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In many societies monuments are as-
sociated with dynamic socio-economic
and political processes that these so-
cieties underwent and/or instrumental-
ised. Due to the often large human and
other resources input involved in their
construction and maintenance, such
constructions form an useful research
target in order to investigate both their
associated societies as well as the
underlying processes that generated dif-
ferential construction levels. Monumen-
tal constructions may physically remain
the same for some time but certainly not
forever. The actual meaning, too, that
people associate with these may change
regularly due to changing contexts in
which people perceived, assessed, and
interacted with such constructions.
These changes of meaning may occur
diachronically, geographically but also
socially. Realising that such shifts may
occur forces us to rethink the meaning
and the roles that past technologies may
play in constructing, consuming and per-
ceiving something monumental. In fact,
it is through investigating the processes,
the practices of building and crafting,
and selecting the specific locales in
which these activities took place, that
THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL
APPROACHES TO THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
edited by
Ann Brysbaert, Victor Klinkenberg,
Anna Gutiérrez Garcia-M. & Irene Vikatou
CONSTRUCTING MONUMENTS,
PERCEIVING MONUMENTALITY
& THE ECONOMICS OF BUILDING
Sidestone
Brysbaert, Klinkenberg,
Gutiérrez Garcia-M. & Vikatou (eds)
CONSTRUCTING MONUMENTS, PERCEIVING
MONUMENTALITY & THE ECONOMICS OF BUILDING
we can argue convincingly that meaning
may already become formulated while
the form itself is still being created. As
such, meaning-making and -giving may
also influence the shaping of the mon-
ument in each of its facets: spatially,
materially, technologically, socially and
diachronically.
The volume varies widely in regional and
chronological focus and forms a use-
ful manual to studying both the acts of
building and the constructions them-
selves across cultural contexts. A range
of theoretical and practical methods
are discussed, and papers illustrate that
these are applicable to both small or
large architectural expressions, making
it useful for scholars investigating urban,
architectural, landscape and human
resources in archaeological and histor-
ical contexts. The ultimate goal of this
book is to place architectural studies,
in which people’s interactions with each
other and material resources are key, at
the crossing of both landscape studies
and material culture studies, where it
belongs.
9789088 906961
ISBN 978-90-8890-696-1
ISBN: 978-90-8890-696-1
Sidestone Press
CONSTRUCTING MONUMENTS, PERCEIVING
MONUMENTALITY & THE ECONOMICS OF BUILDING
Source Reference
Brysbaert, A., V. Klinkenberg, A. Gutiérrez Garcia-M. & I. Vikatou (eds) 2018.
Constructing monuments, perceiving monumentality and the economics of building:
eoretical and methodological approaches to the built environment. Leiden: Sidestone
Press.
This is a free oprint – as with all our publications
the entire book is freely accessible on our
website, where you can also buy a printed copy
or pdf E-book.
WWW.SIDESTONE.COM
SIDESTONE PRESS
© 2018 e individual authors
Published by Sidestone Press, Leiden
www.sidestone.com
Lay-out & cover design: Sidestone Press
Photograph cover: Mural from the tomb of Rekhmire, ebes necropolis, 18th Dynasty
ISBN 978-90-8890-696-1 (softcover)
ISBN 978-90-8890-697-8 (hardcover)
ISBN 978-90-8890-698-5 (PDF e-book)
Contents
Editors’ biographies 9
List of contributors 11
Editors’ acknowledgements 15
List of abbreviations 17
PART ONE: THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL 19
CONSIDERATIONS ON MONUMENTALITY
1. Constructing monuments, perceiving monumentality: 21
introduction
Ann Brysbaert
2. Mounds and monumentality in Neolithic Europe 49
Chris Scarre
3. Architectural conspicuous consumption and design as 65
social strategy in the Argolid during the Mycenaean
period
Kalliopi Efkleidou
4. Outer worlds inside 87
Lesley McFadyen
PART TWO: METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO 103
STUDYING ARCHITECTURE
5. Interpreting architecture from a survey context: 105
recognising monumental structures
Yannick Boswinkel
6. Three-dimensional documentation of architecture and 117
archaeology in the field. Combining intensive total station
drawing and photogrammetry
Jari Pakkanen
7. Set in stone at the Mycenaean Acropolis of Athens. 141
Documentation with 3D integrated methodologies
Elisavet P. Sioumpara
8. Labour mobilization and architectural energetics in the 169
North Cemetery at Ayios Vasilios, Laconia, Greece
Sofia Voutsaki, Youp van den Beld, Yannick de Raaff
PART THREE: ARCHITECTURAL ENERGETICS METHODS 193
AND APPLICATIONS
9. Comparative labour rates in cross-cultural contexts 195
Daniel R. Turner
10. Rethinking monumentality in Teotihuacan, Mexico 219
Maria Torras Freixa
11. Economic choice in Roman construction: case studies 243
from Ostia
Janet DeLaine
12. Large-scale building in early imperial Tarraco 271
(Tarragona, Spain) and the dynamics behind the creation
of a Roman provincial capital landscape
Anna Gutiérrez Garcia-M., Maria Serena Vinci
13. Building materials, construction processes and labour. 295
The Temple of Isis in Pompeii
Cathalin Recko
14. The construction process of the Republican city walls 309
of Aquileia (northeastern Italy). A case study of the
quantitative analysis on ancient buildings
Jacopo Bonetto, Caterina Previato
Index 333
117
In: Brysbaert, A., V. Klinkenberg, A. Gutiérrez Garcia-M. & I. Vikatou (eds) 2018. Constructing
monuments, perceiving monumentality and the economics of building: eoretical and methodological
approaches to the built environment. Leiden: Sidestone Press, pp. 117-140.
Three-dimensional
documentation of architecture
and archaeology in the field
Combining intensive total station drawing and
photogrammetry
Jari Pakkanen
6.1 Introduction
Imposing images, presentations and videos are widely used to present architectural
and archaeological research projects to the public and their role should not be
underestimated. They are often central to public understanding of the projects,
securing future finances and communicating the research to colleagues. The pro-
motional material can be directly created from the three-dimensional documen-
tation and reconstructions of the architectural and archaeological remains, so the
additional amount of work required is in most cases limited. However, the prin-
cipal aim of three-dimensional recording must be efficiently producing accurate
documentation which can be used in analyses of the documented features and
publication of the project results. When the work is carried out professionally, the
resulting models are precise representations of the geometry and textures of the
targets, thus making it possible to extract the required two-dimensional publica-
tion illustration, to carry out further analyses and to produce digital reconstruc-
tions of the fragmentarily preserved monuments.
Traditionally, the principal illustrations in archaeological publications have
been two-dimensional hand-drawn line-drawings of the documented features
and photographs. Currently, one of the most cost-effective ways of producing
precise two-dimensional line-drawings of monumental architecture is combining
photogrammetry with intensive stone-by-stone documentation using reflectorless
total stations: the two-dimensional projections can be produced to any required
direction, including plans, elevations and sections. The benefits of the method
6
118 CONSTRUCTING MONUMENTS, PERCEIVING MONUMENTALITY AND THE ECONOMICS OF BUILDING
presented here include speed of production, higher measurement density and pre-
cision compared to hand-made drawings. It also allows for more time to be used
in the actual study of the architectural features. For large complexes photogra-
phy using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) can significantly shorten the time
needed in the field. Here, several case studies of combining intensive total station
drawing with land-based and aerial photogrammetry are discussed in detail. The
projects are chosen so that they illustrate examples of combining different types
of three-dimensional documentation in the field – total station line-drawings,
point clouds and textured models – and deriving two-dimensional illustrations
from these data. The presented case studies of superimposing reconstructions on
three-dimensional data include sketching the main outline of maritime structures
of the medieval harbour at Kyllene and a detailed partial reconstruction of the
shipshed complex at Naxos in Sicily. A statistical study of the building block di-
mensions of a Hellenistic tower at Kyllene provides an example of the importance
of accurate architectural documentation and how it can be used in an analysis of
Greek measurement units.
Ancient architecture is in most cases fragmentarily preserved and, therefore,
our perceptions of the scale, monumentality and relationship of the structures
with other buildings are largely based on their reconstructions. Reconstructing
Greek and Roman monumental architecture requires a good understanding of
the regional and temporal variations of the buildings and of the combination
of their conservative and innovative characteristics.268 However, because of the
conventional nature of the ancient architectural orders and the proportional rules
guiding them, the completed structures can be quite reliably reconstructed based
on a limited range of in situ archaeological features and preserved blocks.269 Well-
argued and documented three-dimensional visualisations of the built environ-
ment are an important aspect of communicating the significance of architecture
both inside the scholarly community and to the wider public.270 For example, the
Classical shipshed complexes in the Piraeus were part of the great Athenian civic
building programmes and their digital reconstruction serves several purposes. The
three-dimensional model relates an interpretation of what the now lost ancient
built environment looked like. It is also an important starting point for economet-
ric calculations of the construction costs which, in turn, make feasible an analysis
of the social significance and context of the shipsheds.271
Due to recent development in hard- and software, full three-dimensional doc-
umentation is fast replacing traditional means of architectural recording. Even
though the cost of laser scanning can still be prohibitive, all fieldwork projects
have access to good digital cameras and most to a reflectorless total station.
Therefore, the methodology presented here can be applied at other archaeological
sites enabling efficient, accurate and detailed documentation.
268 Coulton 1977; Wilson Jones 2000; Pakkanen 2013a.
269 See e.g. Salmon 2001, 195; Pakkanen 2013a, 75-109.
270 See e.g. Pereda 2014; Pfarr-Harfst 2015; Vitale 2017.
271 Pakkanen 2013b.
119
PAkkANEN
6.2 Intensive documentation using total stations and line-
drawing with laser
e strategy for intensive and extensive272 total station documentation was an integral
part of two large-scale projects which both started in southern Greece in 2007. e
Kalaureia Research Program on the island of Poros was directed by Berit Wells and
Arto Penttinen of the Swedish Institute at Athens, and the Kyllene Harbour Project is a
collaboration between the Finnish Institute at Athens and the Ephorate of Underwater
Antiquities.273 A map of the sites mentioned in this paper is presented in Figure 6.1.
e methodology and the first version of the software for intensive total station
documentation were developed in conjunction with these two projects by the author
of this paper.274 e software for converting the total station documentation into a
three-dimensional CAD drawing was programmed using the script language of the
statistical package Survo MM. e current version employs the same algorithms as the
first, but as a console program it is very fast and works on any Windows platform.275
e operator of the total station codes the beginning and end of a line (or an individual
point) and the characteristics of the target before taking the point and recording the
three-dimensional coordinates of the object into the instrument memory. Afterwards,
the computer program translates these data into a layered CAD drawing.
272 ‘Intensive’ in this context refers to density of points and lines to draw the archaeological and architec-
tural features using reflectorless total stations: for example, the three-dimensional documentation of a
single typical foundation block of the Hellenistic Stoa C at Kalaureia comprises c. 20 lines based on
c. 250 points, and the total recording of the building remains comprises over 4,300 lines. ‘Extensive’
refers mainly to the size of the area with buildings and other architectural features: c. 200 m × 100 m
at Kalaureia and c. 300 m × 150 m at Kyllene.
273 Penttinen et al. 2009; Pakkanen et al. forthcoming.
274 Pakkanen 2009.
275 e software ts2dxf.exe has been developed in collaboration with Relator Ltd, a private compa-
ny based in Finland, as part of the ree-Dimensional Development Programme of the Finnish
Institute. A test version and instructions how to use the program are freely available from the author
of this paper via email.
Figure 6.1: Map of the sites mentioned in the text (image by Jari Pakkanen).
120 CONSTRUCTING MONUMENTS, PERCEIVING MONUMENTALITY AND THE ECONOMICS OF BUILDING
Figure 6.2a:
Kalaureia Research
Program, 2007‑2008.
Sanctuary of Poseidon.
Documentation of the
Hellenistic statue base
blocks. Drawing of the
top surface of Block A
based on hand measure‑
ments (Anne Hooton).
Figure 6.2b: Kalaureia
Research Program,
2007‑2008. Wireframe
model of the raw meas‑
urement data recorded
in the eld: Blocks B,
C and D (image by Jari
Pakkanen).
Figure 6.2c: Kalaureia
Research Program,
2007‑2008. Published
illustration of the top
surface of Block A
directly derived from
three‑dimensional
total station documen‑
tation (image by Jari
Pakkanen).
121
PAkkANEN
During a normal working day several thousand points can be recorded to create a
detailed line representation of the target.276
With a temple, four stoai framing a large central open space and a monumental en-
trance building, the sanctuary of Poseidon at Kalaureia on Poros is among the principal
ancient sites of the Saronic Gulf. Its architectural importance is on par with other large
nearby sanctuaries such as Epidauros and Argive Heraion, both in the Argolid. e
temple of Poseidon is a small late Archaic peripteral building at the northern edge of the
sanctuary, and one of the stoai and the entrance building are also Archaic. e two stoai
on the northern flank of the open space are Classical and the fourth one is Hellenistic.
is paper presents as a case study one of the early challenges of the research project:
the documentation of a Hellenistic statue base comprising four separate limestone
blocks discovered in 2007 to the southwest of the temple temenos.277
During the preparation of the publication illustrations in 2008, I could not make
the hand-drawn blocks of the statue base fit with each other despite their excellent
preservation. e problem encountered was that even professional illustrators are af-
fected by the strong tendency of the human brain to perceive regularity where it does
not exist (Figure 6.2a). e monumental statue base as a whole is highly symmetric, so
it is not surprising that this regularity also has an impact on the documentation of the
individual blocks. In this case the irregularity of the block sides facing the inside of the
statue base was missed in the field documentation based on hand-taken measurements.
In the lower right corner the discrepancy between the drawing in Figure 6.2a and the
block is c. 6 cm. Increasing the number of accurate measurements adds to the detail
of documentation but there is an understandable limit to how many dimensions can
be taken when drawing by hand, as this is a slow and cumbersome process always
involving a degree of approximation.
erefore, in order to fit the four blocks of the monument together, it was necessary
to return to the field to redo the drawings, but this time avoiding any hand measure-
ments (Figure 6.2b). Using a reflectorless total station to draw the architectural and
archaeological features requires abandoning the normal stationary way of working with
surveying instruments and making them an active part of the documentation process.
Using the laser requires a good reflection of the recorded surface and glancing shots of
oblique surfaces should be avoided, so a dense network of laser backsights is required
to be able to move the station to an optimal position whenever necessary.278 When very
high precision of the recorded target in the field is required, it is advisable to quickly
reshoot the co-ordinates of the four to five backsights in use to minimise the positional
and angle errors in subsequent short local moves of the instrument. An additional
advantage of the method is that using the reflectorless laser instead of infrared with a
prism target reduces the size of the survey team from two persons to one. Also, aban-
276 Metrology-grade tracking systems have also been used to produce three-dimensional line-drawings of
archaeological excavations (Smeets et al. 2014), but the system is slower, more expensive and more
cumbersome than reflectorless total station documentation.
277 Wallensten and Pakkanen 2009: e architectural importance of this particular statue base is that
the inscription ties the used mouldings to the period after the death of Arsinoe the second and when
Ptolemaios the first was still alive, c. 270-246 B.C.E.; Wallensten and Pakkanen 2009, 157-164.
278 Pakkanen 2009, 3-6.
122 CONSTRUCTING MONUMENTS, PERCEIVING MONUMENTALITY AND THE ECONOMICS OF BUILDING
doning the use of the optical telescope of the total station and using the laser pointer,
instead, makes it possible to directly observe what exactly is being recorded.279
Photogrammetry has quickly established itself as the preferred choice for three-di-
mensional architectural, archaeological, and topographical documentation.280 However,
when precise line-drawings are needed, photogrammetric models require retracing in
a computer program,281 while with reflectorless total station recording a line-drawing
can be produced directly from the data. Automatic tracing of exported images tends
to result in broken lines and the relationship between these lines and the traced target
is not always straightforward. Subtle changes in texture and detail are often difficult
to discern in orthomosaics and point clouds. is is apparent in all the case studies
discussed in the next section: superimposing the total station data on the models makes
it easier to read what the significant features of the target are.
e wireframe model presented in Figure 6.2b is based on unedited total station
data. e varying colours of the drawing are produced by giving the blocks and the in-
scriptions different codes when shooting the points. All details are directly recorded as
lines in order to simplify further processing of the data. e density of points depends
279 Pakkanen 2009, 3-5, figure 3.
280 E.g. Sapirstein 2014; Sapirstein 2016; De Reu et al. 2016; Sordini et al. 2016; omas 2016; Murray
et al. 2017; Sapirstein and Murray 2017.
281 Cf. e.g. omas and Kennedy 2016, table 1 and figure 6.
Figure 6.3: Kalaureia Research Program, 2007‑2008. Sanctuary of Poseidon. Dedication to
Arsinoe and Ptolemaios from the polis of Arsinoe in the Peloponnese (c. 270‑246 B.C.E). Final
illustrations generated from the reectorless total station line-drawings (Wallensten and
Pakkanen 2009, gure 6).
123
PAkkANEN
on how much detail is required in the final drawings and on the scale in which they are
published. Another critical factor is the available time for recording. e lines along the
cracked surfaces in Figure 6.2b are documented at 5-10 mm intervals and the straight
lines with approximately a 10 cm interval.
e final published drawings can be made in any vector-based drawing program
by exporting from CAD the relevant two-dimensional elevation or plan view of the re-
corded target. e line weights and representations of the different surface textures can
be modified to produce a ‘traditional-looking’ line-drawing of the target (Figure 6.2c
and Figure 6.3).
I have experience of training colleagues and students in three-dimensional docu-
mentation in the field for 10 years and they have all learned the basics within a couple
of days. e number of repetitions and field practice, however, need to be intense
enough so that the procedures become automatic. Direct three-dimensional drawing
can be monotonous work, but the excitement of seeing the results the same day on the
computer screen often makes up for that.282
6.3 Total station line-drawing and photogrammetry
Since 2014 we have integrated the use of three-dimensional total station drawings
with photogrammetry in the fieldwork projects of the Finnish Institute at Athens. e
case studies of the application of these techniques illustrate their potential, especially
how the integration can assist in documenting and analysing different types of features
of the architectural and archaeological data. First, I discuss the documentation of an
ancient harbour at Kyllene, Greece. Second, at Pleuron in Western Greece, in collab-
oration with Lazaros Kolonas, a large-scale Hellenistic reservoir was recorded 2015
and 2016.283 Finally, examples from the on-going research at Naxos in Sicily, carried
out by the Museum of Naxos and the Finnish Institutes at Athens and in Rome, are
discussed.284 For the locations of the sites, see Figure 6.1.
6.3.1 Kyllene Harbour Project
e Kyllene Harbour Project is an interdisciplinary study of the coastal and underwa-
ter remains of an ancient naval base and a medieval harbour. In 2007-2011 the main
emphasis was on documenting all the archaeological and topographical features of the
research area using total stations and underwater remote sensing methods. Since 2013
the project has concentrated on underwater excavations, monitoring coastal erosion of
archaeological layers and in 2016-2017 also on aerial-based photogrammetry of the
coastal and underwater remains (Figures 6.4a and 6.4b).
282 e three-dimensional field documentation courses of the Finnish Institute at Athens were initi-
ated in 2014 by the author of this paper and during the two-week courses it has been possible to
train students without previous experience in archaeological documentation to use the method. In
2014-2015 the courses were run in collaboration with Ann Brysbaert (Leiden University) at Tiryns,
and in 2016 the training course was arranged in co-operation with her ERC-funded SETinSTONE
project on Salamis. e latest course in the summer of 2017 was also carried out at Ambelakia on
Salamis.
283 Kolonas and Stamatis 2016, 117-118, 190.
284 Lentini et al. 2015.
124 CONSTRUCTING MONUMENTS, PERCEIVING MONUMENTALITY AND THE ECONOMICS OF BUILDING
e harbour is at the northwestern corner of the Peloponnese. In antiquity Kyllene
was the second major port of Elis, the city-state controlling the sanctuary of Zeus at
Olympia. By late fifth century B.C.E. it was a major Spartan naval base against the
Athenian naval forces. In the Hellenistic period the harbour remained of key strategic
importance and it is frequently mentioned in the written sources on the Macedonian
and also Roman military campaigns in the region. Pausanias (6.26.4) comments on
its suitable anchorage in the second century C.E. In 1205 C.E., after Constantinople
was sacked at the end of the Fourth Crusade, western Peloponnese was seized by the
Franks. e old Greek and Roman harbour was rebuilt and due to its ideal location
between the eastern and western Mediterranean, it emerged quickly as one of the most
important harbours of medieval Greece. e Frankish name of the coastal town was
Clarence, and in Greek documents Klarentsa or Glarentza. It flourished for nearly two
centuries but between 1407 and 1428 C.E. it changed hands five times. In 1431 C.E.,
Konstantinos Palaiologos, who later became known as the last Byzantine emperor,
destroyed its walls to prevent another capture of the town. Because of the destruction
of the towers at the harbour entrance and subsequent siltation, the inner basin became
impossible to use, and in 1435 C.E. the town is reported as deserted.285
Considering the good preservation of the medieval harbour installations at Kyllene,
very little archaeological interest has been shown to the maritime part of the site. e
only previous plan of the port remains is a rough sketch published in the 1960.286 e
European Union ird Framework project in 2002-2005 has resulted in major research
and improvements being carried out in the fortifications of Glarentza. Hellenistic and
Roman pottery and coins have been documented in the medieval strata, thus verifying
that the medieval fortress was built over the remains of the ancient town.287
e largest harbour installation is the great breakwater (S6 in Figure 6.5c) which
has a maximum width of c. 17 m across the top platform and c. 35 m at the bottom
of the sea, and its in situ remains on the surface project c. 120 m into the sea from
the modern shore line. Other recorded structures can be interpreted as fortifications
related to the medieval harbour entrance (walls W1 and W2, structures S1b, S1c, S2a,
S3 and S4) and sea walls (S2b, S2c and S5b). e maximum distance between the
installations measured in the east – west direction is 320 m between S1b and W7b and
in the north – south direction 160 m between the north end of S6 at the bottom of the
sea and W5 on the current shoreline. e typical medieval Frankish fortifications and
harbour installations were built in mixed technique employing reused ancient ashlar
blocks and rubble set in mortar. e discovery of the foundations of an ancient Greek
tower (structure S1a) between the Frankish wall W1 and fortification S1b confirm that
the medieval installations were built directly on top of the Greek and Roman harbour.
In 2016, the first attempt to build a three-dimensional model of the underwater
harbour structures using UAV photography was made. e fieldwork has been annu-
ally conducted in late August and September to take advantage of the quiet period in
the prevailing wind patterns. It was soon evident that the ideal conditions to take aerial
photographs of the underwater structures are at 6:50-7:30 am, a little before and after
285 For discussions of the ancient and medieval sources, see Servais 1961 and Athanasoulis et al. 2005.
286 Bon 1969.
287 Athanasoulis et al. 2005.
125
PAkkANEN
the sunrise. On several occasions there was great underwater visibility, with just enough
light, no reflections of the sun on the water, and few surface ripples (Figure 6.4a). e
textured model view in Figure 6.4b shows the locations of the 196 aerial photos taken
on 4/9/2016 as blue rectangles: this was the first set which could successfully be used
to build a model of the underwater structures from the UAV images.
Figure 6.4a: Kyllene Harbour Project, 2016‑2017. Documentation of underwater targets
using aerial photography. UAV DJI Phantom 4 ready for ying and waiting for the sunrise
(image by Jari Pakkanen).
Figure 6.4b: Kyllene Harbour Project, 2016‑2017. Modelling of underwater targets using
aerial photography. Textured photogrammetry model with the locations of the drone photo‑
graphs indicated by blue rectangles (image by Jari Pakkanen).
126 CONSTRUCTING MONUMENTS, PERCEIVING MONUMENTALITY AND THE ECONOMICS OF BUILDING
Figures 6.5a and 6.5b present two perspective views of the model of the area around
the foundations of a Greek tower S1a: the first model shows the three-dimensional
surface model of the area and the second the textured model. e eroded blocks in the
foreground are part of the Frankish harbour installation S1b. e highest points of the
stones are c. 0.3 m above the sea level. e top surfaces of the preserved blocks of S1a
are c. 0.6 m below the sea level. Despite refraction between air and water, it is possible
to build a precise representation of the sea floor. e standard method of dealing with
refraction in photogrammetry has been to use a complex algorithm and run several
iterations to correct the surface geometry of the three-dimensional model.288 However,
as is demonstrated here, a different method using underwater reference point markers
can achieve similar results as the computational approach of the standard method. Due
to shallow water and small height differences only nine reference markers on the seabed
were needed to correct the distortions of the model in this area. e detailed model
288 Georgopoulos and Agrafiotis 2012; Skarlatos and Savvidou 2015.
Figure 6.5a: Kyllene Harbour Project, 2016‑2017. Three‑dimensional surface model of underwater
features derived from aerial photography: area of the Greek tower S1a (image by Jari Pakkanen).
Figure 6.5b: Kyllene Harbour Project, 2016‑2017. Three‑dimensional textured photogramme‑
try model of the area of the Greek tower S1a (image by Jari Pakkanen).
127
PAkkANEN
shown in Figures 6.5a and 6.5b is based on 104 photographs taken at an altitude
ranging from 7 to 15 m.
e model of the harbour structures in Figure 6.5c is created from 385 aerial pho-
tos. e deepest points of the model at the north end of the breakwater S6 are c. 6 m
below the surface of the sea. In order to rectify the geometry of the model it was nec-
essary to use 59 markers across the whole area. e resulting model matches very well
with the stone-by-stone total station survey of the study area. e three-dimensional
model can be used to create a two-dimensional rectified and scaled projection using the
mosaic of individual photos. e readability of this orthomosaic is greatly enhanced by
superimposing the total station line-drawing on top of it.
e high-precision total station documentation of the area of the Greek tower S1a
was carried out in 2008-2011 using a three-person survey team and working only
when there were no afternoon waves: the team working in the water consisted of a
snorkeller pinpointing the mini prism tip and a relay person communicating with
the surveyor behind the total station. e underwater model and the total station
line-drawing of the ashlar blocks match well together (Figure 6.6a). However, due to
slight surface ripples, it would not be possible to measure the dimensions of the indi-
vidual blocks from the orthomosaic as accurately as from the total station data. e
benefit of UAV-borne photogrammetry is the possibility of documenting the surface
textures of both the manmade and natural features of the study area and, especially, the
speed of recording: it is unlikely that a highly time-consuming project of underwater
stone-by-stone line-drawing of the whole harbour would be initiated now that a faster
alternative is available.
Figure 6.5c: Kyllene Harbour Project, 2016‑2017. Total station survey data (line drawing)
superimposed on top of the orthomosaic of the harbour (image by Jari Pakkanen).
128 CONSTRUCTING MONUMENTS, PERCEIVING MONUMENTALITY AND THE ECONOMICS OF BUILDING
However, the first phase of documentation of the Greek tower S1a can be used as a
case study to demonstrate why accurate three-dimensional total station data are neces-
sary for architectural analyses. No scholarly consensus exists regarding the question of
lengths and standardisation of possible Greek foot units. Where no inscriptional evidence
exists, quantitative analysis of architectural measurements can provide an alternative ap-
proach.289 In the Greek tower S1a, the width of nearly all the blocks is in the range
0.66-0.69 m and the length 1.34-1.38 m, so the block length is clearly twice their width.
Cosine quantogram analysis provides a robust statistical method which can be used to
estimate the length of a measurement standard based on a set of dimensions.290 e larger
the sample, the more probable it is that the quantitative method is able to detect an un-
derlying basic dimension in the data set. Cutting building blocks to approximately fixed
sizes was a relatively common practice in Greek monumental construction projects.291
is made, for example, ordering the blocks from the quarries easier. erefore, it is
not a great surprise that the 162 block measurements from the Kyllene tower produce
a statistically significant result. In Figure 6.6b the highest peaks q1 and q2 are the most
probable candidates for the foot-standard. e length of the detected unit is unexpected:
the two peaks in Figure 6.6b give very strong support to the hypothesis that a standard of
0.340-0.341 m was used for this particular building, and it is a foot-unit that has never
previously been suggested for Greek architecture. e typical suggestions for the ‘long’
Greek measurement-standards are the ‘Doric’ foot of 0.325-0.329 m and the ‘Samian’
289 Pakkanen 2013a, 11-22.
290 Kendall 1974; Pakkanen 2013a.
291 See e.g. Pakkanen 2006, 277-279.
Figure 6.6a: Kyllene Harbour Project, 2014‑2016. Total station survey data (line drawing)
superimposed on top of the orthomosaic of the Greek tower S1a (image by Jari Pakkanen).
129
PAkkANEN
foot of 0.348-0.350 m.292 As this example demonstrates, metrological studies starting
with preconceived notions of standardised Greek foot-units can result in invalid hypoth-
eses of the design principles behind the analysed buildings. Methodologically sound
analyses employing statistics are necessary if we wish to reach a scholarly agreement
on this topic.293
e monumentality of the harbour installations can best be appreciated based on a
reconstruction (Figure 6.6c). e quick three-dimensional sketch was produced in CAD
and then superimposed on top of the textured photogrammetry model. ere are, at
present, too many unknown factors to produce a photorealistic model of the installa-
tions, but a wireframe image gives an idea of the possible heights and volumes of the
constructions, and of the narrow entrance of the harbour.
292 See e.g. Wilson Jones 2001.
293 Cf. Pakkanen 2013a, 11-12.
Figure 6.6b: Kyllene Harbour Project, 2014‑2016. Cosine quantogram analysis of the block
dimensions of S1a (n = 162) (image by Jari Pakkanen).
Figure 6.6c: Kyllene Harbour Project, 2014‑2016. Hypothetical three‑dimensional reconstruc‑
tion of the harbour installations superimposed on top of the textured three‑dimensional model.
Projection from north (image by Jari Pakkanen).
130 CONSTRUCTING MONUMENTS, PERCEIVING MONUMENTALITY AND THE ECONOMICS OF BUILDING
6.3.2 Monitoring coastal erosion to the west of the Kyllene harbour
e coastal scarp immediately west of the Kyllene harbour consists of archaeological
occupational layers from antiquity to the end of the middle ages. Every winter, the
waves directly hammer the archaeological layers of the site, critically endangering this
part of the site (Figure 6.7). A programme of systematically monitoring the annual
erosion of the cliff face was established in 2014 to collect data on the archaeological
stratigraphy and its rate of destruction.
ere are two features which jointly increase the destructive power of the waves:
a finger of natural bedrock (NF1) and the great breakwater (S6) extend respectively
c. 400 m and c. 150 m into the sea, and together they funnel the waves into the direc-
tion of the scarp (Figure 6.8a). One and a half metres of the cliff face disappeared into
the sea as a result of the winter storms between 2011 and 2014. e sea floor data has
been collected using an echo sounder, and in Figure 6.8a this information is combined
with the total station survey data to produce a combined digital elevation model of the
study area.
Figure 6.7: Kyllene Harbour Project, 2014-2016. Total station documentation of the cli face
with archaeological layers (image by Jari Pakkanen).
Figures 6.8a‑e (right page): Kyllene Harbour Project, 2011‑2017. Documentation of the fast
erosion of the cli face exposed to the sea. a) Digital elevation model of the coastal zone based
on sonar and total station measurements (G. Papatheodorou, M. Geraga and J.Pakkanen).
b) Orthomosaic and surveys 2011-2017 (image by Jari Pakkanen). c) Elevation of the cli
in 2014: total station survey and photogrammetry point cloud; black = medieval black layer;
other colours indicate various stratigraphical layers and materials (image by Jari Pakkanen).
d) Elevation of the cli in 2017: total station survey and photogrammetry point cloud (image by
Jari Pakkanen). e) Orthomosaic of the cli face from the North in 2017 (image by Jari Pakkanen).
131
PAkkANEN
132 CONSTRUCTING MONUMENTS, PERCEIVING MONUMENTALITY AND THE ECONOMICS OF BUILDING
Since 2014, the area has been monitored annually by using photogrammetry and
total station drawing. Figure 6.8b illustrates the annual changes of the cliff from 2011
until 2017. In certain places the archaeological layers forming the cliff face are quite
resistant to weathering, but when these layers erode away, the changes are fast: up to
2.6 m of erosion has been recorded in the worst affected areas between September
2011 and September 2017.
Figures 6.8c and 6.8d show details of the cliff face elevations with the three-dimen-
sional stratigraphical total station drawings superimposed on the dense point cloud
generated using photogrammetry (the 2014 and 2017 views are of the same area). e
textured surface models in photogrammetry are produced from dense point clouds.
Importing the point clouds to CAD programs can be more straightforward than using
the textured models. e model of Figure 6.8c was created from only 39 photographs
taken with a handheld 12-megapixel digital camera. e model in Figure 6.8d was pro-
duced using 147 photographs taken with a 12-megapixel camera on the UAV. Several
stratigraphical layers are visible both in the total station line-drawing and the point
cloud, but the total station data is critical for the interpretation of the scarp especially
in the case of the 2017 data where the lighting conditions for taking UAV photographs
were not optimal. Finally, Figure 6.8e gives an orthomosaic of the cliff face as it was
surveyed in 2017 viewed directly from the north.
6.3.3 Three-dimensional documentation at Pleuron
e ancient town of Pleuron was founded in 230s B.C.E. and it is located in Aitolia in
western Greece (Figure 6.1). e early Hellenistic city walls, theatre and reservoir are par-
ticularly well-preserved. e maximum dimensions of the rock-cut reservoir were estab-
lished in the new architectural survey: they are 13.0-20.7 m when measured north – south,
25.2 m east – west and 8.8 m deep at the western end. If filled all the way up to the brim,
it would have been able to contain c. 3,700 m3 of water. e reservoir at Pleuron is very
difficult to document using traditional methods or even photogrammetry because of its
size, depth and the presence of closely set partition walls inside. In 2015, the first attempt
to build a three-dimensional model based solely on handheld digital photographs was
not fully successful: from the top it was not possible to cover all features of the structure.
erefore, a new digital survey was carried out in 2016 using a combination of UAV-borne
and handheld photography. Total station documentation for a line-drawing of the plan was
also completed during this field season.
Figure 6.9a presents the locations of the aerial and handheld photographs: it was
possible to fly the UAV between the walls and the bedrock in all of the compart-
ments with the exception of the western-most one which has a width of only c. 1.4 m.
Terrestrial photos were taken all around the monument and a total number of 410
images were used to produce the model in Figures 6.9a and 6.9b.
e reservoir plan, elevation of the second partition wall from the west, and the
section in Figures 6.10a-c are directly derived from the three-dimensional model.294
Aerial and terrestrial images can be combined to produce a single model, but the or-
thomosaics derived from the model need to be carefully checked: some photos can
produce blurred sections and have to be excluded.
294 For an initial publication of the plan, elevation and section, see Kolonas and Stamatis 2016, 190.
133
PAkkANEN
6.3.4 The shipshed complex at Naxos in Sicily
Since 2012, the city-scape project at Naxos in Sicily has concentrated on a thorough
re-evaluation of the whole urban territory. e project has had three main aims: docu-
menting the architectural remains unearthed since the 1950s, carrying out geophysical
prospection inside the city walls, and excavating new small-scale test trenches at strate-
gic locations.295 e settlement was the first Greek colony in Sicily and it was founded
in 734 B.C.E. by oikists from Chalcis on Euboia and Naxos in the Cyclades. e town
was completely destroyed by Syracuse in 403 B.C.E. and subsequently abandoned. e
Classical orthogonal city-grid is the best-known urban aspect of the town. e agora
295 Lentini et al. 2015.
Figure 6.9a: Finnish Institute Three‑Dimensional Development Programme, 2016. Hellenistic
reservoir at Pleuron. Combining land‑based and aerial digital photography to produce three‑di‑
mensional models using photogrammetry. Model with locations of the UAV and hand‑held
camera photographs indicated by blue rectangles (image by Jari Pakkanen).
Figure: 6.9b: Finnish Institute Three‑Dimensional Development Programme, 2016. Hellenistic
reservoir at Pleuron. Textured photogrammetry model (image by Jari Pakkanen).
134 CONSTRUCTING MONUMENTS, PERCEIVING MONUMENTALITY AND THE ECONOMICS OF BUILDING
Figures 6.10a‑c: Finnish
Institute Three‑Dimensional
Development Programme,
2016. Hellenistic reservoir
at Pleuron. Plan, section
and elevation derived from
the three‑dimensional
model (JP in Kolonas and
Stamatis 2016, 190). a)
Plan. b) Elevation B‑B’. c)
Section A‑A’ (image by Jari
Pakkanen).
135
PAkkANEN
and the shipshed complex are both located in the northern sector of the town next to
one another.296
Naxos had only a modest fleet of triremes and this is reflected in only having four
slipways in the shipshed complex. e ships would have been pulled up the sand
ramps to protect them from the elements and also from shipworms. e complex is
an example of monumental utilitarian architecture. e size of the four slipways is
more than twice the size of the largest temple in the city, Tempio B in the southwest
sanctuary; also, the roof of the first phase of the shipsheds was decorated with gorgon
and silenos-mask antefixes which are more often associated with sacred and civic than
utilitarian architecture.297 e Naxian shipsheds provide a case study of the possibilities
of integrating total station line-drawings and a photogrammetry model with a digital
reconstruction. Having an accurate three-dimensional model speeds up considerably
the process of superimposing a reconstructed digital model on site documentation and
fitting it with the features on the ground.
e shipshed complex in the northern part of the city was cleaned and documented
in the spring of 2016. All walls were drawn using three total stations, but the delicate
sand ramps were left covered with geotextiles. e produced photogrammetry model
is based on 556 photographs and 40 georeferenced markers. Figure 6.11a presents the
total station survey superimposed on the site orthomosaic and the different phases
are marked with colours following the period classification in general use at the site:
the late Archaic walls are drawn in orange, the north wall constructed as part of the
Classical remodelling is green and the late Roman wall cyan. During the cleaning it was
revealed that the diagonal wall at the back of slipways 3 and 4 is only related to the late
Roman phase of the site and not to the Classical shipsheds: the previously presented
interpretations of the architectural complex and its relation to the street behind it will
need to be revisited.298
In Figure 6.11b the total station line-drawings are integrated with the dense point
cloud of the photogrammetry model. e three-dimensional reconstruction in the
northwest corner of the shipsheds covers only parts of slipways 1 and 2. e point
cloud, line-drawing and reconstruction are combined in CAD. An earlier version of the
reconstruction has been previously published,299 but in order to produce Figure 6.11b
it was georeferenced: this will make its future use in digital reconstructions of the city
easier. Using photographs as the background of reconstructions has been the tradi-
tional approach of communicating to the wider public what the site looked like in the
past, but finding the correct perspective to fit the model with the site photo can be
time-consuming and it is limited to one particular view. When the digital reconstruc-
tion is integrated with the three-dimensional field documentation, the production of
any projection or an animation of the target becomes a straightforward matter.
296 Pakkanen 2013a, 52-59.
297 Lentini et al. 2008, 379-385.
298 Lentini et al. 2008, 375-379; Lentini et al. 2015, 26, figure 9.
299 Lentini et al. 2008, figure 55.
136 CONSTRUCTING MONUMENTS, PERCEIVING MONUMENTALITY AND THE ECONOMICS OF BUILDING
Figure 6.11a (left): Urban
Landscape Project of
Naxos in Sicily 2016-2017.
Shipshed complex.
Orthomosaic of the complex
with total station data
(image by Jari Pakkanen).
Figure 6.11b (below):
Urban Landscape Project
of Naxos in Sicily
2016‑2017. Shipshed
complex. Reconstruction of
the north‑west part of the
complex superimposed on
the photogrammetry point
cloud and total station
line‑drawing of the in situ
architecture (JP image by
Jari Pakkanen).
137
PAkkANEN
6.4 Conclusions
Photogrammetry has fast established itself as the mainstream method of documenting
architecture and archaeological features in the field. is is largely due to low costs in
hard- and software and also the user-friendly software which makes experimenting
with sets of photographs feasible. e plans, elevations and sections are fast to do
and they contain more information than traditional drawings. Being able to produce
the documentation more rapidly could potentially result in more time devoted to the
actual study of the monument. If traditional-looking line-drawings are preferred for
publication, total station documentation using reflectorless laser produces more precise
data than traditional two-dimensional drawings derived from hand-measurements and
estimating the positions of the features. Using the laser setting on the total station
decreases the time needed for recording to a fraction compared to surveying with a
prism, and there is no need for the second person. Also, the relevant plans, elevations
and sections can conveniently be exported from the CAD program into the preferred
vector-based drawing program for final editing.
Aerial photography has the advantage of being able to rapidly record large areas
and to obtain better views of the recorded targets. e relatively low resolution of most
UAV images compared to hand-held digital cameras can be compensated for by flying
at low altitude. Despite refraction between air and water, even underwater targets can
be modelled using aerial documentation when careful attention is paid to the time of
day and conditions when the photography is carried out.
One of the main advantages of superimposing total station data on top of the
photogrammetry point clouds or textured models is enhancing the readability of the
produced image. It is a good way of separating features and chronological phases of
the documented monument, and it is possible to highlight certain elements of the
recorded targets. In the completed three-dimensional models and orthomosaics subtle
changes in colour and texture can be difficult to distinguish: when features are record-
ed in the field with total station line-drawing, this method of documentation can be
combined with photogrammetry in the post-processing phase.
Acknowledgements
All research conducted in Greece has been carried out with the support of the relevant
local Ephorates and permissions from the Hellenic Ministry of Culture. e largest
funding bodies over the ten years of the archaeological work at Kyllene have been
the Foundation of the Finnish Institute at Athens, the Kostopoulos Foundation, the
Finnish Cultural Foundation, the Emil Aaltonen Foundation and the Ella and Georg
Ehrnrooth Foundation. e project director is the author of this paper and the repre-
sentatives of the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities are Angeliki Simosi and Dionysios
Evangelistis. Kalliopi Baika has been a vital team member all through the years. e
team from the Laboratory of Marine Geology and Physical Oceanography is directed
by George Papatheodorou and Maria Geraga (Department of Geology, University of
Patras) and they have been responsible for the marine geophysical surveys. In addition,
Andreas Vött’s Eastern Ionian Sea Tsunami Research Project (University of Mainz) has
taken geomorphological cores at the site.
138 CONSTRUCTING MONUMENTS, PERCEIVING MONUMENTALITY AND THE ECONOMICS OF BUILDING
e finance for the project e Greek colony of Naxos in Sicily – mapping the town
plan and geophysical survey has been from the Jenny and Antti Wihuri Foundation, the
Foundation of the Finnish Institute at Athens and the Finnish Institute in Rome. In
Sicily the project has been carried out as part of the research collaboration agreement
between the Museum at Naxos and the Finnish Institute at Athens; the project direc-
tors at Naxos are the author of this paper and Maria Costanza Lentini.
e documentation project at Pleuron was part of the ree-Dimensional
Development Programme of the Finnish Institute funded by private donations
from Finland. e Kalaureia Research Programme was funded by the Riksbankens
Jubileumsfond and hosted at the Swedish Institute at Athens.
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In many societies monuments are as-
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ceiving something monumental. In fact,
it is through investigating the processes,
the practices of building and crafting,
and selecting the specific locales in
which these activities took place, that
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