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# Efficient routing for corona based underwater wireless sensor networks

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Computing (2019) 101:831–856
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00607-018-0690-x
Efﬁcient routing for corona based underwater wireless
sensor networks
Zahoor Ali Khan1
·Ghazanfar Latif2
·Imran Usman3
·
Mahmood Ashraf4
·Manzoor Ilahi2
Received: 3 May 2018 / Accepted: 11 December 2018 / Published online: 2 January 2019
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Austria, part of Springer Nature 2019
Abstract
The imbalance energy consumption and high data trafﬁc at intermediate nodes degrade
the network performance. In this paper, we propose: energy grade and balance load
distribution corona, EG without corona and DA without corona based schemes to
distribute data trafﬁc across the network nodes for efﬁcient energy consumption. The
dynamic adjustment of transmission range in ﬁrst scheme helps in reducing data load.
Additionally, the transmission range is purely based on distance, energy and data
divides a data packet into three fractions; small, medium and large for transmitting
from various paths to evenly distribute the data load on the network nodes. In third
scheme, depth adjustment of void node is performed to resume network operations,
whereas, the load distribution and transmission range mechanisms are the same. The
extensive simulations are carried out to show the effectiveness of proposed schemes in
terms of PDR, energy consumption, and load distribution against the baseline scheme.
Mathematics Subject Classiﬁcation 65D99
BZahoor Ali Khan
Zahoor.khan@hct.ac.ae
1Computer Information Science, Higher Colleges of Technology, Fujairah Campus 4114, Abu
Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
3College of Computing and Informatics, Saudi Electronic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
4Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science and Technology, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
123
... Since the development of IoUT, various energy saving routing mechanisms have been proposed. [22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29] As the conditions of underwater scenario is complex which leads to non-replacement of batteries on regular basis. Hence, energy consumption of sensor nodes becomes one of the serious concerns to be handled. ...
... EGBLOAD 29 : The authors proposed this protocol for distributing the data traffic for acquiring efficient expenditure of energy. The data load is reduced for the first technique. ...
Article
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Internet of Underwater Things (IoUT) comprises various resource‐constrained sensor nodes; therefore, the routing followed in acoustic medium underwater should be energy efficient to preserve their energies. Due to large area covered in the scenarios of underwater, the multi‐hop communication leads to energy hole problem. Therefore, Energy hole mitigation through Optimized Cluster Head (CH) selection and Strategic Routing (EOCSR) in IoUT is proposed in this paper. The proposed work not only optimizes CH selection using Tunicate Swarm Algorithm but also incorporates strategic routing to address energy hole problem. The simulation results show that EOCSR improves stability and lifetime of network by 16.8% and 17.7%, as compared with recently proposed Moth Flame Optimization‐based routing method.
... A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) plays an important in the growth of various applications like healthcare, military, industrial surveillance, etc., [1]- [3]. In this self organized network, the Sensor Nodes (SNs) having limited energy, storage and computational capabilities are randomly distributed [4]- [6]. The SNs monitor different factors, which are wind, humidity, temperature, etc., and then forward the data to the Base Stations (BSs) [7]. ...
Article
In this paper, an encryption and trust evaluation model is proposed on the basis of blockchain in which the identities of the Aggregator Nodes (ANs) and Sensor Nodes (SNs) are stored. The authentication of ANs and SNs is performed in public and private blockchains, respectively. However, inauthentic nodes utilize the network's resources and perform malicious activities. Moreover, the SNs have limited energy, transmission range and computational capabilities, and are attacked by malicious nodes. Afterwards, the malicious nodes transmit wrong information of the route and increase the number of retransmissions due to which SN's energy is rapidly consumed. The lifespan of the wireless sensor network is reduced due to the rapid energy dissipation of the SNs. Furthermore, the throughput increases and packet loss increase with the presence of malicious nodes in the network. The trust values of SNs are computed to eradicate the malicious nodes from the network. Secure routing in the network is performed considering residual energy and trust values of the SNs. Moreover, the Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA), a cryptosystem that provides asymmetric key, is used for securing data transmission. The simulation results show the effectiveness of the proposed model in terms of high packet delivery ratio.
... In routing protocol of [34], the IoTs consist of resource constrained devices, which are unable to perform PoW consensus mechanism. Moreover, in [35], the authors proposed an efficient routing scheme for underwater WSNs. ...
Thesis
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In this thesis, the blockchain and smart contracts are used to provide registration, mutual authentication, data sharing and fair nonrepudiation in wireless sensor network. The proposed model consists of three types of nodes: coordinators, cluster heads and sensor nodes. A consortium blockchain is deployed on coordinator nodes. The smart contracts execute on coordinators to record the identities of legitimate nodes. Moreover, they authenticate nodes and facilitate in data sharing and arbitration in case of repudiation. When a sensor node communicates and access data of any other sensor node, both nodes mutually authenticate each other. The smart contract of data sharing and nonrepudiation is used to provide a secure communication and data exchange between sensor nodes. Moreover, it records the evidences during the data exchange. When the exchanged data is found illegitimate or the requesting sensor node denies the legitimacy of data, then an arbitration smart contract resolves the dispute on the basis of evidences and punishes the sensor node accordingly. Additionally, the data of all the nodes is stored on the decentralized storage called interplanetary file system. Moreover, the staller consensus protocol is used in the proposed model to increase the efficiency and transaction throughput. The transaction latency of the proposed system model is approximately 81.82% lower than the proof of work based model. Moreover, the gas consumption of the data request and data provisioning is economical.
... The Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) play a significant role in many areas, such as medical, military, surveillance, industrial, etc., [1]- [3]. A WSN is a self-organizing network where Sensor Nodes (SNs) are randomly deployed and have limited storage, energy and computational power [4]- [6]. They monitor the parameters like temperature, humidity, etc. and transmit the data towards the Base Stations (BSs) [7]. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
In this paper, a blockchain based authentication model is proposed where the identity of each node is stored on the blockchain. The public and private blockchains are used for authentication. The authentication of Sensor Nodes (SNs) is performed at the private blockchain, whereas the public blockchain authenticates the cluster heads. The existing malicious node detection methods do not guarantee the authentication of the entities in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). The unregistered nodes can easily access the resources of the network and perform malicious activities. Moreover, the malicious nodes broadcast wrong route information that increases packet delay and lowers packet delivery ratio. In the proposed model, the trust value is calculated in order to remove the malicious nodes. The secure routing is performed on the basis of the most trustworthy nodes in the network. The aim is to reduce the packet delay and increase the packet delivery ratio. The simulation results show that the high throughput and packet delivery ratio is achieved due to the presence of highly trusted nodes. Moreover, our proposed model detects the malicious nodes effectively.
... Thus more effort are made to create and control WSNs in harsh environments where overcoming routing holes is typical. Several protocols have been proposed to solve the void hole problem in underwater WSNs, which is due to frequent topology changes (nodes moving around because of water flows) and signal attenuation and long delay [31][32][33][34]. Also, in [35] a virtual force based routing strategy is proposed to handle the energy hole problem, while in [36] a routing algorithm is created to overcome dynamic holes. ...
Article
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A quest for geographic routing schemes of wireless sensor networks when sensor nodes are deployed in areas with obstacles has resulted in numerous ingenious proposals and techniques. However, there is a lack of solutions for complicated cases wherein the source or the sink nodes are located close to a specific hole, especially in cavern-like regions of large complex-shaped holes. In this paper, we propose a geographic routing scheme to deal with the existence of complicated-shape holes in an effective manner. Our proposed routing scheme achieves routes around holes with the (1+ϵ\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\epsilon$$\end{document})-stretch. Experimental results show that our routing scheme yields the highest load balancing and the most extended network lifetime compared to other well-known routing algorithms as well.
... EGBLOAD [31]: The energy grade and balance load distribution corona-based scheme (EGBLOAD) is proposed to distribute data traffic on network nodes to achieve efficient energy consumption. The transmission power of the forwarder node is determined by the distance, residual energy, and data traffic which is used to avoid high traffic on intermediate nodes. ...
Article
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Underwater wireless sensor network (UWSN) is currently a hot research field in academia and industry with many underwater applications, such as ocean monitoring, seismic monitoring, environment monitoring, and seabed exploration. However, UWSNs suffer from various limitations and challenges: high ocean interference and noise, high propagation delay, narrow bandwidth, dynamic network topology, and limited battery energy of sensor nodes. The design of routing protocols is one of the solutions to address these issues. A routing protocol can efficiently transfer the data from the source node to the destination node in the network. This paper presents a review of underwater routing protocols for UWSNs. We classify the existing underwater routing protocols into three categories: energy-based, data-based, and geographic information-based protocols. In this paper, we summarize the underwater routing protocols proposed in recent years. The proposed protocols are described in detail and give advantages and disadvantages. Meanwhile, the performance of different underwater routing protocols is analyzed in detail. Besides, we also present the research challenges and future directions of underwater routing protocols, which can help the researcher better explore in the future.
... Moreover, transmission range variation is used to deal with failed nodes and connectivity holes. In [23], the authors propose three routing schemes that work in collaboration to achieve high energy efficiency and fair load distribution. Transmission power is altered according to the energy level of the forwarder, traffic load and distance between the forwarder and the sender. ...
Article
Full-text available
Constraints of the underwater environment pose certain challenges to the design of routing protocols for underwater sensor networks. One such constraint is free mobility of sensor nodes with water currents. Free mobility and asymmetric acoustic propagation characteristics may lead to network partitioning which results in one or more nodes being unable to connect to the rest of the network and thus unable to report their sensed data. In this work, we propose a two-stage routing protocol to enable not only the connected nodes but also the partitioned nodes to successfully report their data thus improving the overall packet delivery ratio. We also introduce a minimum energy threshold and a rerouting scheme to delay death of busier nodes, thereby ensuring that nodes stay alive longer for their sensing job, and to avoid connectivity holes, respectively. Moreover, we also resolve forwarding loops to avoid the unnecessary waste of resources. Our results show that the proposed scheme successfully resolves network partitions and achieves a higher packet delivery ratio while avoiding early death of sensor nodes.
... Reference [42] proposed three routing schemes: (1) corona-based energy grade (EG) & balance load distribution or EGBLOAD, (2) EG w/o corona, and (3) depth adjustment (DA) w/o corona. These schemes collaborate to achieve high energy efficiency and prolong network lifetime by intelligently distributing traffic load among the nodes. ...
Article
Full-text available
Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSN) have attracted huge attention due to their significance in oceanic observation and exploration. They offer a vast number of applications, many of which require routing the sensed data to a centralized location. This makes routing an important part of the design of such applications. In this paper, we present a comprehensive survey of recently proposed routing protocols for UWSNs. We evaluate the proposed schemes through an extensive set of parameters that define the core characteristics of a routing protocol. Moreover, we present a summary of the methods used by each scheme to familiarize readers with the basic operations of the schemes. We also present our view of the strengths and weakness of each scheme. For ease of description, the addressed routing protocols are divided into two categories: localization-based, and localization-free routing schemes. Each of the two categories is further divided into the protocols that consider node mobility, and those that do not. Lastly, we present our view on open research topics.
Chapter
In this paper, a blockchain based authentication model is proposed where the identity of each node is stored on the blockchain. The public and private blockchains are used for authentication. The authentication of Sensor Nodes (SNs) is performed at the private blockchain, whereas the public blockchain authenticates the cluster heads. The existing malicious node detection methods do not guarantee the authentication of the entities in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). The unregistered nodes can easily access the resources of the network and perform malicious activities. Moreover, the malicious nodes broadcast wrong route information that increases packet delay and lowers packet delivery ratio. In the proposed model, the trust value is calculated in order to remove the malicious nodes. The secure routing is performed on the basis of the most trustworthy nodes in the network. The aim is to reduce the packet delay and increase the packet delivery ratio. The simulation results show that the high throughput and packet delivery ratio is achieved due to the presence of highly trusted nodes. Moreover, our proposed model detects the malicious nodes effectively.
Article
The purpose of underwater acoustic sensor networks (UWASNs) is to find varied applications for ocean monitoring and exploration of offshore. In majority of these applications, the network comprises of several sensor nodes deployed at different depths in water. The sensor nodes which are situated in depth, at the sea bed, are unable to communicate unswervingly with those nodes which are close to the surface level; these nodes necessitate multi-hop communication which is facilitated by suitable routing plan. The working of UWASNs is affected by some constraints like high transmission delay, energy consumption, deployment, long propagation delay and high attenuation. Apart from this, the existence of void region in the route can also affect the overall performance of UWASNs. So, the void region can be avoided by considering the best forwarder node. The selection of the best forwarder node depends on depth variance, depth difference, residual energy, and link quality. Apart from this, an angle is also considered to select the best forwarder node. This paper presents an energy efficient and void region avoidance routing. The concept of grey wolf optimization algorithm is used here to select the best forwarder node. The proposed work increases the network lifetime by avoiding the void region and also balancing the network energy. The proposed work is simulated in the MATLAB platform and compared with weighting depth and forwarding area division depth-based routing and energy and depth variance-based opportunistic void avoidance schemes. This work achieves the packet delivery ratio 96% with varying transmission range up to 1000 m at 180 node size. Along with this, it decreases the end-to-end delay and average number of dead nodes up to 53% and 145, respectively. This work also improves the overall network lifetime and reduces the transmission delay. This work also propagates 55% less copies of data packets. Similar to this, some other performance metrics are also explained in the results section.
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