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Fiscal Performance of Indian States -
A Comparison of Convex and Non-Convex
Frontier Approaches
Grassroots Energy Security for India’s Poor
and Women Empowerment:
An Assessment of Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala
Yojana
Institutional intervention in River Water
Management: The Study of Yamuna river
sub-basin in India
Panchayats under the PESA Act in Odisha- A
Study of Two Gram Panchayats
Towards justice and Prosperity in South Asia
Gender and Justice
The Myth, The Realities and The Forward
Looking Areas
Social Marginalisation of Women Textile
Workers – A Study on the Textile
& Garment Clusters at Coimbatore, Tirupur,
Ahmedabad & Surat
Volume 8, No 2, July-December 2018
ISSN 2231-0924
We thank Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) for Financial
Assistance for Publication of the Journal.
© 2018. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or copied
in any form by any means without prior written permission of the publisher
The views expressed in this publication are purely personal judgements of the
authors and do not reect the views of the Institute of Public Enterprise.
The views expressed by outside contributors are their personal views and not
necessarily those of the organisations they belong to.
All efforts are made to ensure that the published information is correct. Institute
of Public Enterprise is not responsible for any errors caused due to oversight or
otherwise.
Published by: Satyam N Kandula on behalf of Institute of Public Enterprise
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Place of Publication: Institute of Public Enterprise, OU Campus, Hyderabad - 500007.
Aims and Scope
Journal of Governance & Public Policy is a bi-annual refereed journal published by the
Institute of Public Enterprise to provide a forum for discussion and exchange of ideas on
Governance (local to global) and Public Policy (including foreign policy and international
relations) by policy makers, practitioners and academicians.
Journal of
Governance & Public Policy
Editorial Board
Editor-in-Chief
RK Mishra, Director, Institute of Public Enterprise, Hyderabad
Editors
Dr Geeta Potaraju, Asst Professor, Institute of Public Enterprise, Hyderabad
Dr A Sridhar Raj, Asst Professor, Institute of Public Enterprise, Hyderabad
Members
Dr Jack Czaputowicz, Director, National School of Public Administration, Warsaw, Poland
Prof Wolfgang Drechsler, Chair of Governance, Ragnar Nurkse School of Innovation and Governance, Tallinn
University of Technology (TUT), Estonia
Dr Harold Gould, Visiting Scholar, Center for South Asian Studies, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA
Dr John Halligan, Professor of Public Administration, University of Canberra, Australia
Dr HJ Kroukamp, Acting Dean, Economic & Management Sciences, Professor of Public Management,
University of the Free State, South Africa
Dr I Ramabrahmam, Department of Political Science & Honorary Director, Academic Staff College,
University of Hyderabad
Dr Bhanoji Rao, Adjunct Professor, Institute of Water Policy, LKY School of Public Policy, National University
of Singapore
Dr Purshottama Sivanarain Reddy, Management, IT and Governance, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban
Dr Allan Rosenbaum, President Elect, American Society for Public Administration, Professor, Public
Administration, Director, Institute for Public Management and Community Service, Florida International
University
Dr Reto Steiner, Professor, Kompetenzzentrum für Public Management, Bern, Switzerland
Dr Dhirendra Kumar Vajpeyi, Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar
Falls, USA
Dr Blue E Wooldridge, Department of Political Science and Public Administration, College of Humanities
and Sciences, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond USA
Dr Eugenia Vanina, Centre for Indian Studies, Institute of Oriental Studies, Moscow, Russia
Prof Alexander Lukin, Head, Department of International Relations, National Research University Higher
School of Economics, Director, Center for East Asian and Shanghai Cooperation Organization Studies,
Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO – University), Moscow, Russia
Dr Tatiana Shaumyan, Head, Center for Indian Studies, Institute of Oriental Studies, Russian Academy of
Sciences, Moscow, Russia
Prof Geert Bouckaert, President, IIAS – International Institute of Administrative Sciences, Brussels, Belgium
Dr Pratap Bhanu Mehta, President, Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi
Prof Kishore Mahbubani, Dean and Professor in the Practice of Public Policy, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public
Policy, National University of Singapore
Prof Andrew Dikarev, Institute of Oriental Studies (Institut Vostokovedeniya), Moscow, Russia
Prof Jerry O Kuye, Professor of Public Administration / Public Policy, School of Public Management &
Administration, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
Prof Henry Wissink, Dean and Head of School of Management, IT and Governance, University of
KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
Editorial Support
AV Bala Krishna, Institute of Public Enterprise, Hyderabad
Volume 8 No 2 July-December 2018 ISSN 2231-0924
Journal of
Governance & Public Policy
Contents
Fiscal Performance of Indian States -
A Comparison of Convex and Non-Convex Frontier Approaches
Ram Pratap Sinha 2
Grassroots Energy Security for India’s Poor and Women Empowerment:
An Assessment of Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana
Manoj K. Sahoo, Palak Patel and Rootu Patel 18
Institutional intervention in River Water Management:
The Study of Yamuna river sub-basin in India
Ramakrishna Nallathiga 28
Panchayats under the PESA Act in Odisha - A Study of Two Gram Panchayats
Bishnu Prasad Mohapatra 46
Towards justice and Prosperity in South Asia
Gender and Justice
The Myth, The Realities and The Forward Looking Areas
Rasheda K. Choudhury 60
Social Marginalisation of Women Textile Workers – A Study on the Textile
& Garment Clusters at Coimbatore, Tirupur, Ahmedabad & Surat
M Karthik and Ram Kumar Mishra 66
28
Institutional intervention in River Water
Management: The Study of Yamuna river
sub-basin in India
Ramakrishna Nallathiga*
Abstract
Water is a primary resource for several human activities, and rivers are a major
source of water in several parts of India. Unfortunately, rivers also becoming a
major sink of wastes that ow into them. River water management is an important
area of natural resource management that crosses several disciplines, and, in
order to be more effective, it requires public intervention through appropriate
institution and an action plan approach. River water authority is normally set up
for assuming the managerial function of river water administration (mostly at
regional/ basin level), particularly with regard to the sharing/allocation of river
water. The allocation of river water in itself is a contentious subject, especially
when it ows through several states; a similar problem arises now with regard to
its pollution across them.
This paper makes an attempt to highlight the status of water of an inter-state river
(river Yamuna), and discusses the need for establishing an exclusive administering
agency for ensuring better river water quality and quantity. It rst analyses the
critical state of Yamuna river water resource in the past and the impending need
for public intervention; the use of economic values of water as one of the guiding
principles of prioritization and allocation of water to uses and jurisdictions is
also discussed. It also takes stock of the performance of the implementation
of Yamuna Action Plan (YAP) as an institutional approach towards river water
management, and attempts to identify the alternate institutional arrangements
and appropriate policy instruments for achieving the objectives within a broad
management framework.
Keywords: River Water Management, Water Pollution, Public Intervention,
Economic Valuation, Institutional Mechanism
Introduction
Environmental problems have been emerging across the world at various levels,
to different extents and in different forms. Often, this is attributed to the rising
* Associate Professor, National Institute of Construction Management and Research, Baner, Pune
and can be reached at ramanallathiga@yahoo.co.uk
ISSN 2231-0924 Volume 8, No 2, July-December 2018 pp. 28-45
Journal of Governance & Public Policy
29
levels of human population, urbanization and economic activities. These exert
pressure on the natural resources as well as result in the damages to ecosystems,
upon both of which future human sustenance rests. Water resource is one such
natural resource that has been coming under severe pressure in the recent times
in developing countries due to human population growth and economic activities,
which prompts some social scientists to warn that we will experience wars on
water at local to global levels in coming years.
Riverine water resources, in particular, are becoming vulnerable to quantity
decline (with shrinking inuent water) and quality degradation (with rising
wastewater discharges) due to human activities, more so in a country like India,
which has as many as fourteen rivers and several cities alongside them. River water
sources are increasingly coming under the threat of getting reduced to become the
carriers of water of extremely poor quality in several stretches, particularly along
the major cities wherein domestic and industrial wastewater also enters them to a
great degree, thereby deteriorating further. Water is a primary resource for several
human activities like agriculture, industries and domestic use, and rivers are a
major source of surface water in several parts of India. Unfortunately, rivers are
becoming a major sink of wastes that ow into them.
River water management is an important area of natural resource management
that crosses several disciplines, and, in order to be more effective, it requires
public intervention through appropriate institution and an action plan approach.
River water authority is normally set up for assuming the managerial function
of river water administration (mostly at regional/ basin level), particularly with
regard to the sharing/allocation of river water. In India, they are set up in the form
of Boards to undertake this function. The allocation of river water in itself is a
contentious subject, especially when it ows through several states, as each State
has its own criteria of arguing for better allocation to itself. Fixing water allocation
among different areas and people itself has been a contentious issue with large
political agenda attached to it.
A similar problem arises now with regard to river water pollution across the
States. Here, the challenge is not that of water distribution but burden-sharing
of pollution treatment and river water quality maintenance, which also involves
coordinated and co-operative action in order to be effective. The rationale for
public intervention towards conservation of river water quality is laid down in this
section and then the strategy for achieving it is discussed. Subsequently, the case
of river Yamuna is discussed further and the water pollution in it is analysed with
the help of data from several secondary sources. Finally, the Yamuna Action Plan
is reviewed before laying down an institutional approach towards managing the
water quality of river Yamuna.
Rationale for Public Intervention
River water management, therefore, involves balancing of water quantity and
quality through a choice of appropriate policy instruments and appropriate
institution. Although independent actions of individuals can make some difference,
Institutional intervention in River Water Management: The Study of Yamuna river sub-
basin in India
30
public intervention through appropriate institution and suitable policy mix is more
effective than individual level action towards river water management for various
reasons:
• First, most of the resource management problems are due to the public goods
nature of environmental resources and the associated externality problems
i.e., resources are shared by several people and their consumption leads to
some unintended effects on others. In the case of common property resources,
in particular, externalities and free rider-ship lead to the misuse of resources
rather than their optimal use. Under such conditions, no incentives exist for
individuals to organize their actions so as to avoid or minimize the externality
effects of their actions. The lack of incentives may arise from institutional
constraints and/or economic rationality.
• Second, the regulation of use and maintenance, as a trustee of planet earth and
its ecosystems is desirable; the lack of it leads to, quite often, non-compliant
or free-riding behaviour, which in turn exacerbates the resource degradation
and decline, resulting in what is popularly known as ‘Tragedy of Commons’.
Therefore, sustainable resource use requires their management through
policies for conservation, monitoring of resources and ensuring compliance
from the behavioural changes brought-in. An exception is when monitoring
and compliance are either costly or not practical, in which case getting a
correct regime of property rights of environmental resource use has theoretical
possibility of delivering better given the risk of high monitoring costs.
• Finally, the conicts among various user groups with regard to their rights of
use (over abstractive and in-stream water uses), especially when river water
ow changes over space and time, calls for an agency that balances these
interests in setting the allocative criteria of water to various uses. This is so
when consumptive uses e.g., drinking and irrigation, tend to prevail upon non-
consumptive uses e.g., recreation, navigation and environmental services, and
when there is uneven balance of river water quantity and quality in upstream
and downstream areas.
Public Intervention Strategies
When it comes to the formulation of policy in case of river water, a multitude
of factors comes in to picture. Often, policy maker is confronted by the various
operational aspects of water management - complementing and conicting - to
be covered by the policy. Here, instead of allowing such confusion to prevail, the
policy maker needs to understand the body of policy making in order to formulate
appropriate strategies to implement the policy. For formulating such strategies,
policy maker needs to pose few questions rst pertaining to effectiveness, goals,
monitoring, evaluation, and review of policy, which are discussed hereunder.
Here, public participation of various forms is essential at all levels for effective
outcomes. The body of policy making consists of:
• Formulation of goals and objectives
Journal of Governance & Public Policy, Vol 8, No 2
31
• Analysis and Design of strategies
• Monitoring and Review of outcomes
Goals
Goals are possible questions that the policy maker is concerned about in the policy.
Water resources management has physico-chemical, engineering, biological,
socio-economic, and even psychological dimensions. Often, professionals in these
disciplines pose questions. However, given the constraints of resource scarcity,
only few of these questions could be stated as goals of the policy. While setting
goals, it is important to give attention to whether some questions have already
been covered by other policies in order to avoid confusion that the policy may
bring out.
Further, a goal that transcends more than one discipline will be more effective
than the one which is narrowed to a discipline. However, it has to be taken with
caution that the goal is not too generic, as it becomes more difcult to assess its
effectiveness at a later stage. Hence, the goal needs to transcend one discipline,
but shall remain focused in structure. When there are multiple goals, they need
to be prioritized to identify the key goal (s) that should be addressed rst. Such
prioritization can be done using various operations research methods. Finally,
goals should not overlap or counteract each other, if so, some conict resolution
mechanism or goal priority setting needs to be resorted. In the case of water
resources policy, often improvement in water quality or quantity with improvement
in net social payoffs is the common goal.
Effectiveness
The effectiveness of policy will be more when it is made with little or no
ambiguity i.e., when it is well specied and clearly stated. Besides statement, the
effectiveness of policy is also determined by the understanding of the operational
system (monitoring, evaluation, implementation, and taskforce), and there might
be some inherent problems that necessitate very different approach. For example,
the control of point Vs non-point source pollution (Stonehouse et al 1997). When
controlling of one or a few pollutants based on specic and identiable sources of
pollution, mostly based on the regulatory policy instruments and supplemented by
litigation and penalties, is the policy objective, it is effective in case of point source
pollution; and it is more difcult to do so in case of non-point source pollution.
River water is confronted by both point and non-point source pollutants. Hence,
the policy shall target only one of them rst in order to make it effective to control
water pollution. Further, the policy effectiveness can also be judged based upon
how well the net social payoffs are maximized. This entails inclusion of any onsite
(or private) benets and costs, as well as offsite (or public) benets and costs,
of abatement policies. Moreover, in addition to increasing net payoffs, policy
goals may be set to include attainment of social equity, societal acceptability, and
administrative feasibility.
Institutional intervention in River Water Management: The Study of Yamuna river sub-
basin in India
32
Monitoring
The issue of monitoring relates to the capacity to enforce and measure the
effectiveness of the policy, which renders to a more pragmatic dimension to policy
making. The choice of policy making also depends on the strength of monitoring.
Policies involving monitoring of pollutant in trace amounts requires considerable
equipment and effort, and thus, increase the cost, whereas, measurement of a
more common representative pollutant avoids it. A typical example is reducing
trace metal pollutants in water. Policy to control them will require monitoring on
a large scale across the river water and its analysis, whereas policy that aims at
reduction in a parameter like Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) or Dissolved
Oxygen (DO) requires measurement at regular intervals and thus can be monitored
effectively.
Evaluation
Evaluation refers to the assessment of policy intervention in tangible/deducible
terms, so as to decide whether the policy is efcient and economically sound.
Evaluation is necessary because, public policy renders public investments made
in monitoring and execution. Benet-cost analysis is widely used for evaluation
of projects, plans, and recently policies (Chichilinsky 1997). Thus, measurement
of benets and costs (both, onsite and offsite) becomes crucial in identifying
whether the policy is effective in attainment of stated goal. Targeting conservation
or abatement situations that provide best use of scarce funds (resources) also
requires public benets be carefully identied and measured for each situation.
This, in turn, entails evaluation of a number of different physico-chemical,
engineering and socio-economic variables using a comprehensive methodology
with multidisciplinary approaches.
The Case of River Yamuna
River Yamuna is one of the major rivers in India and also a major tributary to river
Ganges, the largest river in India. Both of these rivers cater to the vital human
needs of the states in North India. River Yamuna originates from Yamunotri in
Himalayas and traverses through Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal in the upper
stretch of 200 Km drawing water from several major streams. It enters the plains
at Dak Pathar in Uttranchal, where the river water is regulated through weir and
diverted into canal for power generation. It then reaches Hathnikund/Tajewala in
Yamuna Nagar district of Haryana state, where the river water is diverted into
Western Yamuna canal and Eastern Yamuna canal for irrigation. During dry
season, no water is allowed to ow in the river downstream to Tajewala barrage
and the river remains dry in some stretches between Tajewala and Delhi. The river
regains water because of ground water accrual and contributions of feeding canal
through Som nadi (seasonal stream) upstream of Kalanaur. Figure-1 shows the
river Yamuna and its course until it meets river Ganges at Allahabad.
Journal of Governance & Public Policy, Vol 8, No 2
33
Figure-1: Location and Traverse of River Yamuna
River Yamuna enters Delhi near Palla village after traversing a route of about
224 Km. The river is again tapped at Wazirabad through a barrage for drinking
water supply to Delhi. Generally, no water is allowed to ow beyond Wazirabad
barrage in dry season, as the available water is not adequate to fulll the demand
of water supply of Delhi. Whatever water ows in the downstream of Wazirabad
barrage is the untreated or partially treated domestic and industrial wastewater
contributed through several drains along with the water transported by Haryana
Irrigation Department from Western Yamuna Canal (WYC) to Agra Canal via
Nazafgarh Drain and the Yamuna. After 22 Km downstream of Wazirabad barrage
there is another barrage, Okhla barrage, through which Yamuna water is diverted
into Agra Canal for irrigation. No water is allowed to ow through barrage during
dry season. Whatever water ows in the river beyond Okhla barrage is contributed
through domestic and industrial wastewater generated from East Delhi, Noida
and Sahibabad and joins the river through Shahdara drain. The Yamuna after
receiving water through other important tributaries joins the river Ganga and the
underground Saraswati at Prayag (Allahabad) after traversing about 950 Km.
Yamuna river can not be designated as perennial river, as it ows very low
in dry season (almost 9 months), but can be segmented into ve distinguished
independent segments due to characteristic hydrological and ecological conditions.
The catchment of Yamuna river system covers parts of Uttar Pradesh, Uttranchal,
Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh & Delhi states. The
tributaries contribute 70.9% of catchment area and balance 29.1% accounted for
direct drainage into the Yamuna river or to the smaller tributaries (CPCB 1978).
Institutional intervention in River Water Management: The Study of Yamuna river sub-
basin in India
34
On the basis of area, the catchment basin of Yamuna amounts to 40.2% of the
Ganga Basin and 10.7% of total land mass of the country. River Yamuna water has
some key functional uses identied as:
• Irrigation
• Drinking water
• Bathing water
• Livestock use
• Navigation
• Aesthetics and Recreation
• Religion and Culture
Irrigation is the major use with the net irrigated area in the basin has gone up
from 47,000 sq km to 110,000 sq km during 1950-90, although there has been
a shift from traditional canal irrigation to ground water irrigation (which is
replenished by river Yamuna and rains) (Narula et al 2001). While extractive uses
like irrigation have major share of water use in upstream States of Haryana and
Himachal Pradesh, water for drinking and other domestic uses dominates in the
middle stream States of Delhi and Uttar Pradesh. Further downstream, the stream
uses like navigation, religious and aesthetic uses The population of the basin has
grown from 51 million to 131 million at 2.4 per cent during 1950-1990 and Delhi,
in particular, has grown at 4 per cent, while level of economic development in the
basin is high and diverse (Narula et al 2001). Water use has risen from 1000 MCM
to 4000 million cubic metre (mcm) during this period. Drinking water is the next
most important use and the rising population discussed above reects the rapid rise
in domestic and drinking uses. Likewise, industrial use has also risen as a result
of rapid rise in number of large and medium scale industries, which numbered
to almost 10,000 by 1990s (Narula et al 2001). These uses are representatives of
several functions that the river renders as a continuum of water. Besides acting
as a supportive resource for use, river Yamuna also renders service as a sink by
assimilating wastes originating from domestic, agriculture and industrial activities.
Water Quality Degradation in River Yamuna
Water Quality Changes
Most of the water in the region is drawn from river Yamuna for various uses,
predominantly for agriculture and drinking purposes, through various diverging
canals in the upstream parts of the river basin. These uses draw good amount of
water from river Yamuna. For example, the total water use in the capital, where
drinking is the predominant use, was 1,027.84 mcm in 1992, which increased
by almost 30% in three years to 1,330.04 mcm in 1995 (NEERI 1997). At the
same time, the total water use in the basin, where agriculture uses a majority of
water, was 44,926 mcm in 1992, which rose to by 10% to 50,437 mcm in 1995
(NEERI 1997). Such rapid rise in use by increasing drawal from river over years
has resulted in a drastic reduction of river water to a level that the river can no
longer offer any ecological and other services/ functions.
Journal of Governance & Public Policy, Vol 8, No 2
35
An important observation to be made is the reduction in annual river water ow
from 10 mcm/y to 5 mcm/y (CPCB 1978). The low self-purication capacity of
the river Yamuna is due to the want of minimum ow in the river and discharge of
heavy municipal and industrial pollution load emanating from Delhi. Even though
Delhi constitutes only 2% of the catchment of the Yamuna basin, yet it contributes
to about 80% of the pollution load. There are 16 drains which discharge treated
and untreated waste water/sewage of Delhi into the Yamuna. The municipal
sector is the main source of water pollution in terms of volume. Approximately
1,900 million litres per day (mld) of waste water is discharged from municipal
sector and 320 mld from industrial sector. The installed capacity for treatment is
1,270 mld. At the same time, the existing capacity for treatment is not up to the
desired secondary treatment level. Thus, substantial quantity of untreated sewage
and partially treated sewage is discharged into Yamuna every day. The Najafgarh
drain contributes 60% of total waste water and 45% of the total BOD load being
discharged from Delhi into the Yamuna. The municipal waste water increased
from 960 to 1,900 mld and treatment capacity enhanced from 450 to 1,270 mld
during 1977-97 (NEERI 1997).
Water Quality Status
A healthy river should contain at least 5mg/l of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and a
maximum of 3mg/l of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) in its water. Pathogens
or the disease causing bacterias indicated by faecal coliforms counts should not
exceed 500 per 100 ml of water. When sewage or industrial efuents containing
pollutants (organic matters) are dischaged into river, these draw oxygen from the
river water for oxidation of organic matters. Continuous discharge of pollutants
results in depletion of DO in river water adversely effect the ora and fauna of
eco-system. Untreated sewage also contains pathogenic or faecal matters gives
rise to disease causing bacterias in the river water. When people take bath in the
river pathogenic bacteria get transmitted to the human body impacting on their
health.
The efuents owing into river Yamuna comprise municipal and industrial
wastes. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) monitors the water quality of
Yamuna at the upstream of Wazirabad and at Okhla. Upstream of Wazirabad, the
dissolved oxygen (DO) level is 7.5 mg/l and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
level is 2.3 mg/l, whereas, downstream at Okhla, the DO level declines to 1.3 mg/l
with the BOD at 16 mg/l, indicating considerable deterioration in water quality in
the stretch due to discharge of sewage and industrial efuents (MoEF 2003). The
stretch between Wazirabad and Okhla is designated as bathing quality standard in
terms of its water use. The coliform count at Wazirabad is 8,506/100 ml whereas at
Okhla, it increases to 3,29,312/100 ml, as against prescribed standard of 500/100
ml (MoEF 2003).
Water Quality Status
Accompanied by this, there is an increase in the wastewater ows into river Yamuna.
Industry is the largest polluter; strong efuents of high pollutant concentration
are discharged into it, while also, agricultural farm return ows and livestock use
Institutional intervention in River Water Management: The Study of Yamuna river sub-
basin in India
36
constitute yet another major source of pollution. Wastewater discharges in the
capital alone have increased from 745.03 mcm in 1992 to 835.34 mcm in 1995
(NEERI 1997). The result is that the river no longer serves as a stream of water.
The river clearly shows a declining trend of water quality measured on several
parameters soon after it enters Delhi as shown in Table-1. The decline in river
water ow and degradation of water quality of river owing have effects varying
from the loss of various services (including ecological services) rendered by the
river in the stretch of NCT-Delhi to the negative effects on the public health due to
contamination and spread of vector borne diseases.
Table-1: Water Quality in Polluted Stretch of River Yamuna
(Average values of three successive years 1995-97)
Location
Parameter Talla (u/s Delhi) Nizamuddin (Delhi) Agra canal (d/s Delhi)
pH 8.2 7.6 7.6
DO 8.6 1.9 1.5
BOD 2.7 12.2 16.4
COD 25.6 50.2 60.9
TC 5878.0 319573.7 251568.0
FC 2529.3 220245.7 178326.0
TKN 1.1 919.0 13.4
Temp 25.2 26.4 25.8
Ammonia 0.4 8.0 9.8
Source: Calculated from MoEF (2003)
DO = Dissolved Oxygen, mg/l
FC = Faecal Coliform (of Bacteria), no./100 ml
BOD = Biochemical Oxygen Demand, mg/l
TKN = Total Kjeldahal Nitrogen, mg/l
COD = Chemical Oxygen Demand mg/l
Temp = Water Temperature, oC
TC = Total Coliform, no./100 ml
Ammonia = Ammonia, mg/l
River Yamuna, over time, lost good use of several of its functions and reduced
itself to almost a drain owing through capital, thereby causing severe public
health problems. In the Fifth State of India’s Environment report of the Centre for
Science and Environment, it was observed that the river has become more lthy,
and it is a drain of waste water which chokes and dries up in summer. The major
causes of river water pollution are urbanization, industrialization, withdrawal of
water, agricultural runoff, and improper religious and social practices (CSE 1999).
Likewise, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has also identied that
the river owing through capital has very low river ows and associated by it the
water quality in the stretch is very poor for any direct use as evident in Table-2 by
the class of existing water quality vis-à-vis desired water quality. Table-3 shows
the designated best use classes.
Journal of Governance & Public Policy, Vol 8, No 2
37
Table-2: Water Quality in Polluted Stretch of River Yamuna
Location Desired
class
Existing
class
Critical
parameters
Hathnikund, Haryana A B E-Coli
Panipat, Haryana C C
Wazirabad, Delhi, CPCB C C
Okhla Bridge (Inlet of Agra Canal) C E DO, BOD,
E-Coli,
Ammonia
Delhi
Mathura U/S, U.P. B D BOD, E-Coli
Agra U/S, U.P. C D BOD, E-Coli
Agra D/S, U.P. C D BOD, E-Coli
Etawah, U.P. C D BOD, E-Coli
Allahabad D/S, (Balua Ghat) U.P. B D E-Coli
Hindon
Saharanpur D/S, U.P. E
Source: CPCB (1998)
Table-3: Primary Water Quality Criteria for Designated-Best-Use-Classes
River
Water
Class
Designated-
Best-Use
Criteria
A Drinking water
source without
conventional
treatment but
after disinfections
1. Faecal Coliforms organism MPN/ 100ml shall be 50 or
less
2. pH between 6.5 and 8.5
3. Dissolved oxygen 6mg/l or more
4. Biochemical oxygen demand 5 days 20°C 2mg/l or less
B Outdoor Bathing
(Organized)
1. Faecal Coliforms organism MPN/ 100ml shall be 500 or
less
2. pH between 6.5 and 8.5
3. Dissolved oxygen 5mg/l or more
4. Biochemical oxygen demand 5 days 20°C 3mg/l or less
C Drinking water
source after
conventional
treatment and
disinfections
1. Faecal Coliforms organism MPN/ 100ml shall be 5000 or
less
2. pH between 6 to 9
3. Dissolved oxygen 4mg/l or more
4. Biochemical oxygen demand 5 days 20°C 3mg/l or less
D Propagation of
wild life and
sheries
1. pH between 6.5 and 8.5
2. Dissolved oxygen 4mg/l or more
3. Free Ammonia (as N) 1.2mg/l or less
E Irrigation,
Industrial cooling,
controlled waste
disposal
1. pH between 6.0 to 8.5
2. Electrical conductivity at 25°C micro mhos/cm max. 2250
3. Sodium absorption ratio max. 26
4. Boron Max. 2mg/l
Source: Central Pollution Control Board
Institutional intervention in River Water Management: The Study of Yamuna river sub-
basin in India
38
Yamuna Action Plan – A Review
The CPCB Study (1978) established that a major cause of pollution was the
discharge of domestic wastewater into river from nearby towns and habitations
which contribute about two-thirds of the pollution load, the remaining one-third
contributed by industries and agriculture activities. Organic pollutants can be
removed or minimised by proper treatment of sewage and treated sewage needs to
be disinfected to kill the pathogenic bacteria before it is nally discharged into a
water body. Based on the CPCB study and the subsequent studies of NEERI, the
Government of India decided to take up pollution control measures for Yamuna
river and requested the Government of Japan in 1990 for a loan assistance for
the implementation of Yamuna Action Plan (YAP). It was proposed that the YAP
would be on the lines of the ambitious project Ganga Action Plan (GAP).
The Government of Japan had sent a fact nding mission in 1991 to assess the
contents of the YAP proposal and its suitability vis-à-vis actual site conditions.
Based on the suggestions of the Japanese mission, the Japan Bank for International
Cooperation (JBIC) decided to arrange for a feasibility study to be conducted
through consultants appointed by it before agreeing to the loan. The feasibility
study was conducted in 1992. Yamuna Action Plan was launched in 1993 with the
objective of improving the Water Quality of River and restoring it to the Desired
Bathing Class. It was implemented in two phases:
Yamuna Action Plan-I (YAP-I) was implemented by the National River
Conservation Directorate (NRCD) of the Ministry of Environment and Forests in
21 toons since 1993. The JBIC provided soft loan assistance of about Rs 700 crores
for implementation in 15 of the 21 towns in the sub-basin and the Government of
India provided the funds for the remaining 6 towns. It focused on reducing the
discharge of untreated domestic wastewater and other wastes into the river from
the towns located along the banks of river Yamuna. These towns were to collect
sewage from domestic sources in the towns and treat it before nal disposal into
river Yamuna.
At the request of GOI, Government of Japan agreed to extend the loan for another
two years (2000-2002) and the project was termed as Yamuna Action Plan II
(YAP – II). During the extended period, ongoing works would be completed along
with some remedial works to enhance the effectiveness of the project. In particular,
several intercepting sewerage lines were to be built alon the banks of river Yamuna
to trap the waste water that was being discharged and divert into treatment plants
for subjecting it to treatment before disposal.
Yamuna Action Plan (YAP) was framed to prevent the pollution of river Yamuna.
Its main objective was to improve the water quality of river and restore it to the
desired bathing class. It envisaged pollution abatement schemes in 21 towns of 3
states. Pollution from domestic sewage was to be tackled under Yamuna Action
Plan, whereas pollution of industries was to be monitored and controlled under the
existing environmental laws. The main focus under YAP was on:
• Laying of trunk & intercepting sewers, for diversion of sewage outfall into the
river
• Construction of Sewage Treatment Plants to treat the captured sewage
• Non point sources of pollution to be addressed by:
Journal of Governance & Public Policy, Vol 8, No 2
39
• Providing electric/improved wood based crematoria to minimize the river
pollution on account of disposal of unburnt dead bodies
• Constructing low cost toilets so that public resist from resorting to open
defecation.
In addition, activities such as river front development, plantation along the
river and public participation and awareness works have been taken up under
the programme. The action plan had a strong focus on actions rather than
activities that achieve the objectives in long term. Therefore, YAP was a one-
time intervention project executed in a time-bound manner and its focus was on
intercepting wastewater discharged into river. The polluting industries and other
activities e.g., agriculture and livestock breeding, were not targeted under the YAP.
While such projects serve purpose during the intervention period, the river water
deteriorates subsequently due to the lack of action on a continuing basis. Therefore,
a dedicated institution of public in nature that takes holistic approach to river water
management is required here. The recent court decisions to consider Yamuna and
Ganga rivers as living beings, bestowing on them same legal rights as a person
(Hindustan Times 2017), is perhaps a step in right direction towards rejuvenation
of rivers and revitalising their ecological and environmental functions.
Institutional Approach to River Water Management
The Government of India had enacted the River boards Act, 1956 under which a
Board may be formed for any specied inter-State river or river valley to serve as
an advisory body to the State Governments so as to resolve conicts among them
and achieve the development activities such as conservation of water resources,
promotion and operation of schemes, promotion and control of navigation and
afforestation (including control of soil erosion), prevention of pollution of river
water and any other such matters. Such Board shall also workout the schemes,
estimate costs and their allocation, and monitor the progress. In spite of such
empowerment by law, only few of them have been constituted (only ten such
Boards exist now). Even these boards have conned to water allocation and
development activities but not to the activities of pollution prevention and control
explicitly. The effectiveness of the Act is clouded by a lack of clarity in terms of
institutional objectives, fragmentation of basins by State boundaries and lack of
cooperation among State and intense political lobbying (Ananda 2009).
The Natonal Water Policy 2002 also emphasizes on the need to reorient existing
water-related institutions. The main thrust of the policy shifted to a participatory
multi-sectoral approach leading to the establishment of River Bain Organisation
(RBO), which advocates hydrological boundaries for water governance. Therefore,
there is a need for establishing a River Water Authority (RWA) for river Yamuna
using the empowering Act while also expanding the functions of such RWA to
include the prevention and control of river water pollution. Further, according to
the Act, the Board members are appointees of the Government and are governed
by its rules. Such bureaucratic settings of the river Board need to be modied to
include the members who represent water resource professionals, non-government
organisations and other persons of eminence. The Yamuna RWA shall undertake
the activities that lead to an improved river water management in medium to
Institutional intervention in River Water Management: The Study of Yamuna river sub-
basin in India
40
long term. The learning from ineffectiveness of YAP with regard to its inability
to prevent and control river water pollution should serve as useful feedback. It
may also undertake the assistance from other agencies and organisations towards
conserving river water quality and also maintaining river water ows (minimum
environmental ows).
Yamuna River water authority (RWA), modeled on the lines of river basin
authority, needs to be set up by Central government under the Central Water
Commission to function independently but in coordination with State and Central
government agencies in terms of ensuring the undertaking of the activities and
monitoring the progress. The Yamuna RWA shall take care of the river water quality
and quantity by taking a regional approach and use economic approaches to policy
making with wider stakeholder participation based on the scheme outlined and
discussed later. Nallathiga and Rambabu (2003) discuss such regional approach
towards water resource management in Yamuna river sub-basin. The authority
shall, thus, formulate goals, and set objectives, evaluate various options for water
management, and evaluate them and their alternatives in a benet-cost analysis
framework using economic valuation as a major tool to measure, implement action
plan using various policy instruments to bring in effective action. The following
are some guide posts to it.
Water Quality Improvement
Water quality is an important aspect of river water resource (which has multiple
parameters, measures and standards) and the conservation of it needs to be justied
through benet-cost analysis (after dening water quality goals, parameters and
approaches in measurable or practical terms). Multiple objectives/ targets for
improving water quality are difcult to achieve and simple practical measure such
as BOD or DO makes the whole process easy to take to implementation level. While
measuring the benets and costs of water quality improvement, public benets
appear as formidable to identify and measure, more so, when public policies are
aimed at improving status of water resources - qualitatively or quantitatively. This
is because of many biophysical, engineering, and socio-economic attributes that
affect public benets form such improvement, which include (Stonehouse et al
1997):
• existing water quality, according to a well dened criteria prior to implementing
abatement policy
• actual or planned uses of the water together with any standards or levels of
quality associated with each use
• the actual or potential number of users of water identied for each use
• the extent of improvements in water quality made by the abatement policy
• the value placed on the water quality improvements by the water using public,
otherwise known as willingness of public to pay for water quality improvements
Water Quantity Allocation and Waste Water Discharge Control
The dry weather ow in the river Yamuna along Delhi is nearly zero, which
resulted in almost total depletion of the self cleansing capacity of the river of
Wazirabad (MoEF 2003). Pollution in river Yamuna cannot be controlled fully
Journal of Governance & Public Policy, Vol 8, No 2
41
unless a minimum ow is maintained in the river. It is mentionworthy that sewage
treatment plants are designed for reducing the pollution in sewage to a certain
economically achievable level only. The rest of the pollution is controlled by
the dilution available in a water body. To maintain the water quality of the river
within the bathing class standard, nearly 10 times the discharge of the fully treated
municipal waste water is required.
The principal activities for controlling water pollution in Delhi include (MoEF
2003):
• Designing a strategy for augmentation of water resources in the upper stretches
of Yamuna and for conserving water both in domestic and irrigation use (by
Ministry of Environment & Forests/Governments of Uttar Pradesh/Haryana/
Delhi).
• Maintaining minimum ow in the river Yamuna (by Central Water Commission/
Upper Yamuna Board).
• Controlling pollution discharges in the upper stretches of the river Yamuna
and the western Yamuna Canal (by Government of Haryana/Haryana State
Pollution Control Board).
• Construction of sewage treatment plants upstream of Delhi at Yamuna Nagar,
Karnal, Panipat, & Sonepat, etc. (by Ministry of Environment & Forests/
Government of Haryana).
• Pumping of sewage to the full capacity of existing sewage treatment plants and
regular maintenance of sewers and pumps (by Delhi Water Supply & Sewage
Disposal Undertaking).
• Construction of sewage treatment plants to meet efuent treatment requirements
(by Delhi Water Supply & Sewage Disposal Undertaking).
• Statutory regulation of ground water (by Ministry of Water Resources/Ground
Water Board).
Economic Valuation of River Water
The river water authority could explore several options for improvement of river
water, which are not only economically efcient in terms of pooling resources and
using them optimally in meeting the objectives. This process can be implemented
with the help of various stakeholder groups. The setting up of such authority in an
integrated framework shall be a rst step towards improving river water quality and
quantity on part of government, while effective functioning of the authority shall
be brought in by various mechanisms. The present classication of river stretches
based on use quality can be a rst method of choice that could be expanded later
on to include several other parameters. Moreover, the authority needs to consider
economic as well as technical / engineering parameters in making appropriate
choice, which brings forth importance of economic valuation.
Economic Valuation takes a careful approach towards the resource and the
question of measurement in money terms; rst, it undertakes a careful study of the
services/functions of rendered by the resource, and next the value of such services
are assessed by various methods in literature (Figure-2 illustrates Taxonomy of
economic values). The usefulness of economic valuation to decision making at
Institutional intervention in River Water Management: The Study of Yamuna river sub-
basin in India
42
national and regional level has been discussed well in Parikh et al (1992). Further,
the usefulness of water resource accounting as a means towards better water
management has also been demonstrated in Nallathiga and Rambabu (2003) and
Nallathiga (2004).
Figure-2: Taxonomy of Economic Values
Source: Munasinghe (1995)
Framework for River Water Management
The key tasks for the river authority shall be regular monitoring of water resources
and review of implementation, and ensuring key stakeholder participation i.e.,
industry, non-governmental organization, local community and other representative
groups, into the decision making at all levels. The public intervention will become
true and meaningful with such action. Water resources management in Yamuna river
basin within the above framework is shown in Figure-3. The policy instruments
identied above shall be used appropriately to distinguish the varying approach in
case of point sources (e.g., industry) vis-à-vis non-point sources (e.g., agriculture),
different taxation principles (e.g., pollution taxes or permits in case of industrial
waste water, and pricing or taxation in case of domestic water consumption).
Figure-3: Framework for Public Intervention to Improve Rive River Water Quality
Source: Nallathiga (2004)
Journal of Governance & Public Policy, Vol 8, No 2
43
Policy Instruments
Environmental management involves application of several policy instruments that
lead to the attainment of goals such as improved water quality and ows. Taxation
of public goods or bads is most resorted policy option in case of environmental
resource management. An alternative policy instrument commonly referred to in
literature is permits/ quotas that are tradeable (not the administered quotas), which
are considered to be efcient than ‘command and control’ policies of pollution
control (Baumal and Oates 1975). This is an alternative approach to the riddle
due to non-marketed nature of environmental bads, which tries to establish a
market for these bads through market institutions. The xed up amount of bad (or
pollution) helps in setting up treatment capacity for the assessed amount of bads.
This approach, takes into consideration of thresholds of river water resources
quality and quantity, beyond which damages will take place and which may
be irreversible in both technology and cost or reversible either after substantial
amount of damage has taken place or involve huge costs.
Thus, thresholds serve as upper limits set based on eco-toxicological or carrying
capacity methods, or standards reecting it can be set based upon several criteria
identied. Once the standards are laid down, it is easy for a policy maker to x
pollution permits or quotas, which equal to the set limits to comply with standards.
Subsequently, the quotas/permits can be made tradable in a market among polluting
uses/users. This tradable permits mechanism fulls the objective of environmental
conservation in two ways: on one hand, it creates market for public bads such
as pollution through the permits/quotas, on other hand it brings in incentives for
rational behaviour on part of polluters to tradeoff the costs of pollution permits
with abatement costs (with implicit knowledge of costs). An increasing demand
for permits makes them costly in long run and thus abatement becomes more
acceptable option to rms. This leads to the economically efcient method of
achieving the objective (improved river water quality and quantity).
Conclusions
This paper has emphasized upon the institutional intervention in Yamuna river
water management – both on theoretical grounds and empirical analysis. The case
of river Yamuna pollution and the relatively less effective intervention of Yamuna
Action Plan gives grounds for establishing a River Water Agency (RWA) for river
Yamuna to take care of the river water management as the primary responsibility
to act upon at a regional level (river basin level). The provisions under existing
River Water Boards Act 1956 can also be used for setting up RWA but the
constitution of the Authority has to go beyond that of the River Board to mimic
the River Basin Organisation in terms of wider representation. The paper also has
also laid down an approach for the functioning of the RWA (based on policy goals,
strategy, monitoring and evaluation) and also suggested that it needs the technical
backing of organisations like CPCB and NEERI. Therefore, the paper argued for
such an institution comprising wider stakeholder representation on its body to
take progressive steps towards river water management based on the principles of
environmental economics and valuation. The paper also suggested establishing a
Institutional intervention in River Water Management: The Study of Yamuna river sub-
basin in India
44
permit mechanism for pollution control so that the same are tradable and capacity
can be established to meet with the set levels of pollution.
References
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Chain Excellence” Dec 17-18, 2018
6th National Conference on “Diversity in Management –
Development of Women Executives” Dec 20-21, 2018
Enterprise Risk Management Dec 27-29, 2018
Essentials of Corporate Finance Dec 27-28, 2018
International Conference on "New Trade Policies and
Capital Flows in the Context of Emerging Economies
Under Deglobalization"
Dec 30-31, 2018
International Conference on Sustainable Development
Goals Jan 1, 2019
Sustainable Lean Management Practices for Improved
Business Performance Jan 3-5, 2019
Emotional Intelligence Jan 9-10, 2019
Digital Marketing Jan 17-18, 2019
Strategic Management in PSUs for Success Jan 23-24, 2019
6th International Conference on “Corporate Social
Responsibility” Feb 4-5, 2019
Communication for Managerial E ectiveness Feb 6-8, 2019
National Conference on “Data Science, Machine Learning,
AI, IoT and Analytics” Feb 7-8, 2019
2nd National Conference on “Marketing in Digital India :
Trends, Opportunities & Challenges” Feb 18-19, 2019
10th International Conference on “Corporate Governance:
Governance & Integrity” Feb 21-22, 2019
Commodity Trading and Price Risk Management Feb 27-28, 2019
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Post Graduate Diploma in Management***
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PGDM - Marketing Management**
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PGDM - Human Resource Management*
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