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http://ijhe.sciedupress.com International Journal of Higher Education Vol. 7, No. 6; 2018
Published by Sciedu Press 63 ISSN 1927-6044 E-ISSN 1927-6052
The Effect of Motivation and Self-Efficacy on Math Studies in the Israeli
Ministry of Education's Program "Give Five"
Nitza Davidovitch1 & Roman Yavich1
1 Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
Correspondence: Nitza Davidovitch, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel. E-mail: d.nitza@ariel.ac.il
Received: November 5, 2018 Accepted: November 28, 2018 Online Published: December 3, 2018
doi:10.5430/ijhe.v7n6p63 URL: https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v7n6p63
Abstract
Studying mathematics is an essential condition for acquiring an education in most fields such as all exact sciences,
financial sphere, programming, etc. It enables students to choose from among a large variety of professions with
significantly high chances of academic admission, mainly in fields such as engineering, natural sciences, and
technology, as well as in a considerable part of the social sciences Hence, studying mathematics in high school is a
critical and key factor for continued studies and for integration in many professions in the Israeli workforce. The
current study sought to expand knowledge on the effect of students' psychological feelings, such as motivation and
self-efficacy, in light of the "Give Five" reform initiated by the Ministry of Education implemented in 2015. The study
examined the effects of the "Give Five" reform on student motivation and self-efficacy, while examining whether these
influences were gender-dependent. The study confirmed a positive correlation between the degree of motivation to
study mathematics and the level of self-efficacy, and no difference was found between males and females in their level
of motivation and self-efficacy. Future recommendations include research into the significance of motivation and
self-efficacy as a major determinant of scholastic success.
Keywords: motivation, self-efficacy, math studies, Israeli program, "give five"
1. Introduction
Studying mathematics is an essential condition for acquiring an education in most fields. It enables students to choose
from a large variety of professions, and increases their chances of admission to academic studies, mainly in fields such
as engineering, natural sciences, technology, and social sciences. Hence, studying mathematics in high school is a
critical and key factor for continued studies and for integration in many professions in the Israeli workforce (Saunders,
1980; Sells, 1978). For this reason, educators and students view mathematics as an important academic field and invest
in it much more time than in other disciplines, both because it is difficult to learn and because of its significance (Harris,
Black, Hernandez-Martinez, Pepin, B & Williams, 2015).
The issue of mathematical achievements in high school has repeatedly occupied those engaged in education. Teachers
teaching in heterogeneous classrooms encountered difficulties as the class encompassed at time more than 5 different
levels, (Mirza & Hussain, 2014). The use of ability groupings allows the adaptation of contents, levels, pace, and
instruction method to students who function on different levels (Dar & Resh; Slavin, 1988, Mirza & Hussain, 2014).
Moreover, thought that teaching in groupings is a good way of dealing with the problems of disadvantaged students
have and can lead to improvement of their scholastic achievements (Kahn, Linchevski & Igra, 1995). In the 1960s the
Ministry of Education supported learning in ability groupings in several major subjects: Hebrew, math, and English.
From 1966 well established schools also began teaching in groupings. However it seems that these groupings were
transformed into organizational settings with no added educational treatment and thus only intensified the existing
disparities (Mukhanova & Mukhanov, 2013)
During the last ten years many scientists (Mukhanova & Mukhanov, 2013) compared the achievements of students in
heterogeneous classrooms and of students in classrooms that study in groupings, and found that the achievements of
the higher-ability students were similar when studying in groupings or in heterogeneous classrooms. In contrast,
lower-ability students who studied in ability groupings attained lower achievements than those who studied with the
rest of the class. A synthesis (Mirza & Hussain, 2014) of 29 studies that examined junior high math achievements in
ability groupings versus a frontal setting showed that ability groupings had little or no effect on math achievements.
However, when relating to the interaction between the study method and the students' level, students in higher ability
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groupings reached higher achievements on average than students with similar abilities in a heterogeneous classroom,
while medium- and low-ability students did worse on average than students with similar abilities in heterogeneous
classrooms (Slavin, 1990).
Ability groupings seem to have a social price as well since they separate students hierarchically (Hornby & Witte,
2014). In most cases, this separation is largely compatible with students' socioeconomic differences (Hornby & Witte,
2014). Disadvantaged population groups are overly represented in lower ability levels (Chen, Levy & Adler, 1978
(Hornby & Witte, 2014). Segregation by ability groupings gives students different academic, social, and psychological
experiences that might affect their achievements and aspirations further on in life (Hornby & Witte, 2014). According
to several scholars, schools that focus on tasks lead to improvement of the individual's potential, creativity, control, and
willingness to cope with challenging tasks (Hornby & Witte, 2014; Mukhanova & Mukhanov, 2013). In contrast,
schools that focus on ability might lead to negative competition, fear of failure, harm to one's self-esteem and thus also
to motivation (Hornby & Witte, 2014). Studying in ability groupings aggravates the problem of low motivation, which
might worsen due to the sensitivity of junior high students in early adolescence to their image as perceived by others
and their need for adult support outside the home (Hornby & Witte, 2014).
1.1 The "Give Five" Program
On August 30, 2015, the Israeli Ministry of Education launched the program "Give Five – The national program for
promotion of mathematics". As part of the program, the Ministry of Education enabled all high schools in Israel to
provide enhanced math studies, with strict attention to academic standards. The target set by the ministry: to double the
number of those studying for 5 matriculation units in 4 years to 18,000 students. As part of the program, the ministry
enables all high schools to teach 5 matriculation units in math, and for this purpose the number of teachers was doubled
and 100 new study tracks opened, some in small classrooms of only 6 students, with individual attention and a
personally adapted study rate (Ministry of Education, 2015).
1.2 Gender Differences
In Israel, there is a large male-female discrepancy in enrollment for studies in mathematics-related fields in tertiary
schools and universities (Zuzovsky, 2003) Gender differences in high school mathematics studies are a well-known
phenomenon among teachers and educators and has been studied extensively, beginning from the 1970s(Amador, 2018;
Yasar & Metin, 2016). Studies show that from about age 14 girls reach lower math achievements than boys, and girls
more than boys avoid taking high level math electives (Amador, 2018; Yasar & Metin, 2016). As a result, when
reaching tertiary education girls lack the mathematical readiness required in order to receive enrichment in
technological subjects and the exact sciences and they enroll mainly for studies in nursing, the humanities, and the
social sciences (Amador, 2018).
Studies have shown that schoolgirls feel less confident in their ability in mathematics and sciences and less interested
in developing a career in science and engineering subjects than boys, (Amador, 2018; Yasar & Metin, 2016)
although they are exposed to the same proportion of lessons in these fields and although they do as well as boys
(National Science Foundation, 1994). It has been reported that boys and girls on all school levels have a stereotypical
image of scientists as being male (Amador, 2018). When boys and girls were given the option of choosing between a
selection of science classes or other classes, boys chose science more than girls. When asked to choose classes for
members of the other sex, girls chose more science lessons for boys and boys chose less science lessons for girls
(Amador, 2018).
Nonetheless, there has been a gradual decrease in gender-based math disparities over the years (Hyde et al., 2008), both
in average achievements and in the various measures reflecting the rate of outstanding students. For example, the rate
of female students who received scores of more than 700 on the SAT exam in mathematics, compared to that of male
students, rose from 13:1 in 1983 to 3:1 in 2000 (Brody & Mills, 2005), and a constant rise is also evident in the
proportion of women who earn a PhD in mathematics in the US (Burrelli, 2008).
1.3 Motivation
Having motivation means being motivated to do something (Alkaabi, Alkaabi & Vyver, 2017). An individual who
feels a lack of urge or inspiration to act is characterized by lack of motivation, while someone who is charged with
energy or acts towards some end is considered motivated (Deci & Ryan, 2000), Alkaabi, Alkaabi & Vyver, 2017). In
recent decades, recognition of the major role of motivation processes for students' success in their studies, as well as
other processes of adjustment such as feelings towards learning and towards school, disruptive behavior in class,
coping with difficulties and failure, and wellness in general, have been increasing (Butler, 1990; Schunk & Pintrich,
1996; Alkaabi, Alkaabi & Vyver, 2017). This recognition has risen concurrently with the development of theories and
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research programs aimed at understanding the motives and processes that underlie students' behavior at school. An
important goal of these theories and studies is their implementation in situations where students' motivation is not
optimal. There have been many attempts and considerable success in operating programs aimed at encouraging and
promoting students' motivation at school (Kaplan, Katz & Roth, 2000; Midgley & Meahr, 1996; Alkaabi, Alkaabi &
Vyver, 2017)
1.4 Learning Motivation
The concept of learning motivation has received extensive research attention in recent decades (Libao, Sagun,
Tamangan, Pattalitan, Dupa & Bautista, 2016). A student's scholastic achievements are greatly affected by his or her
level of motivation to study and to persevere in the educational system (Libao, Sagun, Tamangan, Pattalitan, Dupa &
Bautista, 2016). The most common empirical indicators of motivation are measures of students' educational
expectations and aspirations. The assumption underlying these measures is, on one hand, that a student who strives to
reach a high level of education has the necessary motivation to do so, and on the other, that a student with high
motivation will express a high level of aspirations (Libao, Sagun, Tamangan, Pattalitan, Dupa & Bautista, 2016). A
positive association was found between learning motivation and actual study performance (Alkaabi, Alkaabi & Vyver,
2017; Libao, Sagun, Tamangan, Pattalitan, Dupa & Bautista, 2016). For example, in a meta-analysis that examined the
correlations between scholastic success, psychosocial variables, and ability variables, "motivation to achieve" in the
context of studies, defined as motivation to succeed, enjoying overcoming obstacles, completing tasks, and being
motivated to succeed and excel, predicted students' grades (Roobbins, Lauver, Lauver, Davis, Langley & Carlstrom,
2004).
The researchers (Libao, Sagun, Tamangan, Pattalitan, Dupa & Bautista, 2016) examined the effect of learning
motivation on the association between ability and study performance among school children. They explored academic
ability, actual performance, and motivation, using a designated questionnaire. Learning motivation was found to
modify the association between ability and performance among the students, such that among the highly motivated a
higher correlation was found between scholastic ability and actual grades, indicating higher realization of their
scholastic potential (Libao, Sagun, Tamangan, Pattalitan, Dupa & Bautista, 2016).
It is possible to distinguish between different types of academic motivation: lack of motivation – a concept similar to
that of "learned helplessness", which reflects the inner experience of having no motivation to learn, and thus learning is
experienced as something that is not done willingly (Alkaabi, Alkaabi & Vyver, 2017; Libao, Sagun, Tamangan,
Pattalitan, Dupa & Bautista, 2016). Inner motivation – learning for the enjoyment and sense of satisfaction generated,
and in contrast external motivation – learning in order to gain a profit or to avoid harm (Libao, Sagun, Tamangan,
Pattalitan, Dupa & Bautista, 2016) .
Studies based on the division into these types of motivation indicate that inner motivation has a major positive effect on
scholastic success, as supported by laboratory studies that point to a causal relationship between inner motivation and
successful performance in practice (Alkaabi, Alkaabi & Vyver, 2017; Libao, Sagun, Tamangan, Pattalitan, Dupa &
Bautista, 2016).
In summary, these studies, which examined the association between learning motivation, early academic ability, and
academic performance, found both direct correlations and combined effects of early ability and academic motivation
on performance.
1.5 Self-Efficacy
The term self-efficacy was generated by Bandura's (1977) Theory of Social Learning. The definition of self-efficacy is
the belief that one can successfully perform a certain behavior that is needed in order to produce a result. Self-efficacy
changes how people think, feel, and act. People with high self-efficacy tend to rely more on their abilities when
encountering obstacles, tend to conceptualize problems as challenges rather than threats, experience less negative
emotional arousal during stressful tasks, think in an empowering and motivational way, and display persistence when
coping with difficult situations (Cave, Evans, Dewey & Hartshorn, 2018). The degree in which people perceive
themselves as having self-efficacy will determine whether they will initiate action, how much effort they will invest,
and how long they will persist in performing that action even when encountering obstacles and negative experiences.
The higher the perceived self-efficacy, the greater the efforts (Bandura, 1977). There are four main sources of
self-efficacy, which in turn affect one's behavior and performance. The first component is mastery experience and it
has the greatest weight in the composition of self-efficacy. Multiple experiences of success raise one's sense of
self-efficacy, while recurring experiences of failure reduce the sense of self-efficacy. Once a strong sense of
self-efficacy is formed following recurring experiences of success, the effect of a small number of failures will be
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smaller (Bandura, 1977; Bandura, 1982). Experiencing a small number of failures, which one later manages to
overcome through constant efforts, can strengthen self-motivation and persistence if the person finds, through his or
her experience, that it is possible to overcome even the most difficult obstacles. Hence, the effect of failures on
self-efficacy partially depends on the timing and on the overall pattern of the experiences that included failure
(Bandura, 1977).
The second source of self-efficacy is vicarious experience and it is based on the process of social learning (Bandura,
1977). People can develop a sense of self-efficacy indirectly by watching others take action successfully or
unsuccessfully. Watching others perform threatening actions with no negative implications can create in the observer
expectations of self-improvement predicated on persistence and greater efforts. In contrast, watching others fail in a
task can reduce that person's sense of self-efficacy. These assumptions are particularly true when people see
themselves as similar to others being observed (Bandura, 1977).
The third source relates to verbal persuasion. This is the most common source as it is readily available and easy to use
and refers to verbal persuasion of a person regarding his or her abilities or persuasion regarding the person's inability to
perform a certain action. In this way, verbal persuasion can either raise or lower one's sense of self-efficacy.
Expectations of self-efficacy that are produced by this source are usually weaker than those produced by the experience
of successful performance, as in this case there is no authentic experience underlying the expectation. Therefore, when
one is in an anxiety-generating situation and has a history of recurring failures, expectations of self-efficacy resulting
from verbal persuasion will be rapidly overshadowed by the person's past experiences of failure (Bandura, 1977).
The last source of self-efficacy is physiological arousal. Information on the ability to cope is also derived from
physiological arousal. Bandura (1977) claimed that the way in which one interprets his or her physiological arousal
may affect the person's sense of self-efficacy. Hence, it is more likely that one will develop higher efficacy
expectations when he or she manages to overcome negative arousal than when anxious and tense.
1.6 Generalized Self-Efficacy
The concept of generalized self-efficacy was developed by Jerusalem and Schwarzer (1992) and reflects a general
reference to one's ability to cope with a wide range of situations. According to Bandura (1977), self-efficacy has good
predictability only when it is evaluated with regard to a specific ability and a specific context, i.e., task-specific
self-efficacy. In contrast, studies suggest that several experiences of failure or success in a certain area can lead to
evaluation of domain-specific self-efficacy (Cave, Evans, Dewey & Hartshorn, 2018).
Evaluations of self-efficacy with regard to various domains over a lengthy period of time may lead to general
confidence in one's ability to cope with a wide range of stressful or new situations. This general confidence may be
referred to as stable general self-efficacy (Hendy, Lyons & Breakwell, 2006).
1.7 Learning Self-Efficacy
In the field of education, self-efficacy has been investigated mainly with regard to its prediction of academic
achievements (Khasawneh & Bates, 2007) and with regard to its effect on choosing an academic discipline and
vocational specialty (Labone, 2007). Self-efficacy has been found related to several key concepts of learning
motivation: self-concept, optimism, achievement- and goal-orientation, and test anxiety (Hutchison, Follman, Sumpter
& Bodner, 2006). Students with high self-efficacy evaluate their academic work as more efficient, solve problems
more efficiently, and have higher persistence capacity than students with low self-efficacy. In addition, they also work
better at their tasks, criticize their progress more often, and utilize self-regulation strategies that improve their success
(Pajares & Schunk, 2005).
1.8 The Current Study
The "Give Five" reform, initiated by the Ministry of Education, is a new reform introduced to address the issue of
enhancing the study of math units for the matriculation exam. The reform was evaluated and was deemed a success.
The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of the reform on motivation level and self-efficacy levels and to
explore whether these effects are gender-differentiated. The uniqueness of the study is in its ability to try and analyze
the effects of the reform, and the current findings can in the future serve as a tool for analyzing the outcomes of the
reform and for developing prospective long-term programs. Another unique aspect of this study is the attempt to
establish an association between academic programs and subjective psychological variables such as those examined in
the study, which has not been achieved to date.
The purpose of the current study is to examine the effect of the "Give Five" reform on the research variables of
motivation and self-efficacy, hypothesizing that:
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1. A positive correlation will be found between the level of motivation to study mathematics, and the level of
self-efficacy.
2. The gender variable will constitute an intervening variable for the research variables, such that differences
will be found between male and female students both in levels of motivation and in levels of self-efficacy.
3. Differences will be found in the level of motivation and self-efficacy by number of matriculation units in
mathematics, such that the higher the number of units the more positive the correlation with data on
self-efficacy and motivation.
2. Method
The study comprised 120 students, 60 male (50%) and 60 female (50%), in the 15-19 age range (M = 16.69, SD = 0.63).
Of all male students, 39 were in the tenth grade (32.5%), 78 in the eleventh grade (65%), and 3 in the twelfth grade
(2.5%). These grade levels were chosen since matriculation exams in mathematics are administered in these grades
only. With regard to mathematics, 33 were studying for the 3-unit matriculation exam (27.5%), 39 for the 4-unit exam
(32.5%), and 48 for the 5-unit exam (40%). An absolute majority were Israelis (97.5%). The geographical location of
the respondents was relatively homogeneous. The male students were studying at a high school in the city of Modi'in
and resided in this and adjacent towns. The female students were from Ulpanat Lehava in Kdumim and resided locally
and in adjacent towns.
2.1 Procedure
The participants engaged with the experiment in their high school classroom. The questionnaires were administered
personally to each respondent and the study was anonymous. After a short presentation and explanation of the research
procedure and purpose, participants interested in taking part in the study signed an informed consent form, completed
a demographic questionnaire, and answered a questionnaire on their level of generalized self-efficacy. Participants
then received a motivation questionnaire. Completion of the various questionnaires took 15 minutes on average and
was performed over a period of several weeks. The data were then entered in the SPSS software and statistical analysis
of the data was carried out.
2.2 Tools
1. Questionnaire on demographic information and medical data – The questionnaire collects demographic
information such as: sex, age, country of birth, marital status, and years of education. Students' personal
background is important, particularly in Israel that is a multicultural country with central as well as more
peripheral areas.
2. Questionnaire on generalized self-efficacy – Developed in 1997 by Chen and Gully (1997) and adapted by
Chen, Gully & Eden (2001). The questionnaire includes 8 questions examining learning self-efficacy, using a
3-level Likert scale (1=not at all, 3=strongly). The current study yielded an internal reliability of α = .92.
3. Questionnaire on learning motivation for students – Questionnaire examining learning motivation, based on
the motivation questionnaire developed by Pintrich and DeGroot (1990). The questionnaire consists of 31
questions that explore learning motivation, using a 7-level Likert scale (1=completely untrue, 7-very true). The
study indicated deficient internal consistency and therefore it was necessary to detract one item (14). After this
adjustment, excellent internal reliability was found (items 1-31; α = .91). Good internal reliability was found
between the items that checked students' level of motivation as directly associated with Bennett's reform (items
32-34; α = .82).
3. Results
The study aimed to explore the effect of the reform on motivation and on levels of self-efficacy, as well as to explore
whether there are gender differences in these variables.
3.1 Descriptive Statistics
For descriptive statistics of the research variables among all respondents see Table 1. The table shows that the mean
score for self-efficacy was in the upper part of the scale, although the response was heterogeneous – indicating a high
level of self-efficacy, though the mean does not truly reflect all respondents. It appears that the mean for general
motivation was located slightly above the center of the scale, with the distribution of the data being homogeneous –
indicating a moderate-positive level of general motivation. Finally, it appears that the mean motivation associated with
the reform was located slightly below the center of the scale, although the distribution of the data was heterogeneous –
indicating moderate-negative attitudes to the reform, although the mean does not truly reflect all respondents.
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Table 1. Means, standard deviations, minimum, and maximum, with regard to the research variables (N = 120)
M
SD
Minimum
Maximum
Original
scale
Self-efficacy
2.28
0.57
1.00
3.00
1-3
General motivation
4.54
0.98
2.57
6.52
1-7
Motivation associated
with the reform
3.29
1.79
1.00
7.00
1-7
For a thorough report of students' attitudes to the reform, see Table 2. The table shows that the means of all attitudes are
located below the center of the scale, and that the response to each of the statements was heterogeneous. The most
significant distribution of data was received for the perception that the management and teachers demand more success
on the 5-unit math level than in the past, followed by the view that the five unit reform is beneficial and improves
personal achievements – showing that the largest variance in students' responses was found for these statements.
3.2 Examination of the Research Hypotheses
3.3.1 First Research Hypothesis: Association between Motivation and Self-Efficacy
The first research hypothesis posited that a positive association would be found between the level of motivation to
study mathematics and the level of self-efficacy. In order to examine this hypothesis, a Pearson correlation matrix (rp)
was calculated. For the matrix findings, see Table 3.
Table 3. Matrix of Pearson correlations between level of motivation and level of efficacy (N = 120)
General motivation
Motivation associated with the reform
Self-efficacy
.81***
.34***
*** p < .001
Table 3 shows an association between the level of motivation to study mathematics and the level of
self-efficacy.
Figure 1. Linear correlation between level of self-efficacy and level of general motivation
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Figure 2. Linear correlation between level of self-efficacy and level of motivation associated with the reform
3.3.2 Second Research Hypothesis: Gender Differences in the Level of Motivation and Self-Efficacy
The second research hypothesis posited that gender differences would be found in the level of motivation and of
self-efficacy. Since a significant correlation was found between the dependent variables, in order to explore this
hypothesis a multiple analysis of variance was conducted. For the findings of the analysis see Table 4.
Table 4. Motivation and efficacy by students' gender: means, standard deviations, F values, and effect size (N = 120)
Female students
(n = 60)
Male students
(n = 60)
F(1,118)
p
Eta2
M
SD
M
SD
Self-efficacy
2.26
0.54
2.30
0.60
0.21
.65
.00
General motivation
4.38
0.94
4.70
1.00
3.13
.08
.03
Motivation associated with the
reform
3.19
1.61
3.38
1.97
0.31
.58
.00
The table indicates gender differences in the levels of motivation and of self-efficacy.
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Figure 3. Gender differences in the level of general motivation
3.3.3 Third Research Hypothesis: Differences in the Level of Motivation and Self-Efficacy by Number of
Matriculation Study Units in Mathematics
The third research hypothesis posited that differences would be found in the level of motivation and self-efficacy by
the number of matriculation study units in mathematics. In order to explore this hypothesis, a multiple analysis of
variance (MANOVA) was conducted. For the findings of the analysis see Table 5.
Table 5. Motivation and efficacy by number of math units: means, standard deviations, F values, and effect size (N =
120)
3 units
(n = 33)
4 units
(n = 39)
5 units
(n = 48)
F(2,117)
p
Eta2
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Self-efficacy
1.89
0.58
2.32
0.49
2.52
0.52
14.84
< .001
.20
General motivation
3.89
0.78
4.62
0.84
4.92
0.99
13.52
< .001
.19
Motivation associated with the reform
2.15
1.27
2.77
1.43
4.49
1.66
27.43
< .001
.32
The following illustration summarizes the data in graphic form:
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Figure 4. Differences in the level of motivation and self-efficacy by number of study units in mathematics
4. Discussion
The first research hypothesis posited that a positive correlation would be found between level of motivation to study
mathematics and level of self-efficacy. The study found a strong significant positive correlation between level of
general motivation and level of self-efficacy (r = .81, p < .001), such that the higher the level of motivation the higher
the level of self-efficacy. A weak-moderate significant positive correlation was found between level of motivation
associated with the reform and level of self-efficacy (r = .34, p < ,001), such that the higher the level of motivation
associated with the reform, the higher the level of self-efficacy. In light of this, the first research hypothesis seems to
have been fully confirmed (see Figures 1 and 2). Confirmation of this hypothesis corroborates previous studies on the
subject, which showed that a high sense of self-efficacy is related to motivational aspects and affects the level of
scholastic achievements (Zimmerman, 2006).
There is a significant difference in the power of the correlation between the level of efficacy and general motivation
(items 1-31) compared to motivation associated with the reform (items 32-34). Furthermore, it is notable that the power
of the first correlation (0.81) is very high. In practice, the motivation questionnaire examined not only motivation but
rather also level of efficacy. When inspecting the items one by one, many questions seemed to examine the individual's
belief in his ability to succeed. Such questions examine not only level of motivation rather also one's concept of
efficacy. So some of the questions in the two questionnaires actually checked the same variable – and this is the reason
for the strong correlation between them. In contrast, the three final questions indeed checked students' attitudes to the
reform, and thus the more logical power of the correlation between this variable and efficacy.
The second research hypothesis posited that gender differences would be found in the level of motivation and
self-efficacy. Examination of the general model concerning the effect of gender on self-efficacy and motivation
showed no significant effect (F(3,116) = 1.96, p = .13; Eta2=0.05). With regard to the gender effect on each of the
dependent variables, there seems to be a marginally significant effect on the level of general motivation (F(1,118) = 3.13,
p = .08), such that male students were found to have a higher level of general motivation than female students (see
Figure 3). No significant gender differences were found in the level of self-efficacy or motivation associated with the
reform. Thus, the second research hypothesis was partially confirmed. The data of the current study confirms previous
research, which indicated a trend of reduced discrepancies in math over the years between the genders in the United
States (Hyde et al., 2008), both in the mean of achievements and in the different measures that reflect the rate of
excelling students. For example, the rate of female students who received grades higher than 700 on the SAT in math,
compared to male students, rose from 13:1 in 1983 to 3:1 in 2000 (Brody & Mills, 2005) and a constant rise has also
been recorded in the proportion of women who earn a PhD in math in the United States (Burrelli, 2008).
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The third research hypothesis posited that differences would be found in the level of motivation and self-efficacy
according to the number of study units in math. The findings show significant differences in the level of efficacy
between students who studied 3 units and those who studied 4 units (p = .001) as well as between 3 and 5 units (p
< .001), such that students who studied 3 units had the lowest level of self-efficacy. In addition, no differences were
found in the level of self-efficacy between students who studied 4 units and those who studied 5 units (p = .26).
Moreover, a similar trend was found in the level of general motivation, such that significant differences were found
between students who studied 3 units and those who studied 4 units (p = .002), as well as between 3 and 5 units (p
< .001), such that students who studied 3 units had the lowest level of general motivation. In addition, no differences
were found in the level of general motivation between students who studied 4 units and those who studied 5 units (p
= .36). Finally, significant differences were found in the level of motivation associated with Bennett's reform between
students who studied 5 units and those who studied 4 units (p < .001) as well as between 5 and 3 units (p < .001), such
that those who studied 5 units had the highest level of motivation associated with the reform. No significant differences
were evident in the level of motivation associated with the reform between students who studied 3 units and those who
studied 4 units (p = .25). Accordingly, the third research hypothesis appears to have been confirmed. Confirmation of
the research hypothesis corroborates previous studies, which showed that students' scholastic achievements in all
academic subjects, including primary language and math, are affected by various personal-emotional and motivational
factors (Nasser & Birenbaum, 2005; Birenbaum & Nasser, 2006). Also, factors such as students' self-efficacy, students'
attitude to school and studies, students' diligence, students' motivation and willingness to apply themselves to their
studies and to exams in general, lead to students' scholastic achievements in all subjects (Pajares & Schnuk, 2005).
Namely, the greater the differences between the unit levels in mathematics, the more success is affected by perceived
self-efficacy and motivation, and therefore, students who studied 3 units had the lowest levels of self-efficacy and
motivation, while among those who studied more units the aspiration to succeed together with high self-efficacy
generated the ability to manage this considerable challenge. However, the reform involved 5 units while the results of
the current hypothesis showed no difference in the level of self-efficacy and motivation between students who studied
4 and 5 units, questioning the demand to get students to change from 4 to 5 units, as no change is evident in their
motivation and self-efficacy. These results reinforce the question of whether the transition to 5 units should not be
accompanied by greater motivation and self-efficacy, or does the Ministry of Education aim for the practical level, i.e.,
high grades and nothing else.
Indeed, although the first hypothesis checking the association between motivation and efficacy was confirmed, and the
third research hypothesis checking the association between number of units and level of motivation was confirmed as
well, it is possible to make a significant distinction in analyzing these hypotheses. The research data show that the level
of motivation and of self-efficacy rises by the number of units studied, such that a student studying for the 5-unit exam
in math has higher motivation and a higher level of efficacy than one studying for the 3-unit exam. However, in-depth
examination of the data shows that the mean of motivation associated with the reform was located slightly below the
center of the scale, although the distribution of the data was heterogeneous – indicating moderate-negative attitudes to
the reform. Hence, it seems that the high level of motivation and high level of self-efficacy found were not generated
by the "Give Five" reform, particularly in light of the increase in the number of students studying for the 5-unit exam in
math.
The program "Give Five" appears to contradict the data provided by the Ministry of Education, which show that the
reform is effective. For instance, at the beginning of the reform in 2015, 11,350 students took the 5-unit matriculation
exam in math, while at present, in 2018, the number of those taking the exam has risen sharply, reaching 18,500, and
the average grade was not negatively affected by this rise, remaining steady at 83 (from the Ministry of Education's
website). The statements of the Ministry of Education in favor of the reform, which they say will create a "world-class
power in the field of advanced technology" (Fried, Perl & Arcavi, 2018), are proving themselves. To this must be
added the research data showing that significant differences were found in the level of motivation associated with the
reform, between students studying for the 5-unit exam and those studying for the 4-unit exam (p < .001) and for the
3-unit exam (p < .001), such that those studying for the 5-unit exam had the highest motivation associated with the
reform.
It may be said that more high school students are taking the 5-unit exam but they do not credit the reform for this. It
seems that students have less faith in the reform, and the reason that more students are taking the 5-unit exam is only in
order to receive bonus points (35 and five points for those who take the 5-unit exam), rather than based on thorough
understanding of the reform's foundation and purpose. Here it is possible to ask, aside from the question of motivation
and self-efficacy: Is it better in the long term for the Israeli economy that students receive a low grade in the 5-unit
exam or that they study 4 units well and receive a high grade? It may be said that the outcome is important, however it
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is also possible to wonder whether in the educational system the means is not at least as important as the goal. Would it
not be better to explain to the students the reason for the reform? Its essence? This might not only raise the number of
students who study for more units, rather may also significantly raise their level of motivation and self-efficacy.
Furthermore, there is a real opportunity to help create a generation that thinks more, understands more, that will grow
up and truly succeed in all respects and not only in numbers, and this is the purpose of the current study; not only to
examine the success of the reform in "cold facts", rather to examine whether aside from the improvement in students'
technical data there will also be a change in their level of motivation and self-efficacy, which this study doubts.
5. Conclusion
It is possible to indicate several prospective research directions in order to try and increase the external validity of this
study: First of all, it is important to expand this study and to include in it more heterogeneous populations, i.e., it is
desirable to measure high schools from all population within the educational system, recruiting respondents from
Israel's various types of high schools and sectors: secular, traditional, Arab, and Druze. Moreover, it is possible to
sample respondents from schools in different parts of the country, beginning from central Israel and ending with the
north and south of the country. Such research might provide a wider and more thorough picture from which it will be
possible to reach conclusions that will represent a wide range of opinions with regard to the "Give Five" reform.
Another prospective study may also examine the opinions of parents and teachers with regard to the reform. Both
parents and teachers are an inseparable part of the student's success or lack of success in math studies. The support of
parents and teachers for understanding the significance of math is extremely important. Therefore, it is important to
understand their opinion concerning the reform. For instance, if parents, teachers, and various educators will be found
to believe in the success of the "Give Five" reform it will be possible to assume that they can raise students' level of
motivation and self-efficacy associated with the reform, a detail that is missing in the current study. Moreover, it is
possible to utilize more heterogeneous questionnaires with regard to the content of the questions and thus provide a
reliable portrayal of the data without detracting from the study's discriminant validity. It may be desirable to examine in
a further study the effect of providing "compensation", assuming that in such a study the research participants will
complete all questions with maximum sincerity and will not hurry to submit the questionnaires. It is also possible to
compare the study to others in which respondents are "not compensated" and have no motivation to complete the
questionnaires in order to receive an "award" for participating in the study.
Finally, the findings of the current study were submitted to the Minister of Education who gave us the following reply:
"The revolution with regard to 5 units in mathematics is the most socially-oriented revolution to take place in Israel in
recent years. Beyond the significance of excellence in mathematics, there are two major messages: the values imparted
to students and the changing perception in peripheral areas. In some places in Israel no students had previously taken
the 5-unit exam – in Shlomi, Rahat, and Kfar Chabad the rate was 0%. At present, we are seeing an unprecedented
leap in these places. This is a dramatic change. The students are learning that success comes from effort, persistence,
and hard work – and that intelligence exists not only in the center of the country rather all over. In this way, we have
managed to double the number of those taking the 5-unit matriculation exam in math to 18,050 and to give each and
every one a fair point of departure and a better future.
On the gender issue, math and science are fields that for years were considered those in which boys made more of an
effort, but that is of course a mistake. There is nothing a female student in Israel can wish to achieve and will not be
able to. It’s a question of effort and persistence, not of gender. Therefore, I'm not surprised that the level of
self-efficacy is identical for the sexes, as well as motivation associated with the reform. In the national program we
took a variety of actions to enhance motivation among girls, and we reached a high of 25 years (!) in the number of
female students studying mathematics and in the boy-girl proportion – for the first time, the numbers are almost equal:
49% girls versus 51% boys. This is [making] history and I am very proud of it. With regard to the field of mathematics
in general, I think that it will take a few more years but eventually the prevalent conception will be that success in
mathematics and affiliation with this field is unrelated to the student's sex. We're already there, it only needs further
establishment.
In the matter of the association between motivation and efficacy, one of the major foundations of the national program
deals with encouraging and reinforcing motivation among students, nurturing their affiliation with the field, and thus
empowering their faith in themselves. This finding of the study proves that our premise was correct – there is indeed an
association between the student's wish to make an effort and his ability to realize in practice.
With regard to motivation by number of units, we naturally encourage the students to achieve the best matriculation
certificate possible, and thus this finding is not surprising. At the same time, it is important to remember that some
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Published by Sciedu Press 74 ISSN 1927-6044 E-ISSN 1927-6052
students choose to study for a 3-unit exam, it's completely legitimate, and in this setting we nurture them and
encourage them to reach maximal success.
As part of the national program, we also act to advance the population of students found to have good achievements in
3 study units, to urge them to achieve a level of 4 study units, and at the same time to urge those who don't attempt the
matriculation exam at all to try for a 3-unit level." (Fried, Perl & Arcavi, 2018)
The contents of the minister's words on the gender issue are consistent with the research findings, showing that despite
previous studies that indicated gender differences in math scores, these disparities are gradually diminishing and hardly
constitute a discriminant factor with regard to grades, and the current study even made a new discovery that these
disparities are almost nonexistent with regard to motivation and self-efficacy as well. In the matter of the association
between motivation and efficacy, the minister indeed agrees that at base the program was intended to improve these
areas. The research findings that show a motivation-efficacy relationship strengthen the assumption of the reform's
authors while also raising the question of why the research findings show that motivation and self-efficacy are
generated by the students and not related to motivation, or perhaps it may be said that although the minister identified
these features as foundations of the reform, in practice the focus on grades is more central and no main emphasis is
given to motivation and self-efficacy. With regard to the final finding, the minister confirms that there are differences
in motivation by number of study units, which facilitates 3-unit studies and encouragement of 4-unit studies. He also
insinuates that some population groups will not attempt 5 units even with the reform and therefore it is necessary to
focus on helping them succeed in their current number of units, i.e., focus their motivation on their units. In other words,
the 5-unit level is not appropriate for everyone and it is necessary to strengthen studies on the lower unit levels.
6. In Summary
The national program includes 2,000 teachers, 15 enrichment hours, and hi-tech professionals who assist the students.
The program encompassed the development of 100 new tracks for 5-unit math studies throughout the country and all
schools could offer 5-unit math studies – even if only a small number of students were interested. Until now opening
a track required a minimum of 15 students, and from now on only six students are necessary.
The study sought to expand knowledge on the effect of students' subjective psychological feelings, such as motivation
and self-efficacy, in light of the "Give Five" reform initiated by the Ministry of Education. Moreover, differences were
found in the level of motivation and self-efficacy by the number of study units in mathematics. Furthermore, the gender
hypothesis, also partially confirmed, contributed to the study and re-examined the accepted assumptions with regard to
the various genders, as no difference was found in male and female students' level of motivation and self-efficacy. The
association between self-efficacy and motivation reinforces the premises that guided the Ministry of Education in
Israel, however the data showing that the reform did not lead to change in these areas may indicate that the Ministry of
Education emphasizes grades and not these features.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Dvir Amar and Roei Arieli, undergraduate students of social sciences at Ariel University,
for their assistance in data collection for this study.
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