem, eating
disorders & body
dissatisfaction
Slater and Tiggemann 2016;
Ward 2016

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
21ISSUES PAPER
REINFORCEMENT OF
GENDER STEREOTYPES
Children begin forming their identities, values
and beliefs regarding gender from a very young
age. A vast body of literature has documented the
harms of gender stereotyping, which influences
children’s interests, behaviours, attitudes,
educational and occupational aspirations, and
beliefs about their self-efficacy and competence
(Chandra-Mouli et al. 2017; Our Watch 2018).
Gender stereotyping limits both girls’ and boys’
development and aspirations and helps to
perpetuate inequalities based on gender.
From an early age, children
learn to classify advertisements
in line with gender stereotypes
In combination with a variety of other familial and
social influences, advertising transmits cultural
ideologies about the position, status and value of
men and women in society. Children’s ideas about
the kinds of interests, behaviours and roles that
are considered appropriate for boys and girls are
influenced by children’s products and the ways
in which they are marketed. As discussed earlier,
the gendered marketing of children’s toys is a
topic that has been the subject of considerable
public debate and empirical research.9 Studies
of young children suggest that, in the first few
years of life, there is considerable overlap in boys’
and girls’ interest in toys (Fine & Rush 2016).
However, from the age of three, children begin to
display narrower and more gender stereotypical
play preferences (Halim & Lindner 2013, Todd et
al. 2018). A growing body of evidence suggests
that these preferences are influenced by the
marketing of products targeted to children
(Fine & Rush 2016).
9 See for example, Australian debate about Play Unlimited’s
2014 ‘No Gender December’ campaign (Sullivan 2016), which
prompted a 2016 Senate inquiry into domestic violence and
gender inequality that considered the role of toy marketing,
among other issues (Parliament of Australia 2016).
From an early age, children learn to classify
advertisements in line with gender stereotypes
(Cunningham & Macrae 2011; Lewin‐Jones & Mitra
2009; Zimmermann 2017). Children as young as
two years old are able to use colour to identify
what toys are considered appropriate for them
as a boy or girl (LoBue & DeLoache 2011; Let Toys
Be Toys Campaign 2015), and this has been found
to influence their toy preferences (Wong & Hines
2015). For example, a study of girls and boys aged
between three and five years old found that their
interest in toys depended on the colour of the toy.
Girls were more interested in new toys if they were
coloured pink, even if they were explicitly labelled
as ‘for boys’ (Weisgram, Fulcher & Dinella 2014).
The use of colour and other gender markers to
advertise toys not only limits children’s ideas
about gender-appropriate behaviour and
interests, but may also have developmental
implications. For example, play with toys
marketed to boys often requires motor
development and spatial skills, while play with
toys marketed to girls may focus on verbal
and social skills. This may contribute to gender
differences in later spatial, cognitive and social
development outcomes (Wong & Hines 2015).
Children’s responses to advertisements reflect
the development of an awareness of the greater
social status of masculinity. A recent US study
of preschool children’s responses to television
commercials found that toys associated
with femininity were viewed negatively by
boys (Zimmermann 2017). Overall, boys and
girls showed more favourable responses to
advertisements that targeted their own gender.
However, girls tended to like commercials
regardless of the target gender, while boys were
less likely to like toy advertisements targeted to
girls or to both genders (Zimmermann 2017).
This preference increased over time, with older
boys even less likely to like advertisements
targeted to girls.
Researchers have found that from middle
childhood, girls’ growing awareness of the
higher social status associated with masculinity
influences their interest in male-stereotyped
toys, while there is no equivalent phenomenon
of boys becoming interested in girl-stereotyped

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA22
toys (Fine & Rush 2016; Halim et al. 2014; Spinner,
Cameron & Calogero 2018; Todd et al. 2018). There
is some evidence, however, that the development
of gendered toy preferences can be shifted
by exposing children to counter-stereotypic
representations (Spinner, Cameron & Calogero
2018).
The impacts of gender-
stereotyped media
representations continue
into adulthood.
The impacts of gender-stereotyped media
representations continue into adulthood. A
study of young men in the US found that those
who more regularly consumed male-oriented
media (such as sports or reality television, or
men’s magazines) were more likely to adhere to
traditional views about masculine roles (Giaccardi
et al. 2016). Consistent with these findings, surveys
have identified links between men’s regular
consumption of gender-stereotyped media and
their endorsement of stereotyped beliefs about
masculinity (Seabrook et al. 2016; Zurbriggen &
Morgan 2006).
IMPACTS ON HEALTH
AND WELLBEING
Self-objectification
A comprehensive body of literature has
established that women who are regularly
exposed to sexually objectifying media content
are more likely to objectify themselves and
internalise appearance ideals. A recent meta-
analysis of 50 studies examined correlations
between self-objectification and the regular use
of sexualised mass media, including television,
magazines, social networking sites and video
games (Karsay, Knoll & Matthes 2018). The meta-
analysis found that, across various types of mass
media, exposure to sexualised content increased
self-objectification for women. A similar effect was
found for men, leading the authors to suggest
that the increasing prevalence of depictions of
men’s bodies as sexualised, manipulated and
scrutinised by others may be contributing to self-
objectification by men (Karsay, Knoll & Matthes
2018). However, the authors note that it is also
important to recognise that the sexualisation
of men and women may have different social
meanings; for example, the cultural ideal for
male bodies is based on strength and power,
while the ideal for female bodies relates to
thinness and vulnerability. Additionally, women
tend to receive more sexualising information
than men throughout their lives. Thus, existing
gender inequalities are perpetuated within these
representations (Karsay, Knoll & Matthes 2018;
Rollero 2013).
Body satisfaction
Concerns about body image are significant
among Australian women, particularly in
adolescence. An Australian survey of over 18,000
young people aged 15–19 found that 41 per cent of
females and 17 per cent of males reported being
extremely or very concerned about their body
image (Bailey et al. 2016). Another survey found
that more than half of Australian girls report
that they feel more often valued for their looks
rather than their brains or ability (IPSOS, Plan
International Australia & Our Watch 2016)
…women who are regularly
exposed to sexually objectifying
media content are more likely
to objectify themselves and
internalise appearance ideals
According to a recent review of 135 studies
of the effects of exposure to objectifying
media published over a 20-year period, there
is ‘substantial’ evidence that advertising
and other mass media contributes to body
dissatisfaction (Ward 2016). In one study, male
and female undergraduates in the US were
randomly assigned to either view advertisements
that sexually objectified women and portray
appearance ideals, or non-appearance-

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
23ISSUES PAPER
related advertisements. The study found
body dissatisfaction increased for women and
men exposed to advertisements that sexually
objectified women, although this effect was larger
for women (Krawczyk & Thompson 2015).
…children in primary school can
also be affected by sexualised
media images
While most of the research on the links between
sexualised media and body satisfaction focuses on
girls in late adolescence (American Psychological
Association 2007; Ward 2016), a small number of
studies have identified that children in primary
school can also be affected by sexualised media
images. One of these studies was recently
undertaken in Australia. Based on interviews with
300 girls aged 6–9 years old, the research found
that girls who had greater everyday exposure to
sexualised images via television and magazines
had a greater preference for sexualised clothing,
greater internalisation of sexualisation messages
and increased body dissatisfaction (Slater &
Tiggemann 2016).10
A variety of studies have established a link
between media that idealises thinness and
body dissatisfaction in women (Tiggemann
& Brown 2018; Ward 2016), with particularly
pronounced impacts being identified in women
who already have significant body concerns
(Andrew, Tiggemann & Clark 2015; Ferguson 2013;
Halliwell 2013). A recent Australian study found
that undergraduate women who were exposed
to fashion advertisements that used thin models
experienced increased body dissatisfaction. The
study also found that labelling the advertisements
to indicate that the images had been digitally
altered had no impact on women’s body
10 Consistent with this, an earlier study in the US found that
both boys and girls aged 6–12 said they liked magazine
images of women and men that depicted them in
objectifying ways (for example, wearing revealing clothing,
or men with bare, muscular torsos), though there was
a stronger relationship between girls’ responses, their
internalisation of body image ideals and their feelings about
their own bodies (Murnen et al. 2003).
dissatisfaction (Tiggemann & Brown 2018),
which suggests that women may be negatively
affected by advertisements even when they are
aware that the images used are not real women’s
bodies. Similar findings about labelling have
been identified in other studies (Bury, Tiggemann
& Slater 2014; Bury, Tiggemann & Slater 2016;
Paraskeva, Lewis-Smith & Diedrichs 2015).
Culturally or racially specific representations may
have different impacts on different women’s
body image, self-esteem and experiences
of self-objectification, though the available
research paints a complex picture. For example,
while some studies in the USA have found that,
compared to white women, African-American
women are less influenced by media images of
women that idealise thinness, due to a rejection of
white standards that equate thinness with beauty
(see for example, DeBraganza & Hausenblas 2010;
Schaefer et al. 2018), other studies have found
no differences, or small differences only (Grabe
& Hyde 2006; Karsay, Knoll & Matthes 2018).11
However, other aspects of media representations
of women’s bodies have been found to affect
African-American women’s body image. One
study found that African-American women’s
body image was negatively influenced by
internalising media representations of black
women with lighter skin and long straight hair,
particularly when women perceived that these
representations were valued by African-American
men (Capodilupo 2015).
Although there is an absence of research on
the impacts of advertising representations on
young Indigenous Australians, one study found
that, to some extent, a critical perspective on
the ‘thin ideal’ body for young women, as well
as community connections and politicisation
around issues of Aboriginality and discrimination,
acted as protective factors against the body
image pressures that are reinforced in advertising
and other everyday media (Flaxman et al. 2012).
Many of those interviewed in the study identified
with African-American cultural representations,
because they perceived African-American body
11 American research on levels of self-objectification among
Hispanic women has also produced inconsistent results
(Schaefer & Thompson 2018).

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA24
types to be similar to those of Aboriginal women.
Further research is needed that explores media
representations and self-objectification for a
more diverse range of women, including those
of different ages, abilities, sexualities and gender
identities, and from different socioeconomic
backgrounds (Karsay, Knoll & Matthes 2018; Ward
2016)
Men’s body image has also
been shown to be negatively
affected by advertising
portrayals
Men’s body image has also been shown to be
negatively affected by advertising portrayals.
Young Australian men have been found to have
increased body dissatisfaction after exposure to
television commercials that portrayed ‘idealised’
muscular male bodies, compared to those
exposed to non-appearance-related commercials
(Hargreaves & Tiggemann 2009). Men who
were highly appearance-focused were the most
negatively affected. Further evidence of impacts
on both men’s and women’s satisfaction with
their bodies was identified in a recent Australian
study of social media marketing (Tamplin,
McLean & Paxton 2018). The study exposed 187
young women and 187 young men to social
media advertisements for alcoholic drinks, with
some participants viewing ‘appearance-ideal’
images of celebrities, models, or peers advertising
alcoholic drinks, and other participants viewing
control images of the drinks only. Exposure to
‘idealised’ images of the same gender increased
body dissatisfaction for both women and men.
The authors observed that this effect is likely
to be amplified in a real-world social media
environment, as young people typically spend
several hours a day on social media.
As discussed earlier, while depictions of women
as passive sex objects in advertising remain
common, in recent years there has been a shift to
include images in which women appear sexually
powerful and in control. Although advertisers have
argued that these are positive for women, there is
evidence that women’s body image is negatively
affected by ‘sexually agentic’ advertising
portrayals. In a UK study, female undergraduates
viewed advertising images of women in their
underwear, framed either by slogans emphasising
their physical appearance (‘sexually passive’) or
slogans emphasising the woman’s empowerment
and sexual self-confidence (‘sexually agentic’).
The impact of viewing these advertisements was
compared with the impact of viewing images
of only the product being advertised (‘control’
condition). The investigation found that both the
sexually passive and agentic representations were
associated with increased weight dissatisfaction,
compared to exposure to control images. Further,
viewing sexually agentic representations was
associated with higher self-objectification than
viewing sexually passive representations or the
control images (Halliwell, Malson & Tischner 2011).
While girls and women are
influenced by advertising
messages, they are not
necessarily uncritical recipients
of them
While girls and women are influenced by
advertising messages, they are not necessarily
uncritical recipients of them. A study of 71 girls
aged 11–13 in New Zealand found that many felt
that advertisements and other media images
made them feel ‘bad’ about themselves and
‘under constant pressure’ to be thin. However, at
the same time, the girls were frequently highly
critical of these representations (Vares, Jackson
& Gill 2011). Research with young women has also
found that their ability to critique appearance-
ideal advertising portrayals helps to offset the
impact of viewing these images to some extent
(Tamplin, McLean & Paxton 2018).
Mental health and eating behaviours
A variety of studies have established a link
between self-objectification and eating disorders,
lower self-esteem and reduced mental health
(for reviews, see Moradi & Huan 2008; Schaefer &
Thompson 2018; Szymanski, Moffitt & Carr 2010).

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
25ISSUES PAPER
For example, a recent meta-analysis of 53 studies
found a significant positive link between self-
objectification and eating disorders for women as
well as for men, although the effect size was larger
for women (Schaefer & Thompson 2018).
Similar findings have been identified in Australian
settings. A South Australian study of over 1000
young women aged 12–16 found an association
between greater levels of regular exposure to teen
and women’s magazines and social networking
sites, and increased self-objectification (Slater &
Tiggemann 2014). In turn, self-objectification was
associated with self-surveillance, body shame,
and disordered eating (Slater & Tiggemann 2014).
These associations have also been identified in
previous Australian studies (Slater and Tiggemann
2010).
Associations between self-objectification, body
dissatisfaction and disordered eating have also
been found among racially and ethnically diverse
groups of women (Moradi & Huan 2008) and
among both lesbian and heterosexual women
(Szymanski, Moffitt & Carr 2010).
Cognitive performance
There is some evidence to suggest that viewing
sexualised advertising images of models of the
same gender reduces children’s performance on
cognitive tests. In an Italian study, 8–10 year olds
were exposed to advertisements of sexualised or
non-sexualised children (sexualised images were
pictures in which the models wore swimwear
or underwear, or were portrayed in ‘provocative’
adult-like poses), then asked them to complete a
maths test and a working memory test. Exposure
to sexualised advertisements disrupted both
girls’ and boys’ performance on both tests (Pacilli,
Tomasetto & Cadinu 2016). This appears to be
the first study to identify the negative effects of
sexualised advertising on children’s cognitive
performance, and further research to explore this
phenomenon in detail is needed.
Relationships and sexual health
Greater exposure to sexually objectifying media
has been found to be related to greater self-
consciousness about body image during sex
(Ward 2016). A recent US study identified links
between young women’s media exposure,
self-sexualisation (defined as valuing oneself
for one’s sexual appeal, to the exclusion of
other characteristics) and their sexual agency
(Ward et al. 2017). Of the 754 young women
surveyed, those who frequently consumed
women’s magazines, lifestyle or reality television
programs and situation comedies were more
likely to engage in self-sexualisation. In turn, self-
sexualisation predicted a greater use of alcohol
to feel sexual, less self-efficacy in condom use
and more negative feelings about their level of
sexual experience. The findings indicate that self-
sexualisation influenced by media exposure may
also be associated with a reduction in women’s
sense of efficacy and comfort with their sexual
experiences. These findings call into question
the idea that viewing sexualised imagery in
advertising and other mass media is sexually
empowering for women (Ward et al. 2017).
Greater exposure to sexually
objectifying media has been
found to be related to greater
self-consciousness about body
image during sex
Consuming objectifying media may also have
negative effects on relationship and sexual
satisfaction for both women and men. A study of
undergraduates in the US found that both men
and women who had greater exposure to sexually
objectifying television, films and magazines were
more likely to objectify their romantic partners,
though this effect was stronger for men. In turn,
partner objectification was linked to decreased
relationship satisfaction for women and men,
and decreased sexual satisfaction for men
(Zurbriggen, Ramsey & Jaworski 2011).
Physical activity
Self-objectification affects girls’ and women’s
physical performance and reduces the likelihood
that they will participate in physical activity (for

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA26
reviews, see Stiefler Johnson 2014; Szymanski,
Moffitt & Carr 2010).
In Victoria and elsewhere in Australia, girls are less
likely than boys to participate in sport (VicHealth
2016) and studies have found that body image
concerns and self-objectification are significant
contributors to this (Slater & Tiggemann 2011).
Exposure to objectifying advertising has been
found to reduce women’s motivations to exercise.
A study of magazine advertisements for exercise
products compared the impact of viewing
advertisements that focused on women’s bodies
with the impact of viewing advertisements
that focused on the product itself (sport shoes).
Women exposed to advertisements that focused
on women’s bodies reported greater body-image
anxiety and reduced motivation to exercise
(Sabiston & Chandler 2010).
Sense of safety and participation
A survey of 1750 Australian girls aged 10–17 found
that 93 per cent said they felt it would be easier
to succeed in life if they were not judged on their
appearance (Plan International Australia 2017).
Experimental studies have found that when
women perceive that their bodies are the focus of
attention, they talk and participate less in social
interactions (Heflick & Goldenberg 2014; Saguy et
al. 2010). One recent study explored the impacts
of sexualised advertising on women’s comfort
in participating in a social event promoted at an
academic conference. The research identified
that women were more likely than men to
anticipate feeling uncomfortable, objectified and
incompetent at the event that was advertised
with an eroticised image of a woman, compared
to an event that was advertised with a non-
eroticised image (Biernat & Hawley 2017).
Research also indicates that advertising on city
shops and billboards that objectifies or excludes
women decreases women’s perceptions of
safety. The Monash University XYX Lab and Plan
International Australia asked women to identify
areas in Melbourne where they felt safe or unsafe,
using the web-based interactive map Free to Be.
Women and young girls felt less safe in city areas
where businesses used objectifying advertising,
masculine business names and logos (Salen 2017).
As some have pointed out, although sexualised
images of women may be common in
advertisements in shopping centres, public
transport and other public spaces, the display of
similarly sexualised images of women within a
workplace setting would contravene laws relating
to sexual harassment (Rosewarne 2005).
IMPACTS ON ATTITUDES AND
PERCEPTIONS OF WOMEN
Exposure to sexualised and stereotyped media
content not only affects how women view
themselves, but also influences how women
are perceived by others. It can also help shape
beliefs and attitudes about violence against
women, including perceptions of responsibility for
violence.
Perceptions of women’s humanity,
competence and morality
A variety of experimental studies have identified
that exposure to sexually objectifying images
of women causes people to view women in
dehumanising ways. A recent review of the
research literature found that viewing sexually
objectified images of women activates cognitive
processes that are used for perceiving objects,
rather than for perceiving humans (Ward
2016). Experimental studies have used implicit
association tasks to demonstrate that objectified
women tend to be associated with animal-like
characteristics, while the same association is not
found for objectified men (Vaes, Paladino & Puvia
2011).
Images that focus on a girl or woman’s physical
appearance or portray her in a sexual manner
have been found to reduce other people’s
perceptions of her competence, warmth and
morality (for reviews see Heflick & Goldenberg
2014; Ward 2016). One study showed adults
advertising images of a pre-teen girl in childlike
clothing, somewhat sexualised clothing, or
‘definitely sexualised’ clothing. Participants
perceived the girl in the sexualised image as less

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
27ISSUES PAPER
intelligent or competent, and lower in self-respect
and morality (Graff, Murnen & Smolak 2012).
…women are more likely than
men to be perceived as less
capable and intelligent when
they are sexualised
Research indicates that women are more likely
than men to be perceived as less capable and
intelligent when they are sexualised (Fasoli et
al. 2017; Heflick et al. 2011). In an Italian study,
participants who viewed images of female models
wearing underwear or swimwear perceived
the female model as less competent, but when
participants viewed similar images of male
models, there was no significant reduction in
how they perceived the competence of the male
model (Fasoli et al. 2017). However, other studies
have found that there are similar effects when
men and women are objectified. Loughnan et
al. (2010) found that both women and men were
perceived to have fewer thoughts and a lesser
moral status when advertising images focused on
their bodies rather than their faces.
While there is considerable research on
how media and advertising portrayals affect
perceptions of women, almost all of the
available studies examine portrayals of able-
bodied women. As discussed earlier, women
with disabilities are rarely represented in
advertising, and when they are shown, they are
often portrayed as asexual and dependent on
others. It has been argued that their invisibility
in everyday media encourages marginalisation
and contributes to negative perceptions of their
humanity, sexuality and reproductive rights
(Parsons, Reichl & Pedersen 2016). One study
found some evidence that participants who were
exposed to advertisements depicting people
with disabilities had more positive perceptions of
the rights of people with disabilities, though the
findings were mixed. The online study exposed
male and female participants to advertisements
featuring images of men and women with and
without physical disabilities (Parsons, Reichl
& Pedersen 2016).12 The study found that after
participants were exposed to advertisements
featuring individuals with physical disabilities,
they generally had positive attitudes towards
the reproductive rights of people with physical
disabilities; however, male participants’ attitudes
towards the reproductive rights of women with
disabilities actually became more negative. The
authors conclude that addressing the negative
stereotypes and the lack of representation of
individuals with disabilities in the media and
advertising may help to improve perceptions of
the rights of people with disabilities; however,
negative ideas about women with disabilities are
persistent and may be slow to change (Parsons,
Reichl & Pedersen 2016).
…men exposed to objectifying
images of women in a variety
of media are more tolerant of
sexual harassment, rape myths
and interpersonal violence
Violence-supportive attitudes
Experimental studies have demonstrated that
men exposed to objectifying images of women
in a variety of media are more tolerant of sexual
harassment, rape myths and interpersonal
violence (Ward 2016). A recent Australian video-
based ‘dating game’ experiment found that when
young men interacted with a woman portrayed
in a sexualised manner, they were more likely
to perceive her in sexual way and to behave
aggressively towards her if they perceived she
had rejected them (Blake, Bastian & Denson 2018).
A US study of male undergraduates found that
those who were more frequently exposed to men’s
magazines that objectify women, pornography
and reality television were more likely to hold
sexually aggressive attitudes that support violence
against women (Wright & Tokunaga 2016).
Similarly, men’s exposure to sexually objectifying
12 For example, the advertisements showed Paralympic
athletes and able-bodied people doing physical activities.

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA28
television portrayals has been associated with an
increased proclivity to engage in sexual coercion
and gender-based harassment in hypothetical
scenarios (Galdi, Maass & Cadinu 2013).
Exposure to objectifying
imagery has also been found
to influence both men’s and
women’s perceptions about
responsibility for rape
Exposure to objectifying imagery has also been
found to influence both men’s and women’s
perceptions about responsibility for rape (Romero-
Sánchez et al. 2015). For example, when male
and female British undergraduate students were
presented with objectifying or non-objectifying
pictures of a woman and were then asked
about their responses to her in a hypothetical
acquaintance-rape scenario, those who were
exposed to the objectified pictures were more
likely to perceive her as being responsible for
being raped (Loughnan et al. 2013).
A small number of studies have directly examined
how advertising contributes to violence-
supportive attitudes in particular. One study
exposed adult men and women to magazine
advertisements selected from real campaigns
that depicted sexualised violence against women.
Males and younger consumers who were exposed
to the advertisements were more accepting of
rape myths and sexualised violence than females
or older consumers (Capella et al. 2014). The
findings supported earlier studies that identified
links between exposure to print advertisements
and acceptance of rape myths (Lanis & Covell
1995, MacKay & Covell 1997). In contrast, a more
recent study found that experimental exposure
to sexualised or objectifying print advertisements
had no influence on undergraduates’ acceptance
of rape myths, leading the authors to speculate
that the saturation of sexually objectifying
advertisements in young people’s lives today may
have meant the experiment had little impact
(Vance et al. 2015).
However, there is recent evidence that
experimental exposure to subtle or latent forms
of sexism or sexual violence in advertisements
can contribute to the acceptance of sexual
violence (Reichl, Ali & Uyeda 2018). Participants
were more accepting of sexual violence described
in a vignette after being exposed to magazine
advertisements that depicted latent sexism
or sexual violence (such as the depiction of
dismembered body parts, bruises on a woman’s
face or a woman in a vulnerable position),
compared to those exposed to advertisements
that did not contain sexism or those exposed
to overtly sexist advertisements (for example,
portrayals of women as sex objects or as inferior
to men). The authors conclude that latent sexism
may produce more harmful effects than sexism
that is overt and easily recognised.
It is important to note that the majority of the
studies discussed here demonstrate impacts from
relatively brief exposure to sexualised imagery in
experimental situations. Considering that these
representations are ubiquitous in advertising
and in other everyday media, regular exposure
is likely to produce more pernicious effects on
perceptions, attitudes and behaviour.

29ISSUES PAPER
A business case for
equality in advertising
84% of CEOs &
71% of creative &
design professionals
in Australian advertising
are men
Ads that challenge gender
stereotypes are positively
received, particularly by women
Beale, Malson & Tischner 2016; Åkestam, Rosengren & Dahlen 2017
Baker 2017

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA30
GENDER STEREOTYPES,
CONSUMER ATTITUDES AND
PURCHASE INTENTIONS
There is mounting evidence to demonstrate
that gender stereotypical advertisements are
out of step with public opinion. An Australian
survey in 2018 of attitudes towards gender
equality in Australia found that a third of those
surveyed believed sexism to be widespread in
advertising (Evans et al. 2018). Consistent with
this, an Australian survey of young women aged
15–17 found that the overwhelming majority of
participants said women were not treated equally
in the media (Plan International Australia 2017).
Overseas studies have also identified that
a desire for change in gender portrayals in
advertising. A recent public opinion study in the
UK, commissioned by the Advertising Standards
Authority, found that children and adults felt
that advertising depictions of men, women
and families were ‘clichéd and stereotypical’
and lacking diversity. Participants wanted more
realistic gender portrayals that were in keeping
with modern-day roles (Crush & Hollings 2017).
Studies in the US have found that women and
younger consumers in particular have negative
attitudes towards advertisements that rely on
gender stereotypes (Huhmann & Limbu 2016).
Evidence also suggests that using ‘aspirational’
gender-based stereotypes may be ineffective as
a marketing strategy. A study of advertising that
used idealised portrayals, such as depictions of
strong athletes or beautiful slim models, found
these could be psychologically damaging to
consumers, lowering self-esteem and in turn
reducing the consumers’ purchase intentions and
perceptions of the brand (Dimofte, Goodstein &
Brumbaugh 2015).
DIVERSITY IN THE
ADVERTISING INDUSTRY
A lack of diversity in the advertising industry may
contribute to the narrow range of portrayals in
advertising. Like many other industries, women
continue to be under-represented in Australian
advertising agencies, both in decision-making
and creative roles. The Agency Circle, an industry
body that promotes diversity in Australian
advertising agencies, surveyed Australia’s creative
agencies in 2016 and 2017. The 2016 survey, based
on 1211 employees from 15 agencies, found that
men dominated leadership and creative roles in
the industry, comprising 84 per cent of agency
CEOs, 60 per cent of senior executives and 71 per
cent of those working in creative and design.
Concerningly, 42 per cent of women surveyed said
they had been sexually harassed at some point
in their career in advertising, and 45 per cent of
women felt vulnerable in the industry because
of their gender, compared to 3 per cent of men
(Baker 2017).13 Minor improvements were found in
the 2017 survey in relation to sexual harassment
and gender equity in pay for male and female
employees (The Agency Circle (Australia) 2017).
However, almost 50 per cent of those surveyed
rated the industry’s performance between
‘mediocre’ and ‘terrible’ when it came to hiring a
diverse range of professionals (in terms of gender,
age, ethnicity and sexual orientation). This data
is consistent with international research. A 2014
survey of 50 countries found the average number
of women in advertising creative departments
was only around 20 per cent.14
While the presence of women in leadership and
creative roles does not guarantee fewer gender-
biased representations, it may help to promote
more diverse or positive representations of
women and men. The contention that a lack of
diversity among advertising agency professionals
contributes to the use of gender stereotypes
was supported by the findings of a recent study,
which was based on interviews with advertising
agency professionals in the US (Windels 2016). The
study explored professionals’ perceptions of why
agencies rely on gender stereotypes. The research
13 Similar findings were reported in B&T Magazine (2016).
14 A global survey of advertising creative departments in 50
countries across the world found a global average of only
20.3 per cent female representation in advertising creative
departments (Grow & Deng 2014). Similarly, a study in 2016
of the UK advertising industry found women made up more
than half of junior agency roles, but only 25 per cent of those
in creative roles. Only 30 per cent of leadership positions
were held by women, according to data from the Institute
of Practitioners in Advertising. Those from non-white/Anglo
backgrounds accounted for only 13 per cent of agency staff
(Magee 2016).

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
31ISSUES PAPER
found that professionals perceived stereotypes
as a quick and easy way to communicate and to
ensure advertisements were easy for consumers
to process, while non-traditional representations
were perceived to be potentially ‘distracting’ to
consumers.
Most professionals believed that consumers were
attracted to seeing representations of themselves
or who they aspired to be. They also recognised
that creative departments were dominated by
men and shaped by masculine cultures and
values, and this was perceived to contribute to the
use of stereotypes (Windels 2016). A dependence
on stereotypes was also linked to client needs;
practitioners felt that clients tended to be risk-
averse and wanted to avoid offending consumers.
At the same time, practitioners recognised that
subverting stereotypes could be very effective and
attract consumer attention (Windels 2016).
Advertising professionals
tended to conceptualise
responses to advertising in
ways that mirrored gender
stereotypes
INDUSTRY AWARENESS
OF HARMS
A lack of awareness of the impacts of stereotyped
and sexualised gender portrayals may be another
reason why agency professionals rely on these
representations. A recent study of professionals
in the US found that, while a small number
perceived they had a moral responsibility to make
ethical choices in relation to gender portrayals,
many did not understand the ways in which
gender portrayals could be problematic (Zayer &
Coleman 2015). Advertising professionals tended
to conceptualise responses to advertising in ways
that mirrored gender stereotypes, perceiving that
only women were vulnerable to the influence
of advertising and other media and needed to
be ‘protected’ from negative portrayals, while
men were ‘less sensitive’ and immune to any
impacts. When advertisers did express concerns
about gendered portrayals, these largely related
to strategic considerations rather than ethical
ones, and were linked to the needs of clients, the
requirements of media regulatory bodies or the
risk of backlash from consumer groups.
… advertisements that portray
women respectfully and
accurately increased purchase
intent
CONSUMER SUPPORT
FOR GENDER EQUALITY
Growing evidence demonstrates that advertising
representations that challenge gender
stereotypes appear to be positively received,
particularly by women. This is particularly
relevant for product owners and advertising
agencies, considering that 70 per cent of all brand
purchasing decisions are made by women, 75 per
cent of women identify themselves as the primary
shopper for their household and 64 per cent of
all consumer spending is controlled by women
(The World Federation of Advertisers 2018). A
recent study of adult women identified that
‘femvertising’ campaigns (print advertisements
that used women with larger body types,
and video advertisements that showed non-
stereotypical gender role portrayals) generated
more positive reactions than traditional,
stereotypical advertising campaigns, and that
this leads to positive attitudes towards the brand
(Åkestam, Rosengren & Dahlen 2017; Chu, Lee &
Kim 2016). Research undertaken for the #SeeHer
campaign (a campaign for gender equality in
advertising led by the Association of National
Advertisers in the USA) found that advertisements
that portray women respectfully and accurately
increased purchase intent by 26 per cent among
all consumers and 45 per cent among women
(Association of National Advertisers (US) 2018).
Along similar lines, a survey of Facebook users
in the US found that advertising that subverted
gender stereotypes (such as by celebrating

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA32
female athleticism or encouraging girls to study a
STEM subject) generated more positive reactions
among women than other advertising. For
example, women were almost twice as likely to
say they wanted to watch a related movie trailer
after seeing an advertisement for the movie
featuring an image of a woman dressed as a
firef ighter compared to seeing an advertisement
featuring a woman dressed in revealing clothing.
There was, however, no significant difference
between men’s reactions to the advertisements
(Facebook 2017).
The use of ‘real’ models in marketing also receives
positive responses from women. A survey
of young women about Dove’s ‘Real beauty’
campaign found that women favourably viewed
the use of plus-size models in the campaign, in
comparison to campaigns that used thin models
(Beale, Malson & Tischner 2016).
Non-stereotypical advertising
representations of men as
fathers have also been found to
prompt positive reactions from
Australian consumers
Non-stereotypical advertising representations of
men as fathers have also been found to prompt
positive reactions from Australian consumers;
however, this may depend on the consumer’s
own views about gender roles (Baxter, Kulczynski
& Ilicic 2016). People with non-traditional views
were particularly likely to have positive attitudes
towards advertisements that showed men as
caregivers, highlighting the potential value of
advertising that depicts male caregivers in non-
stereotypical roles.
Contrary to the popular adage that ‘sex sells’,
research suggests that this is not necessarily
the case. A recent meta-analysis based on
the findings of 78 peer-reviewed studies
(Wirtz, Sparks & Zimbres 2017) found that,
although people are more likely to remember
advertisements with sexual appeals, the effect
does not extend to remembering the brands
or products featured in the advertisements.
Sexual appeals have no impact on purchase
intentions. Also, people – particularly women
– are more likely to have a negative attitude
towards the advertisements. Consistent with this,
Australian studies have also shown that women
respond negatively to sexualised portrayals. An
Australian study examined male and female
undergraduates’ reactions to sexist portrayals of
women in a selection of alcohol advertisements
drawn from popular magazines. Compared to
males, females reported more negative attitudes
towards advertisements that used demeaning
sexual appeals and more positive attitudes
towards empowering advertising images (Jones
& Reid 2011). Similarly, a study commissioned by
the Australian Advertising Standards Bureau (now
known as Ad Standards) found that women were
significantly more likely than men to consider
advertisements negatively if they used sexual
appeals (Colmar Brunton Social Research 2013;
Jones & Reid 2009).
Considering that women drive the majority
of consumer purchasing,15 there is a growing
commercial imperative for businesses and
advertisers to recognise that sex and stereotyping
does not sell (Brideson 2017). Some advertising
agencies are recognising this momentum
for change, developing campaigns and
organisations to promote gender equal and
diverse representations. Examples include the
US Association of National Advertisers’ #SeeHer
campaign, which aims to increase the percentage
of accurate portrayals of women and girls in
US advertising and media by 20 per cent by
2020, and Unilever’s #Unstereotype alliance, an
industry-led initiative convened by UN Women
to end harmful stereotypes often perpetuated
through advertising.
15 Women are expected to control nearly 75 per cent of
discretionary spending worldwide by 2028, according to
research by Boston Consulting Group, cited in Ernst & Young
Global (2013).

Key points/infographics here
33ISSUES PAPER
Conclusion
The evidence summarised in this paper identifies
that advertising not only mirrors the values and
stereotypes that already exist in our society,
but also helps mould them in ways that have
detrimental long-term effects on both women
and men.
A dependence on gender stereotypes is evident
in advertising aimed at both children and
adults. From a young age, children are targeted
by colour-coded marketing, which is used to
signify the gender-appropriateness of toys,
games and clothing. The reliance on gendered
cues in children’s advertising appears to have
increased over time. Marketing representations
associate boys with dominance, independence,
performance and competition, and girls with
attractiveness, nurturing and relationships.
Female characters and voices
are under-represented in
marketing representations
Female characters and voices are under-
represented in marketing representations. Boys
and men appear more often, receive more screen
time, and provide more voiceovers than girls and
women, while people from marginalised groups
barely appear at all in advertising. When girls
or women are portrayed, they are often shown
in domestic settings, and are associated with
stereotypically feminine merchandise, such as
cleaning, fashion or beauty products.
Increasingly, girls and women are portrayed in
sexualised or objectifying ways. Further, it is not
uncommon for advertisers to use ‘transgressive’
images of women being dominated or victimised
by men in order to shock and gain attention.
The growing influence of the pornography
industry may have contributed to the increase
in sexualised portrayals, in addition to changing
cultural conceptions of women’s sexual
empowerment.
It is important to acknowledge that advertising
is only one of many factors in our society that
contribute to gender inequality. However, it is
an influential form of media that increasingly
saturates our public, private, and online spaces.
Advertising enters our homes via television,
radio, magazines, newspapers, the internet,
and through the products we purchase. It is
ubiquitous in public spaces such as transport,
shops, entertainment and sporting venues
and it filters into our online and social media
activities. Advertising has impacts on the entire
community, regardless of our age, gender identity,
race, cultural background, ability, sexuality,
socioeconomic status or geographic location.
The advertising industry’s continued use of
gender stereotypes and increasing reliance
on images that sexualise, objectify, denigrate
and subordinate women undermines efforts to
promote gender equality in Australia. Gender-
stereotyped portrayals limit the aspirations,
expectations, interests and participation of
women and men in our society. Advertising’s
reliance on characters who are able-bodied,
slim, white and heterosexual significantly under-
represents the diversity of our community.

ADVERTISING (IN)EQUALITY
WOMEN’S HEALTH VICTORIA34
These portrayals are also highly problematic
for the prevention of family violence and other
forms of violence against women. The factors that
consistently predict or cause violence against
women include adherence to stereotyped
gender roles, the condoning of violence against
women, men’s control over decision-making,
and male peer relations that emphasise
aggression and disrespect for women. Advertising
representations frequently support these kinds
of gender inequalities by under-representing
women or portraying them in stereotypical roles,
while depicting men as powerful and in control.
The ubiquity of sexualised and objectifying
advertising representations promotes perceptions
of women as sexually available, as well as beliefs
that sexualised women are incompetent and
morally deficient. Evidence demonstrates that
even brief exposure to these images is linked to
sexually aggressive attitudes and behaviours.
The frequency of these everyday portrayals in
print, television, radio, public spaces and online
fosters a culture that normalises male dominance
and sexual entitlement, in which disrespecting,
dominating or degrading women is considered
acceptable.
The use of gender stereotypes and sexualised
advertising portrayals is increasingly the focus
of consumer concern – particularly among
women – and this can create negative brand
perceptions and reduced purchase intentions.
The studies cited in this paper demonstrate
that there is a clear business case for change.
Brands, businesses and creative agencies can
benefit f rom portraying both women and men
proportionately, respectfully and realistically,
in ways that reflect the diversity of ages, races,
bodies, cultures, abilities, genders and sexualities
in our community.
More importantly, there are ethical reasons why
businesses and advertising agencies should
reconsider the use of sexualised and gendered
portrayals. The ubiquity of these representations
is having serious and damaging impacts on the
health, wellbeing and safety of women. Narrow
gender roles and an emphasis on muscularity and
performance is also detrimental to men’s health.
… there are ethical reasons why
businesses and advertising
agencies should reconsider the
use of sexualised and gendered
portrayals
The good news is that marketing representations
that challenge gender stereotypes appear to be
positively received, particularly by women, but
also by many men. Further, the ubiquity and
influence of advertising across the community
means that it is a setting that provides
significant opportunities for encouraging
positive representations of men and women and
promoting gender equality.
It is hoped that this paper will raise awareness of
the damaging impacts that the use of gender
stereotypes and sexualised portrayals has on
the health and wellbeing of women and men,
and girls and boys. The evidence discussed in
this paper should help to create momentum for
businesses, brands and the advertising industry
to identify a business case for change, and to take
a leading role to ensure that advertising has a
positive impact in promoting gender equality in
our society.

35ISSUES PAPER
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Advertising (in)equality: the impacts of sexist advertising on women’s health and wellbeing
Women’s Health Victoria Issues Paper No. 14
Researched and written by Mandy McKenzie, Megan Bugden, Dr Amy Webster and Mischa Barr
WHV thanks the following members of the Advertising (in)equality Project Partnership group
for their feedback and ongoing support:
• Nancy Pierorazio, City of Melbourne
• Olivia Greenwell, OurWatch
• Bec Brideson, Venus comms
• Dr Lauren Gurrieri, RMIT
• Kerry Irwin, Collective Shout
• Annie Blatchford and Jane Gilmore, DVvic
© Women’s Health Victoria 2018
Level 8, 255 Bourke Street
Melbourne Victoria 3000, Australia
(GPO Box 1160 Melbourne, 3001)
Telephone: 03 9664 9300
Facsimile 03 9663 7955
whv@whv.org.au
whv.org.au
Published Dec 2018
ISSN: 1837-4417
This paper is also available at: http://whv.org.au
Women’s Health Victoria acknowledges and pays our respects to the traditional custodians of
the land, the peoples of the Kulin Nation. As a statewide organisation, we also acknowledge the
traditional custodians of the lands and waters across Victoria. We pay our respects
to them, their cultures and their Elders past, present and emerging.
We recognise that sovereignty was never ceded and that we are beneficiaries of stolen land and
dispossession, which began over 200 years ago and continues today.