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Unbundling negative and positive externalities of nature in cities: The influence of wild animals on housing prices
Abstract
Proximity to nature is highly valued by urbanites, who demonstrate higher willingness to pay for housing at locations near open and green spaces. However, nature in cities can generate negative externalities as well. In this article, we illustrate the complex relationship between cities and nature and suggest that their balance is time and location specific. The article presents estimates of positive and negative externalities based on data about encounters of humans with wild animals in the city of Haifa, Israel, and residential property values nearby. The data were analysed to uncover spatial regularities and basic statistical relationships. The results reveal the presence of dominant positive externalities when the human–wild animals interaction is low, driven by proximity to open and green areas. However, in certain areas and under certain circumstances, the nuisance generated by higher probabilities of encounters with wild animals near dwelling areas is correlated with lower property prices, overcoming the positive externalities of location near natural areas.
... Immigrants adapting to lifestyle, job, and incomes [42] Financial incentives and funding [36] Externalities (indirect benefit to economic agents/social benefits) [43] Socio-psychological impacts (collection of values, attitudes, and behavior patterns of rural areas people that are influenced by urbanization) [44,45] Interaction approaches of components (IAC) ...
... The mediating role of stakeholders (IAC1) The mediating role of stakeholders [43,46] Locally oriented and multifunctional farming (Civic Agriculture (IAC2)) ...
The elaboration of City Development Strategies (CDS) helps cities to harness the potential of urbanization through strategic planning, and consequently to contribute to promoting development, balancing city growth, and empowering citizens. Continuous and sprawling development along with peri-urban areas has offered a vast and almost limitless nexus of villages–towns upon which the intensifying needs of development, initiatives, and infrastructures can be grafted. Considering the significant role of constructed nexuses in growth and resilience, and thus in planning for the sustainable development of such urban–rural areas, this study will advance the development of a model of the Urban–Rural Reef ecosystem through discovering its main attributes. In doing so, Aveiro has been distinguished as an urban–rural reef to describe such a case study’s characteristics and to extract the indicators of peri-urban sustainable development strategies. In the next step, the assessment of the peri-urban development strategy (PDS) has been accomplished by using the Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDM) method and applying the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) approach. Finally, a conclusion has been presented based on the findings for Aveiro urban–rural reefs containing the analysis results and offering some solutions.
... 5 The resulting anxiety and loathing may be affecting local property values. 6 Some have even taken to boar hunting inside the city. 7 In Tel Aviv, notwithstanding efforts to bait and inoculate jackals against rabies, 8 packs frequent public parks, school yards, and nearby homes. ...
As human-wildlife interactions become more common in an increasingly urbanized world, widespread encroachment on habitat can exacerbate conflicts between indigenous fauna and the populations of cities and towns. Conservation strategies seeking to create empathy and harmony between humans and their natural world upon occasion utilize charismatic species to engage the public. Understanding the nature of charisma in nonhuman animals is therefore important for urban bio-diversity preservation programs. By personalizing wildlife, people are able to develop affection and a commitment to the supporting ecosystems and natural assets. This case describes the life and death of a striped hyena that captured the imagination of the city of Modi'in in Israel for 5 years. Notwithstanding legal efforts by a small minority of local citizens to evict the hyena from the town’s municipal boundaries, the overwhelming affection and support for the animal, especially among young people, not only defused the hyena’s detractors but ultimately contributed to the creation of a major national park adjacent to the city. The surprisingly compelling, bottom-up crusade supporting a hyena’s right to remain in her habitat, even after it has become settled by humans, suggests that the personalized framing of fauna and extensive deployment of social media on behalf of an individual animal can contribute to effective conservation efforts. While anthropomorphizing wildlife is often discouraged by zoologists and rangers, the tactical justification emerges as one of many lessons from the experience. The individualizing of species that “gives them a face” can help communities overcome negative perceptions and fears about large, intimidating predator species.
... To provide some examples of wild animals nowadays present in cities, the literature reports the presence of black bears in urban areas in North America and brown bears in some East European [80] cities. In the same way, in Mediterranean cities (i.e., Barcelona [81]), wild boars are frequently observed roaming within urban areas [82,83]. Aside from the possible risks in the case of dangerous animals or zoonotic diseases, wild animals in cities represent a natural resource that is part of natural environments, providing humans with the possibility of nature observation, listening to nonhuman sounds, and spaces for well-being and reflection. ...
Simple Summary
Animals have always lived with humans, but their presence in cities is growing. This phenomenon warrants a specific reflection on the advantages of human–animal interactions as a potential nature-based solution (solutions that are inspired and supported by nature, which provide environmental, social, and economic benefits). This article aims to provide an overview of the current situation of animals in cities and to explore the roles of animals and their interactions with humans in such a context. Through the lens of the European project IN-HABIT in Lucca (Italy) (which aims to codify an integrated policy on the relationship between people and animals that will then be transferred and replicated in other cities), we investigated all these aspects. In addition, our work suggests the need for the involvement of different stakeholders in the implementation of actions that aim to valorize human–animal relationships and their positive effects.
Abstract
In recent decades, nature-based solutions (NBSs) have spread in scientific research, and they are increasingly deployed in cities’ strategic planning. While the number of nonhuman animals in cities is growing, a specific reflection on the advantages of human–animal interactions as potential NBSs is still lacking. This article aims to provide an overview of the current situation of animals in cities and to explore the roles of animals and their interactions with humans in such a context. These topics are crucial to the European project IN-HABIT in Lucca (Italy), which aims to codify an integrated policy on the relationship between people and animals; its outputs will then be transferred and replicated in other cities. This article concludes by highlighting the need for the involvement of different stakeholders in public–private–people partnerships to implement actions that aim to valorize human–animal relationships and their positive effects. This study presents a perspective on the relevance of animal NBSs to increase the quality of life in cities, both for citizens and for animals living in cities, and to also introduce the opportunity to develop an integrated animal urban policy able to valorize human–animal interactions in cities.
... From an economic and planning perspective, for example, urban dwellers value their proximity to open spaces and natural areas. However, urban development clearly encroaches on these spaces (Broitman et al., 2019). Some solutions to controversial socio-scientific or wicked problems can be informed by scientific knowhow and research, but cannot be fully determined by scientific considerations alone. ...
The coexistence of different land uses in peri-urban areas is a well-known planning and managerial challenge, but explicit analyses of the boundaries and interfaces between different land uses are lacking. This paper suggests a method to explicitly quantify the spatial extent of the interfaces between different land uses. The analysis is carried out using urban development models and an empirical analysis. Using detailed Dutch geographical data, we study the evolution of the boundaries between residential, natural and agricultural land uses and their associated interface areas. The areas affected by interfaces are smaller than predicted by realistic urban models, but the shape and extent of the interface areas are extremely varied. The population share and the extent of the geographical areas potentially affected by land-use interfaces and their edge effects are great, calling for detailed follow up analyses and tailor-made planning tools at local levels.
In urban ecosystems, socioeconomics contribute to patterns of biodiversity. The ‘luxury effect’, in which wealthier neighbourhoods are more biologically diverse, has been observed for plants, birds, bats and lizards. Here, we used data from a survey of indoor arthropod diversity (defined throughout as family-level richness) from 50 urban houses and found that house size, surrounding vegetation, as well as mean neighbourhood income best predict the number of kinds of arthropods found indoors. Our finding, that homes in wealthier neighbourhoods host higher indoor arthropod diversity (consisting of primarily non-pest species), shows that the luxury effect can extend to the indoor environment. The effect of mean neighbourhood income on indoor arthropod diversity was particularly strong for individual houses that lacked high surrounding vegetation ground cover, suggesting that neighbourhood dynamics can compensate for local choices of homeowners. Our work suggests that the management of neighbourhoods and cities can have effects on biodiversity that can extend from trees and birds all the way to the arthropod life in bedrooms and basements.
This paper estimates the effect of attractive natural space on Dutch residential property prices. We operationalize attractive natural spaces by combining land use data with unique data on the perceived attractiveness of natural spaces. In our main results, the effect of attractive natural space on property prices falls from 16.0% for properties within 0.5 km, to 1.6% for properties up to 7 km away. Our findings advance existing hedonic studies by verifying that economic benefits of living near natural space extend over a larger distance. This has important implications for public policy regarding investment in natural space near residential areas. © 2016 by the Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System.
The parallel growth of urban areas and wild boar populations in recent years has increased the presence of this species around cities and in suburban areas, often leading to conflict with local people. In the Collserola Natural Park, situated within the metropolitan area of Barcelona, wild boar have become habituated to humans and urban settings because of direct feeding by local residents. Their attraction to these areas due to an abundance of anthropogenic food sources is especially strong during the warmer summer season when foraging conditions are poorer in their natural woodland habitat; the number of captures of habituated wild boar in peri-urban areas is significantly correlated with mean monthly temperatures. Habituated boar are primarily matriarchal groups, whereas adult and sub-adult (>1 year) males are significantly less represented than in non-habituated boars. In Collserola, habituated sub-adult and adult females are significantly heavier than their non-habituated counterparts and these weight differences increase with age; in the > 3 year-old age class they may be 35% heavier. Conflicts generated by the presence of wild boar in peri-urban areas are complex, and the responses by authorities are similarly diverse and often exacerbated by ambivalent public attitudes, both towards wild boar presence and applied mitigation measures. By 2010, at least 44 cities in 15 countries had reported problems of some kind relating to the presence of wild boar or feral pigs.
As the world's population is increasing, the world is expected to become much more urban. The pressure on nature in rural areas is increasing at a decreasing rate. In the future, the main stage on which people will cause stress to ecosystems is within and near cities. In this paper we describe the processes of change in the spatial evolution of cities and systems of urban open spaces. We suggest how these processes may change in the future and speculate concerning the repercussions for urban nature. We conclude our review with an admission that much is obscure and that there is a need for a massive coordinated research effort to understand the interactions between built areas of cities and urban nature.
Cities may represent one of the most challenging environments for carnivorous mammals. For example, cities have a dearth of vegetation and other natural resources, coupled with increased habitat fragmentation and an abundance of roads as well as altered climate (e.g. temperature, light, rainfall and water runoff). It is therefore intriguing that several carnivore species have become established in cities across the globe. Medium-sized carnivores such as the red fox, coyote, Eurasian badger and raccoon not only survive in cities but also have managed to exploit anthropogenic food sources and shelter to their significant advantage, achieving higher population densities than are found under natural conditions. In addition, although they may not live permanently within cities, even large carni-vores such as bears, wolves and hyaenas derive significant benefit from living adjacent to urbanized areas. In this review, we examine the history of urban adaptation by mammalian carnivores, explore where they are living, what they eat, what kills them and the behavioural consequences of living in urban areas. We review the biology of urban carnivores, exploring traits such as body size and dietary flexibility. Finally, we consider the consequences of having populations of carnivores in urbanized areas, both for humans and for these charismatic mammals. In conclusion, in a time of massive environmental change across the globe, the continuing encroachment of urbanization upon wilderness areas is substantially reducing the availability of natural habitats for many species; therefore , understanding the biology of any taxon that is able to adapt to and exploit anthropogenically disturbed systems must aid us in both controlling and developing suitable conservation measures for the future of such species.
This paper analyses the link between housing prices and urban green areas endowments using the hedonic technique as methodological approach. Together with the conventional variables used to explain housing prices, three environmental variables are considered: the existence of views of a park or a public garden, the distance from the dwelling to its nearest green area and the size of that open space. The sample is made up of 810 observations gathered from the city of Castellón (Spain). Results show housing size to be the most relevant variable on price. As far as the hedonic variables are concerned, there is an inverse relationship between the selling price of the dwelling and its distance from a green urban area.
Many studies have described the effects of urbanization on species richness. These studies indicate that urbanization can
increase or decrease species richness, depending on several variables. Some of these variables include: taxonomic group, spatial
scale of analysis, and intensity of urbanization. Recent reviews of birds (the most-studied group) indicate that species richness
decreases with increasing urbanization in most cases but produces no change or even increases richness in some studies. Here
I expand beyond the bird studies by reviewing 105 studies on the effects of urbanization on the species richness of non-avian
species: mammals, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates and plants. For all groups, species richness tends to be reduced in
areas with extreme urbanization (i.e., central urban core areas). However, the effects of moderate levels of urbanization
(i.e., suburban areas) vary significantly among groups. Most of the plant studies (about 65%) indicate increasing species
richness with moderate urbanization whereas only a minority of invertebrate studies (about 30%) and a very small minority
of non-avian vertebrate studies (about 12%) show increasing species richness. Possible explanations for these results are
discussed, including the importance of nonnative species importation, spatial heterogeneity, intermediate disturbance and
scale as major factors influencing species richness.
This study examines the impacts of trails and greenbelts and other amenities on home value. Using the hedonic framework the
study provides analyses of a database consisting of roughly 10,000 sales of homes occurring from April 2001 to March 2002
in and around San Antonio, Bexar County, Texas. Among other things, our study shows that trails, greenbelts, and trails with
greenbelts (or greenways) are associated with roughly 2, 4, and 5%, price premiums, respectively. The following amenities:
proximity to golf course, neighborhood playground, tennis court, neighborhood pool, view, and cul-de-sac, all add significantly
to home value.
When measured by extent and intensity, urbanization is one of the most homogenizing of all major human activities. Cities homogenize the physical environment because they are built to meet the relatively narrow needs of just one species, our own. Also, cities are maintained for centuries in a disequilibrium state from the local natural environment by the importation of vast resources of energy and materials. Consequently, as cities expand across the planet, biological homogenization increases because the same “urban-adaptable” species become increasingly widespread and locally abundant in cities across the planet. As urbanization often produces a local gradient of disturbance, one can also observe a gradient of homogenization. Synanthropic species adapted to intensely modified built habitats at the urban core are “global homogenizers”, found in cities worldwide. However, many suburban and urban fringe habitats are occupied by native species that become regionally widespread. These suburban adapters typically consist of early successional plants and “edge” animal species such as mesopredator mammals, and ground-foraging, omnivorous and frugivorous birds that can utilize gardens, forest fragments and many other habitats available in the suburbs. A basic conservation challenge is that urban biota is often quite diverse and very abundant. The intentional and unintentional importation of species adapted to urban habitats, combined with many food resources imported for human use, often produces local species diversity and abundance that is often equal to or greater than the surrounding landscape. With the important exception of low-income areas, urban human populations often inhabit richly cultivated suburban habitats with a relatively high local floral and faunal diversity and/or abundance without awareness of the global impoverishment caused by urbanization. Equally challenging is that, because so many urban species are immigrants adapting to city habitats, urbanites of all income levels become increasingly disconnected from local indigenous species and their natural ecosystems. Urban conservation should therefore focus on promoting preservation and restoration of local indigenous species.
Urban areas can contain rich flora that contribute significantly to biodiversity, but loss and isolation of habitats due to urban sprawl threaten biodiversity and warrant limits on development. The connectivity provided by urban green spaces offers habitats and corridors that help conserve biodiversity. Researchers and planners have begun using landscape ecology principles to develop green space networks and increase connectivity to preserve and restore biodiversity. In this paper, potential corridors were identified in Jinan City, China, using the least-cost path method, and green space networks were developed and improved based on graph theory and the gravity model. Spatial analysis revealed that the proposed plan decreased fragmentation and increased connectivity. Plaza and roadside green spaces were the main types of green space that increased, but they only weakly improved networks and biodiversity. Identifying potential corridors using least-cost path analysis made the results better approximate the real landscape by including impedance along links. The potential networks revealed problems in the current greening plan. The green space network developed based on graph theory and the gravity model simplified and systematized the complex landscape, helping to identify the significance of each green space and guiding urban planning for biodiversity conservation.
Critical natural capital (CNC) is commonly defined as that part of the natural environment, which performs important and irreplaceable functions. So far, the challenge to determine the criticality of natural capital (NC) has mainly been taken up by the natural sciences, and the critical functions of nature mainly associated with its life-support and ecological services. Little attention has been paid to the socio-cultural functions of NC and to their values for the health and well being of human societies. The aim of this paper is to encourage a more complete accounting of the critical functions of NC and its associated values, by highlighting the importance of the information functions (health, recreation, amenity, education, heritage, etc.) for the quality and sustainability of human life. It is argued that, despite their immaterial and often intangible nature, these functions provide many, socio–economic benefits, which might be assessed through both qualitative and quantitative valuation methodologies. Integration of ecology, sociology and economics is essential to operationalize the concept of CNC as a tool for more balanced environmental planning and decision making.
Europe is a highly urbanised continent. The consequent loss and degradation of urban and peri-urban green space could adversely affect ecosystems as well as human health and well-being. The aim of this paper is to formulate a conceptual framework of associations between urban green space, and ecosystem and human health. Through an interdisciplinary literature review the concepts of Green Infrastructure, ecosystem health, and human health and well-being are discussed. The possible contributions of urban and peri-urban green space systems, or Green Infrastructure, on both ecosystem and human health are critically reviewed. Finally, based on a synthesis of the literature a conceptual framework is presented. The proposed conceptual framework highlights many dynamic factors, and their complex interactions, affecting ecosystem health and human health in urban areas. This framework forms the context into which extant and new research can be placed. In this way it forms the basis for a new interdisciplinary research agenda.
International efforts to preserve the natural environment are mainly concerned with large, bio-diverse and relatively untouched ecosystems or with individual animal or vegetal species, either endangered or threatened with extinction. Much less attention is being paid to that type of nature close to where people live and work, to small-scale green areas in cities and to their benefits to people. Increasing empirical evidence, however, indicates that the presence of natural areas contributes to the quality of life in many ways. Besides many environmental and ecological services, urban nature provides important social and psychological benefits to human societies, which enrich human life with meanings and emotions. The main concern of this paper is to address the importance of urban nature for citizens’ well being and for the sustainability of the city they inhabit. Some results of a survey conducted among visitors of an urban park in Amsterdam (The Netherlands) are presented and discussed. The issues investigated concern people’s motives for urban nature, the emotional dimension involved in the experience of nature and its importance for people’s general well being. Results confirm that the experience of nature in urban environment is source of positive feelings and beneficial services, which fulfill important immaterial and non-consumptive human needs. Implications for the sustainability of the city will be analyzed and discussed.
The availability of accessible and attractive green spaces is an integral part of urban quality of life. This paper presents an integrated indicator designed for: (1) the monitoring of the urban green space provision against quantitative and qualitative targets; (2) the comparison between cities and city parts; (3) the assessment of the effects of future policy scenarios; (4) the indication of locations where action is required. The indicator development was guided by five principles: “citizen based”, “functional levels”, “preconditions for use”, “variety of qualities”, and “multiple use”. The parameters were derived from the available research on public preferences and use of green spaces. The indicator is made operational in a GIS-based working procedure starting from the residential places and based on a two-step approach: (1) The accessibility: which green spaces are within reach at different functional levels? (2) The attractiveness: which are the accessible green spaces’ qualities? The GIS-model was applied in four cities of Flanders (northern part of Belgium): Antwerp, Ghent, Aalst and Kortrijk. This article explains the underlying ideas and the construction of the monitoring tool and discusses the suitability as a touchstone for current and future policy as well as its possible guiding role in local planning situations.
The conversion of Earth's land surface to urban uses is one of the most irreversible human impacts on the global biosphere. It drives the loss of farmland, affects local climate, fragments habitats, and threatens biodiversity. Here we present a meta-analysis of 326 studies that have used remotely sensed images to map urban land conversion. We report a worldwide observed increase in urban land area of 58,000 km(2) from 1970 to 2000. India, China, and Africa have experienced the highest rates of urban land expansion, and the largest change in total urban extent has occurred in North America. Across all regions and for all three decades, urban land expansion rates are higher than or equal to urban population growth rates, suggesting that urban growth is becoming more expansive than compact. Annual growth in GDP per capita drives approximately half of the observed urban land expansion in China but only moderately affects urban expansion in India and Africa, where urban land expansion is driven more by urban population growth. In high income countries, rates of urban land expansion are slower and increasingly related to GDP growth. However, in North America, population growth contributes more to urban expansion than it does in Europe. Much of the observed variation in urban expansion was not captured by either population, GDP, or other variables in the model. This suggests that contemporary urban expansion is related to a variety of factors difficult to observe comprehensively at the global level, including international capital flows, the informal economy, land use policy, and generalized transport costs. Using the results from the global model, we develop forecasts for new urban land cover using SRES Scenarios. Our results show that by 2030, global urban land cover will increase between 430,000 km(2) and 12,568,000 km(2), with an estimate of 1,527,000 km(2) more likely.
Using a hedonic property price approach,we estimate the amenity value associated with proximity to habitats, designated areas, domestic gardens and other natural amenities in England. There is a long tradition of studies looking at the effect of environmental amenities and disamenities on property prices. But, to our knowledge, this is the first nationwide study of the value of proximity to a large number of natural amenities in England. We analysed 1 million housing transactions over 1996–2008 and considered a large number of environmental characteristics. Results reveal that the effects of many of these environmental variables are highly statistically significant, and are quite large in economic magnitude. Gardens, green space and areas of water within the census ward all attract a considerable positive price premium. There is also a strong positive effect from freshwater and flood plain locations, broadleaved woodland, coniferous woodland and enclosed farmland. Increasing distance to
natural amenities such as rivers, National Parks and National Trust sites is unambiguously associated with a fall in house prices. Our preferred regression specifications control for unobserved labour market and other geographical factors using Travel to Work Area fixed
effects, and the estimates are fairly insensitive to changes in specification and sample. This provides some reassurance that the hedonic price results provide a useful representation of the values attached to proximity to environmental amenities in England. Overall, we conclude
that the housing market in England reveals substantial amenity value attached to a number of habitats, designations, private gardens and local environmental amenities.
Geographic information systems have advanced the ability to both visualize and analyze point data. While point-based maps can be aggregated to differing areal units and examined at varying resolutions, two problems arise 1) the modifiable areal unit problem and 2) any corresponding data must be available both at the scale of analysis and in the same geographic units. Kernel density estimation (KDE) produces a smooth, continuous surface where each location in the study area is assigned a density value irrespective of arbitrary administrative boundaries. We review KDE, and introduce the technique of utilizing an adaptive bandwidth to address the underlying heterogeneous population distributions common in public health research.
The density of occurrences should not be interpreted without knowledge of the underlying population distribution. When the effect of the background population is successfully accounted for, differences in point patterns in similar population areas are more discernible; it is generally these variations that are of most interest. A static bandwidth KDE does not distinguish the spatial extents of interesting areas, nor does it expose patterns above and beyond those due to geographic variations in the density of the underlying population. An adaptive bandwidth method uses background population data to calculate a kernel of varying size for each individual case. This limits the influence of a single case to a small spatial extent where the population density is high as the bandwidth is small. If the primary concern is distance, a static bandwidth is preferable because it may be better to define the "neighborhood" or exposure risk based on distance. If the primary concern is differences in exposure across the population, a bandwidth adapting to the population is preferred.
Kernel density estimation is a useful way to consider exposure at any point within a spatial frame, irrespective of administrative boundaries. Utilization of an adaptive bandwidth may be particularly useful in comparing two similarly populated areas when studying health disparities or other issues comparing populations in public health.
Protected areas are crucial for biodiversity conservation because they provide safe havens for species threatened by land-use change and resulting habitat loss. However, protected areas are only effective when they stop habitat loss within their boundaries, and are connected via corridors to other wild areas. The effectiveness of protected areas is threatened by development; however, the extent of this threat is unknown. We compiled spatially-detailed housing growth data from 1940 to 2030, and quantified growth for each wilderness area, national park, and national forest in the conterminous United States. Our findings show that housing development in the United States may severely limit the ability of protected areas to function as a modern "Noah's Ark." Between 1940 and 2000, 28 million housing units were built within 50 km of protected areas, and 940,000 were built within national forests. Housing growth rates during the 1990s within 1 km of protected areas (20% per decade) outpaced the national average (13%). If long-term trends continue, another 17 million housing units will be built within 50 km of protected areas by 2030 (1 million within 1 km), greatly diminishing their conservation value. US protected areas are increasingly isolated, housing development in their surroundings is decreasing their effective size, and national forests are even threatened by habitat loss within their administrative boundaries. Protected areas in the United States are thus threatened similarly to those in developing countries. However, housing growth poses the main threat to protected areas in the United States whereas deforestation is the main threat in developing countries.
Our understanding of the composition of Escherichia coli populations in wild boars is very limited. In order to obtain insight into the E. coli microflora of wild boars, we studied E. coli isolates from the jejunums, ileums, and colons of 21 wild boars hunted in five geographic locations in Germany. Ten isolates
per section were subjected to clonal determination using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. One representative isolate per
clone was further investigated for virulence traits, phylogenetic affiliation, and antimicrobial susceptibility. Macrorestriction
analysis of 620 isolates revealed a range of clone diversity among the sections and animals, with up to 9 and 16 different
clones per section and animal, respectively. Most of the clones for a given animal were shared between two adjacent intestinal
sections. The overall highest clonal diversity was observed within the colon. While the astA gene was present in a large number of clones, other virulence genes and hemolytic ability were detected only sporadically.
Clones of all four ECOR groups dominated the intestinal sections. Phylogenetic analysis and the occurrence of virulence genes
correlated with the isolation frequencies for clones. All E. coli clones from wild boars were susceptible to all antimicrobial agents tested. In conclusion, though several parameters (including
an animal-specific and highly diverse E. coli clone composition, the simultaneous occurrence of single clones in two adjacent intestinal sections of a given animal, and
a higher E. coli diversity in the large intestine than in the small intestine) of E. coli populations of wild boars were similar to those of previously described E. coli populations of conventionally reared domestic pigs, our data also indicate possible differences, as seen for the E. coli diversity in the large intestine, the occurrence of certain virulence genes and phylogenetic groups, and antimicrobial susceptibilities.
We present here an analysis of the development of the Tel Aviv metropolis by using the concept of fractals. The fractal dimension of the entire metropolis, and of its parts, was estimated as a function of time, from 1935 onwards. The central part and the northern tier are fractal at all times. Their fractal dimension increased with time. However, the metropolis as a whole can be said to be fractal only after 1985. There is a general tendency towards fractality, in the sense that the fractal dimension of the different parts converge towards the same value.
The world's human population is becoming concentrated into cities, giving rise to concerns that it is becoming increasingly isolated from nature. Urban public greenspaces form the arena of many people's daily contact with nature and such contact has measurable physical and psychological benefits. Here we show that these psychological benefits increase with the species richness of urban greenspaces. Moreover, we demonstrate that greenspace users can more or less accurately perceive species richness depending on the taxonomic group in question. These results indicate that successful management of urban greenspaces should emphasize biological complexity to enhance human well-being in addition to biodiversity conservation.
We found antibodies to leptospires in 25 (18%) of 141 wild boars from Berlin (95% confidence interval 12-25). Seropositivity was associated with chronic interstitial nephritis (odds ratio 10.5; p=0.01), and leptospires were detected in kidney tissues. Wild boars represent a potential source for human leptospirosis in urban environments.
When the first edition of Urban Wildlife Management was published two years ago, it provided conservationists, ecologists, and wildlife professionals with a welcome shift in the way that interactions between humans and wildlife were viewed and managed. Instead of focusing on ways to evict or eradicate wildlife encroached on by urban development, this unique work took a holistic, ecosystems approach. Gathering information from more than five hundred academic sources and the popular media, this book educated us on the complete nature of the problem.
Most people in Europe live in urban environments. For these people, urban green space is an important element of well-being, but it is often in short supply. We use self-reported information on life satisfaction and two individual green space measures to explore how urban green space affects the well-being of the residents of Berlin, the capital city of Germany. We combine spatially explicit survey data with spatially highly disaggregated GIS data on urban green space. We observe a significant, inverted U-shaped effect of the amount of and distance to urban green space on life satisfaction. According to our results, the amount of green space in a 1. km buffer that leads to the largest positive effect on life satisfaction is 35. ha or 11% of the buffer area. In our sample, 75% of the respondents have less green space available.
Urban open spaces are considered as spatial residuals of the expansion of built areas. The environmental impact of the resulting land-cover pattern and associated ecosystem services are frequently evaluated at a crude spatial resolution only. However, wild animals use remaining interconnected fine-grain open spaces as an infrastructure for movement.
In this paper, we traced the evolution of an open-space system in Haifa, Israel, and examined the impact of urban morphology on size and distribution of open spaces at different spatial resolutions.
At a 30 m resolution, our analysis indicated fragmentation and increasing partial elimination of open spaces. Over time the connectivity declined at a diminishing rate, yet the network did not disintegrate into separate components. The evolution analysis implied that in crude resolution, the open space network is threatened.
At a 5 m resolution, our analysis showed that Haifa remains porous to animal movement. Using combined multiple least-cost paths through the urban landscape of heterogeneous permeability, we illustrated extensive connectivity among open spaces. Backyards and other urban in-between spaces complemented the semi-natural open-space network connectivity, enabling wildlife movement between habitat patches and thus survival in an urbanized environment.
Conservation of biodiversity in urban areas needs both scientific justification and public interest. However, data about the public’s perception of urban wildlife is scarce in Western Europe. To identify human perception and appreciation of urban wildlife, we studied avian communities and the public’s perceptions about birds in general, in Rennes, France, at four sectors along a gradient of decreasing urbanization: urban, and adjoining suburban, distant suburban and rural sectors. The diversity and density of birds were analyzed in Rennes during winter and spring (6 censuses). Avian diversity was highest in the distant suburban sector and lowest in urban areas. In the two intermediate sectors (adjoining and distant suburban), diversity was similar and varied little between seasons (Rennes has a relatively temperate climate). The density of birds was highest in urban areas because of the abundance of some species, including Rock Doves (Columba livia) and Swifts (Apus apus) and lowest in the rural sector. Sociological analyses of surveys conducted in Rennes (200 questionnaires) showed that human perception of birds varied with the sector of respondents. Urban dwellers perceived the different bird species (more diversity than density) and appreciated their presence, except for some species, such as Herring Gulls Larus argentatus or European Starlings Sturnus vulgaris. According to our results, efforts to increase or maintain avian biodiversity in cities appears to be justified in terms the perceived benefit to humans, both in terms of the perceived environmental and personal benefits to humans. However, when a species must be managed (e.g. roosting European Starlings), different attitudes by the public in different parts of the city may require different styles of communicating management objectives.
The hedonic pricing approach has been successfully applied to estimate the economic value of environmental amenities in urban settings, but the results for landscape variables remain relatively inconsistent across studies. Here, we use national-level data and an existing typology of communities to examine how land use and environmental amenities and disamenities affect rental prices across urban, suburban, periurban, and affluent communities in Switzerland. To make the analysis and the results as transparent as possible we examine largely a priori model specifications, and we systematically report and discuss the patterns of correlation among explanatory variables. Two-level models show that about 70 percent of the price variation is found at the apartment level and about 30 percent at the community level. Models for the different community types suggest that, although we include a sophisticated variable for central services, the centrality of location is not fully controlled in our models and thus picked up by correlated peripheral and central amenities such as open space, forest or urban parks. Analysis of these correlations allows us to qualify our results and present a revised set of relatively reliable estimates. Positive effects on rental prices are identified for views, various types of recreational infrastructure and vicinity of lakes, wetlands, undisturbed areas, nationally significant landscapes and cultural sites. Negative effects are found for several disamenities including road noise, railway noise, industries and power lines. We suggest that systematic hypothesis testing and reporting of correlations may contribute to consistent explanatory patterns in hedonic pricing estimates for landscape amenities.
The continuous expansion and growth of urban and settled areas result in a mosaic of open spaces which provide important habitat for species. Species richness within the urban matrix has been commonly studied in relation to urban-rural gradients, where the richness in open-space patches has been evaluated with respect to their location along this gradient. In this study we propose that additional factors may drive richness properties, namely patch size. We established a comparative study, where species richness patterns were compared between Haifa and Hannover, with respect to two driving factors: open-area patch size and its distance from the urban edge. These relationships were assessed for the overall number of vascular plant species and for native species only. Patches were identified by classifying aerial photographs of the cities, and surveying 32 patches in Hannover and 37 patches in Haifa which were randomly selected from the delineated patches. Results indicate that in both cities distance from the urban edge was not a significant factor explaining either the total vascular plant richness in the patches, or the native species richness. In contrast, both classes of species richness were significantly related with patch size. R2 values for total richness were 53 % in Hannover and 45 % in Haifa. With respect to native species richness, patch size explained a higher proportion of the variance in Hannover where R2 = 73 %, and a lower proportion of the variance in Haifa (R2 = 33 %). These preliminary results indicate strikingly similar driving factors in two urban landscapes which are characterized by fundamentally different histories and environments.
The debate over metropolitan sprawl and its costs has been ongoing since the early 1970s in the U.S. To inform the debate, this study uses principal component analysis (PCA) and 2010 cross sectional data for large U.S. urbanized areas (UZAs) to operationalize compactness/sprawl in each of four dimensions—development density, land use mix, activity centering, and street accessibility. Higher values represent greater compactness, lower values greater sprawl. The four factors are then combined into an overall compactness/sprawl index.
The study then applies factor score coefficient values for 2010 to the same variables for 2000 to create comparable metrics for 2000. Compactness scores for 2000 are compared to the same scores for 2010 to see which UZAs sprawled the most between censuses, and which sprawled the least or actually became more compact.
Finally, the study validates the compactness index and its component factors against transportation outcomes for 2010, specifically walk mode share, transit mode share, and average drive time on the journey to work. If sprawl has any widely accepted outcome, it is automobile dependence and heavy automobile use. Consistent with this characterization of sprawl, this study finds that the overall compactness index bears a strong relationship to transportation outcomes. Generalizing across the entire universe of large urbanized areas in the U.S., compactness decreased and sprawl increased between the two census years; but only slightly. Several urbanized areas, however, have significantly different rankings in 2000 than 2010.
This paper presents an analysis of the growth of towns in the Tel Aviv metropolis. It indicates a similarity in the variation of populations so that the population functions can be scaled and superposed one onto the other. This is a strong indication that the growth mechanism for all these towns is the same. Two different models are presented to interpret the population growth: one is an analytic model while the other is a computer simulation. In the dynamic analytic model, we introduced the concept of characteristic time. The growth has two parts: in the first, the derivative is an increasing function, the town is very attractive and there is short delay between decision to build and complete realization of the process. At this time, there is no shortage of land. However, around a specific time, the delay begins to increase and there is lack of available land. The rate of the population variation decreases until saturation. The two models give a good quantitative description.
This paper presents an analysis of the spatial and temporal development of Tel-Aviv. The central notion in the analysis is the old concept of leap-frogging. Instead of seeing the population's evolution as a growth process from the centre of the metropolis outwards, we consider the population's development as taking place in different centres in a series of successive 'jumps'. In order to quantify the process, the growth of the centres' populations is fitted with the same mathematical function. This procedure enables us to extract the relevant parameters of each centre's growth and to make comparisons among them. We show that the population growth in the various centres is very similar. It permits the use of the scaling concept. In addition, a model of the growth of the individual centre is developed.
Over 80% of Americans are now classified by the U.S. Bureau of the Census as living in urban areas. Urban populations are interested in a variety of “non-traditional” wildlife issues, including human/wildlife conflicts, creating backyard habitat, and what to do with injured or orphaned wild animals. Residents in cities and suburbs are generally not prepared for the realities of living with wildlife (San Julian, 1987). Conditioned to expect support services from government sources, city dwellers often do not know who to contact with questions about wildlife. From January–June 2003 we conducted a review of the published literature on the transfer of wildlife information to the public using electronic databases, Internet searches, and reference tracing. Our review suggests there is a growing demand from the public for information, and an increasing need for effective information transfer strategies.
We surveyed residents' attitudes toward common urban animals and their participation in animal-oriented activities in the city of Trondheim, Norway. The results show that people most like small birds, squirrels, butterflies, hedgehogs, ducks, geese and dogs, and dislike bats, snails, invertebrate species, mice and rats. Birds of prey, foxes, cats, bumblebees, magpies, pigeons, badgers, gulls, grasshoppers and crows received a neutral ranking. Generally, females more than males liked the popular and neutral species, while males more than females liked the less-preferred animals. A negative association was found between age of respondents and preferences for birds of prey, dogs, cats, badgers, bats, mice and rats. This relation was positive for some invertebrate species, and small and medium-sized birds. A positive correlation was found between educational level of the respondents and preference scores for most of the species listed. Watching television programs about nature (59% often/very often) and watching/feeding birds (41%) were the most frequently reported animal-related activities. When walking in the neighborhood, important animal-related motives for doing this were to observe birds (42%) and to observe mammals (34%). Interest in bird observation and television programs about nature increased with increasing age. Few respondents reported experiencing problems with wildlife, but dogs and cats were more often (36%) considered to create problems. These results indicate that wildlife plays an important role in shaping urban residents' daily experiences, and that both animals and their habitats should have a higher priority in urban planning and management.
This paper reviews a number of methods for the exploration and modelling of spatial point patterns with particular reference to geographical epidemiology (the geographical incidence of disease). Such methods go well beyond the conventional 'nearest-neighbour' and 'quadrat' analyses which have little to offer in an epidemiological context because they fail to allow for spatial variation in population density. Correction for this is essential if the aim is to assess the evidence for 'clustering' of cases of disease. We examine methods for exploring spatial variation in disease risk, spatial and space-time clustering, and we consider methods for modelling the raised incidence of disease around suspected point sources of pollution. All methods are illustrated by reference to recent case studies including child cancer incidence, Burkitt's lymphoma, cancer of the larynx and childhood asthma. An Appendix considers a range of possible software environments within which to apply these methods. The links to modern geographical information systems are discussed.
This paper presents spatially explicit analyses of the greenspace contribution to residential property values in a hedonic
model. The paper utilizes data from the housing market near downtown Los Angeles. We first used a standard hedonic model to
estimate greenspace effects. Because the residuals were spatially autocorrelated, we implemented a spatial lag model as indicated
by specification tests. Our results show that neighborhood greenspace at the immediate vicinity of houses has a significant
impact on house prices even after controlling for spatial autocorrelation. The different estimation results from non-spatial
and spatial models provide useful bounds for the greenspace effect. Greening of inner city areas may provide a valuable policy
instrument for elevating depressed housing markets in those areas.
KeywordsHousing value-Urban greenspace-Hedonic pricing model-Spatial dependence
A 2-year study of the mammals in Syracuse, NY revealed the presence of 17 non-domestic species. Of the 13 species trapped in 20 greenspaces (Parks, greenbelts, private woodlots, etc.), white-footed mice (Peromyscus spp.), meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus) and gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) comprised 65% of the 1040 captures from 13 344 functional trapnights of effort. Species richness ranged from 3 to 9 species captured in the greenspaces, that varied in size from 2 to 22 ha. Three interspecific associations were identified, but several species were associated with similar habitat features. Using Spearman's rank correlation (univariate) and canonical correlation (multivariate), capture success of each species and various combinations were correlated with one or more of 31 physical, biotic or cultural variables obtained from on-site measurements, aerial photographs, and Bureau of Census reports. Generally, variables measured from aerial photographs accounted for more of the variability in mammal abundance among areas than did detailed measurements of on-site physical or biotic conditions. Area of water, area of grass or field, area of pavement or gravel, and total greenspace often were significant, whereas specific characteristics of a vegetative type such as size-class of trees, diversity of herb layer, or percentage of canopy closure in the understory had little effect on the mammalian community. Mammals that can exist in urbanized areas apparently respond to the mosaic of habitats and land uses in the general area rather than those conditions found within specific greenspaces.
Environmental problems have become a worldwide concern for economists, as is witnessed by the development of many theories and policies aimed at driving the economy towards a `sustainable economy'. The problem becomes even greater if we discuss cities. As recognised in many studies, a high percentage of the world population lives in cities, where quality of life and environmental concerns undermine all advantages associated with agglomeration economies. The vast experience in terms of theoretical and empirical substance which has been built up around the theme of `sustainable economy' has only partially helped to generate a framework for an `urban sustainable development'. The city is in fact by definition an `artifact environment', where well-established concepts of `environmental economics' (such as natural capital stock, natural environment) can hardly be transferred and applied, in the way they are theoretically formulated. The first scope of the paper is to offer an analytical framework for `urban sustainable development' to present the main economic concepts that are hidden under this label. In particular, different `environments' co-exist in a city: the natural, the artifact and the social environment. Each of them generates positive and negative externalities for the city, since each of them represents `use advantages' and `use costs' for a city. If this is true, then it is a plausible assumption that the integration of these three `environments' has to be supported with specific intervention policies. The main aim of this paper is to highlight the possible intervention policies which may be developed to achieve a balanced `sustainable development' in terms of new policy principles that should govern the `sustainable city'.
An attractive environment is likely to influence house prices. Houses in attractive settings will have an added value over similar, less favourably located houses. This effect is intuitively felt, but does it always occur? Which environmental factors make a location an attractive place to live in? The present study explored the effect of different environmental factors on house prices. The research method was the hedonic pricing method, which uses statistical analysis to estimate that part of a price due to a particular attribute. Nearly 3000 house transactions, in eight towns or regions in the Netherlands, were studied to estimate the effect of environmental attributes on transaction prices. Some of the most salient results were as follows. We found the largest increases in house prices due to environmental factors (up to 28%) for houses with a garden facing water, which is connected to a sizeable lake. We were also able to demonstrate that a pleasant view can lead to a considerable increase in house price, particularly if the house overlooks water (8–10%) or open space (6–12%). In addition, the analysis revealed that house price varies by landscape type. Attractive landscape types were shown to attract a premium of 5–12% over less attractive environmental settings.
The amenity value provided by urban green spaces, water bodies and good environmental quality is difficult to assess and incorporate into urban planning and development. Developers and governments in China hitherto have seldom objectively factored these attributes into property pricing and associated decisions. The hedonic pricing method offers an appropriate approach to gauge such external benefits which contribute to real-estate transaction prices. This study explored the impacts of key environmental elements with a bearing on residential housing value in Guangzhou, including window orientation, green-space view, floor height, proximity to wooded areas and water bodies, and exposure to traffic noise. Four large private housing estates composed of multi-storied blocks with similar design and price bracket, catering to the mass property market, were sampled. Transaction price data and structural attributes of 652 dwelling units were acquired directly from developers. Data on environmental attributes were collected in the field. Two functional hedonic pricing method models, linear and semi-log, were constructed. The semi-log model offered comparatively stronger explanatory power and more reliable estimation. High floor on the multi-storey tenement blocks contributed implicitly 9.2% to the selling price. View of green spaces and proximity to water bodies raised housing price, contributing notably at 7.1% and 13.2%, respectively. Windows with a southern orientation with or without complementary eastern or northern views added 1% to the price. Proximity to nearby wooded area without public access was not significant, expressing the pragmatic mindset in the hedonic behavior. Exposure to traffic noise did not influence willingness-to-pay, implying tolerance of the chronic environmental nuisance in the compact city. The study demonstrates that hedonic pricing method could be applied in the Chinese context with an increasingly expanding and privatized property market. It could inform the decisions of policy makers and property developers concerning land selling and buying, land conversion, property development, urban nature conservation, and design of ecological green-space networks.
To estimate benefits from open space adjacent to residences, this paper blends contingent valuation and conjoint analysis within a housing market context. The resulting framework — "contingent-pricing analysis," — represents the stated preference counterpart to hedonic-pricing analysis by asking individuals to state prices for hypothetical housing locations, which include an environmental amenity. Then, it asks individuals to state their willingness to pay for a better and longer lasting environmental amenity. As an advantage over hedonic-pricing analysis, it directly isolates willingness to pay. Results indicate that potentially short-lasting open space adds no value, while preserved open space adds $ 5,066 or 5% to housing value.
Urban evolution is composed of two interlinked phenomena. Over time, changes occur in urban size as measured, for example, by population. The geographic space occupied by human activities and by buildings also changes over time. Those two aspects of urban evolution are linked and, as such, should be studied in tandem. In this paper we present an analysis of the process of formation of urban centers as a result of growth spurts and the structured behavior of individuals. We propose a dynamic model of the spatial self-organization of a town. The model yields descriptions of the temporal evolution of the urban population and of the space occupied by it. At the backdrop of the model is a particular conception of the behavior of land developers. The evolution of the town emerges from the juxtaposition of centripetal and centrifugal forces that represent the key elements in the developers' behavior. Through computer simulations, the model has been applied to Petah Tikvah, a small town in the Tel Aviv metropolis. The comparison between the simulations and the real town growth is very good.
The evidence for the influence of urban configuration on outdoor climate conditions, on the energy balance of buildings, and on diffusion of pollutants is quite conclusive. But the exact characterization of this complex link remains critical, especially because of the extreme morphological heterogeneity at a fine granularity level: the building and its close environment. In this approach I try to cope with this difficulty, by working at the district or city scale, by assimilating the urban fabric into a porous medium with a rigid solid skeleton, and by proposing a simple spatial model based on a set of original morphological indicators of environmental performance: density, rugosity, porosity, sinuosity, occlusivity, compacity, contiguity, solar admittance, and mineralization. This system of indicators has been embedded in a shell of development of GIS and applied to various urban fabrics. The possible applications of this model are diverse: simplified analysis of outdoor microclimate tendencies, sustained environmental evaluation of a neighborhood, interdistrict or intercity comparisons, or modelling of the climate effect on future urban amenities.
The impact of views on property values has not been the specific focus of as much research as has the impact of other externalities on property values. When the impact of views is assessed, it is usually done by adding a single dummy variable to a hedonic regression equation. This paper provides a detailed literature review as well as an empirical analysis of the impact of a view on residential property values with a very rich database of nearly 5000 sales in Auckland, New Zealand. Several dimensions of a view are analyzed: type of view, scope of view, distance to coast, appearance of immediately surrounding improvements, average quality of landscaping in the neighborhood, and average quality of structures in the neighborhood. It is found that wide views of water add an average of 59% to the value of a waterfront property but that this effect diminishes quite rapidly as the distance from the coast increases. Attractive buildings in the neighborhood of a property on average add 37% to value relative to properties in neighborhoods with only average-quality structures. Particularly attractive improvements in the immediate surroundings of a property add another 27% to value on average. In contrast, properties in neighborhoods with only poor-quality landscaping on average experience a -51% impact on price. Our results lead to the conclusion that aesthetic externalities are multidimensional and can have a substantial impact on residential property values.
To study the association between greenery filled public areas that are nearby a residence and easy to walk in and the longevity of senior citizens in a densely populated, developed megacity.
Cohort study.
The authors analysed the five year survival of 3144 people born in 1903, 1908, 1913, or 1918 who consented to a follow up survey from the records of registered Tokyo citizens in relation to baseline residential environment characteristics in 1992.
The survival of 2211 and the death of 897 (98.9% follow up) were confirmed. The probability of five year survival of the senior citizens studied increased in accordance with the space for taking a stroll near the residence (p<0.01), parks and tree lined streets near the residence (p<0.05), and their preference to continue to live in their current community (p<0.01). The principal component analysis from the baseline residential environment characteristics identified two environment related factors: the factor of walkable green streets and spaces near the residence and the factor of a positive attitude to a person's own community. After controlling the effects of the residents' age, sex, marital status, and socioeconomic status, the factor of walkable green streets and spaces near the residence showed significant predictive value for the survival of the urban senior citizens over the following five years (p<0.01).
Living in areas with walkable green spaces positively influenced the longevity of urban senior citizens independent of their age, sex, marital status, baseline functional status, and socioeconomic status. Greenery filled public areas that are nearby and easy to walk in should be further emphasised in urban planning for the development and re-development of densely populated areas in a megacity. Close collaboration should be undertaken among the health, construction, civil engineering, planning, and other concerned sectors in the context of the healthy urban policy, so as to promote the health of senior citizens.
The relationship between a home's sale price and its proximity to different open spaces types is explored using a data set comprised of single-family home sales in the city of Portland, within Multnomah County, between 1990 and 1992. Homes located within 1,500 feet of a natural area park, where more than 50% of the park is preserved in native and/or natural vegetation, are found to experience, on average, the largest increase in sale price. The open space size that maximizes a home's sale price is calculated for each open space type. Natural area parks require the largest acreage to maximize sale price, and specialty parks are found to have the largest potential effect on a home's sale price. A zonal approach is used to examine the relationship between a home's sale price and its distance to an open space. Natural area parks and specialty parks are found to have a positive and statistically significant effect on a home's sale price for each zone studied. Homes located adjacent to golf courses (within 200 feet) are estimated to experience the largest increase in sale price due to open space proximity although the effect drops off quickly as distance from the golf course increases. Copyright 2001 Western Economic Association International.