What Do Criminal Justice Students Know About Autism? An Exploratory Study Among Future Professionals

Abstract

The social and communication impairments and other atypical behaviors among those with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) make this subset of the population particularly vulnerable. These vulnerabilities also present a separate set of concerns when they have contact with the criminal justice system, typically as victims or witness of abuse, as offenders or suspicious persons, or lost or missing persons. Specific measures must be taken to improve communication and to avoid misinterpreting communication impairments and other atypical behaviors as an indication of a lack of cooperation, being under the influence of substances, or of guilt/lack of remorse. Without the benefit of having basic knowledge and understanding of autism, criminal justice system professionals will struggle with meeting the needs of those with ASD. The current study explored the level of autism knowledge and awareness of among a sample of 400 undergraduate criminal justice students and possible future criminal justice professionals. The results demonstrated that the sample of students had moderate knowledge of ASD, which did not appear to increase with time in program. Those with greater exposure to people with ASD had more knowledge and understanding than those who did not. Recommendations and implications are discussed.

Full text

1 23
Journal of Police and Criminal
Psychology
The Official Journal of the Society for
Police and Criminal Psychology
ISSN 0882-0783
Volume 34
Number 4
J Police Crim Psych (2019) 34:428-438
DOI 10.1007/s11896-018-9302-0
What Do Criminal Justice Students Know
About Autism? An Exploratory Study
Among Future Professionals
Melanie Clark Mogavero

1 23
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What Do Criminal Justice Students Know About Autism? An Exploratory
Study Among Future Professionals
Melanie Clark Mogavero
1
#Society for Police and Criminal Psychology 2018
Abstract
The social and communication impairments and other atypical behaviors among those with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
make this subset of the population particularly vulnerable. These vulnerabilities also present a separate set of concerns when they
have contact with the criminal justice system, typically as victims or witness of abuse, as offenders or suspicious persons, or lost
or missing persons. Specific measures must be taken to improve communication and to avoid misinterpreting communication
impairments and other atypical behaviors as an indication of a lack of cooperation, being under the influence of substances, or of
guilt/lack of remorse. Without the benefit of having basic knowledge and understanding of autism, criminal justice system
professionals will struggle with meeting the needs of those with ASD. The current study explored the level of autism knowledge
and awareness of among a sample of 400 undergraduate criminal justice students and possible future criminal justice profes-
sionals. The results demonstrated that the sample of students had moderate knowledge of ASD, which did not appear to increase
with time in program. Those with greater exposure to people with ASD had more knowledge and understanding than those who
did not. Recommendations and implications are discussed.
Keywords Autism Spectrum disorder .Asperger’s.Police .Criminal justice system
Introduction
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a rapidly increasing con-
dition that affects between 1 and 2% of the population (Center
for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC). Research has in-
dicated that people with ASD or other developmental disabil-
ities will have up to seven times more contacts with the crim-
inal justice system (CJS) during their lifetimes than members
of the general population (Curry et al. 1993;Debbaudt2002).
Individuals with ASD may encounter professionals in CJS for
a variety of reasons and there are many concerns when they
do, particularly with police, as this is typically their initial
contact. The initial experience may positively or negatively
affect any future contact and experiences with policeand other
sectors of the CJS. Unfortunately, research has implied an
overall dissatisfaction with police encounters among the au-
tism community, and some revealed that these contacts were
traumatic (Crane et al. 2016; Edworthy and Hylton 2010;
Rava et al. 2017).
Characteristics of ASD and Prevalence
ASD
1
is a complex neurological disorder characterized in part,
by limited verbal and non-verbal communication and social in-
teraction. Some characteristics of ASD listed in the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition
(DSM-5) published by the American Psychiatric Association
(APA) include lack of eye contact, lack of social or emotional
reciprocity, extreme egocentricity, narrow interests, and overly
dependent on routines. Individuals diagnosed with ASD have
varying degrees of social communication and interaction impair-
ments. The severity of one’sASDdiagnosisisdeterminedby
one of three levels of required support (support, substantial sup-
port, very substantial support), in two domains (social commu-
nication and restricted/repetitive behaviors) (APA 2013).
1
Due to the diagnostic changes from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM-IV, APA, 2000) to the DSV-5 (2013) that reclassified
all Pervasive Developmental Disorders under one term, Autism Spectrum
Disorder, the use of ASD in this paper includes Autistic Disorder,
Asperger’s Syndrome, and Autism Spectrum Disorder.
*Melanie Clark Mogavero
mmogavero@georgian.edu
1
Department of Criminal Justice, Georgian Court University,
Lakewood, NJ, USA
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-018-9302-0
Published online: 21 November 2018
Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology (2019) 34:428–438
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AccordingtotheCDC(http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/
autism/data.html, Retrieved: September 8, 2018), the
prevalence of those with ASD has increased significantly
over the past decade. The most recent statistics published by
CDC researchers note that the rate of those with ASD as 1 in
59, a 30% increase from 2008 (1 in 88), a 60% increase from
2006 (1 in 110), and a 120% increase from 2002 (1 in 150).
The explanations for the rate increase are unknown but likely
the result of the increased autism awareness, changes to
diagnostic methods and expansions in diagnostic criteria,
2
improvements in clinician training in diagnosing ASD,
increased assistance for children in local communities, and/
or increased familial and social acceptance (Haskins and Silva
2006; Hacking 2009). Furthermore, the CDC reports that
ASD is almost five times more common among males (1 in
42) than among females (1 in 189).
Literature Review
Contacts with the Criminal Justice System
Currently, there are no official record-keeping practices nor
official statistics measuring the rate of contacts individuals with
ASD have had with the CJS. Although not an exhaustive list,
such contacts with the CJS include them as victims, witnesses,
suspicious persons/offenders, and lost or missing persons.
Surveys of adolescents and adults with ASD and/or caregivers
revealed 8% (Turcotte et al. 2018), 16% (Tint et al. 2017), to
that as many as 19% (Rava et al. 2017) had contact with police.
Some of the problems noted in these surveys included the of-
ficers’lack of awareness and knowledge of ASD; the physical,
emotional, or cognitive needs were not met (e.g., failed to ex-
plain procedures, legal terminology, possible outcomes), and
unnecessary force/violence (Crane et al. 2016; Edworthy and
Hylton 2010;Ravaetal.2017). A survey of police officers in
the UK revealed that they had an average of 20 encounters with
persons with ASD, of which about 36% were victims, 43%
were suspects, 10% were witnesses, and another 13% of other
contacts or situations (Crane et al. 2016). With the rates of ASD
increasing, the number of contacts with police will likely in-
crease, and efforts must be made to reduce any dissatisfaction
or trauma of such interactions.
As Abuse Victims or Witnesses
Due to behavioral characteristics such as social isolation, so-
cial issues, poor communication skills, and other atypical be-
haviors, those with ASD are at greater risk of physical and
sexual abuse (Carlile 2018;Duanetal.2015;Edelson2010;
Hall-Lande et al. 2015; Mandell et al. 2005;Perkinsand
Wolkind 1991). For example, Mandell et al. (2005)reported
that of the 156 children with ASD, 14% were victims of phys-
ical abuse, 12% sexual abuse, and more than 4% had been
both victims of both physical and sexual abuse. An unpub-
lished 2007 report by The Autism Society revealed that
among a survey of 1500 individuals with ASD and their care-
givers, 17% reported physical abuse or assault, 13% reported
being the victim of sexual abuse, 8% reported a sexual assault,
and 8% reported neglect (Autism Society 2006). Hall-Lande
et al. (2015) noted that children with ASD and other
disabilities were overrepresented in the state child protection
system than children without disabilities. Further, Duan et al.
(2015) noted that the severity of abuse not only increased with
age, but also the severity of one’s ASD symptomology.
Unfortunately, many abuse cases go unreported and police
follow-up, prosecution, and convictions of the perpetrators are
low, often due to a lack of specialized police training in han-
dling victims with developmental disabilities, and many indi-
viduals with disabilities are overwhelmed by the CJS
(Gammicchia and Johnson n.d.). Victim credibility as a wit-
ness is often challenged due to concerns with memory, sug-
gestibility, and communication (Bruck et al. 2007; Henry et al.
2017; Lindblad and Lainpelto 2011; Maras and Bowler 2010;
Maras et al. 2014;Mattisonetal.2015,2016; McCrory et al.
2007). Some parents reported that police appeared to be im-
patient and lacked empathy when their child had difficulty
remembering events, dates, and times, which sometimes led
to their child becoming too distressed to continue the inter-
view (Edworthy and Hylton 2010).
Surveys of police officers reported that obtaining written
statements or conducting interviews with individuals with
ASD was difficult (Crane et al. 2016). Therefore, when police
must communicate with someone with ASD, certain provisions
must be implemented, beginning with the initial contact,
questioning (to ensure accurate accounts of crimes are obtained),
and having appropriate representation so their rights preserved.
Communication provisions include adequately preparing the
victim of the legal process, being aware of any communication
or reading difficulties, using assistive technology when neces-
sary, eliminating/reducing noise or other visual stimuli that
could be distracting, and also limiting the number of interviews
or reducing the length of interviews (Edworthy and Hylton
2010; Henry et al. 2017; Gammicchia and Johnson n.d.).
As Suspicious Persons and Offenders
Most diagnosed with ASD are law-abiding, and criminal be-
havior among this population has shown to be rare
(Ghaziuddin et al. 1991; Scragg and Shah; Kohn et al. 1998;
Woodbury-Smith et al. 2006;Mouridsen2012). However, the
ASD characteristics likely have a considerable role for the
minority who do commit offenses. Some common offenses
2
See Pervasive Developmental Disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV, APA, 2000),
J Police Crim Psych (2019) 34:428–438 429
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cited in the literature include assault (Geluk et al. 2012;Allen
et al. 2008; Ray et al. 2004; Barry-Walsh and Mullen 2004;
Murrie et al. 2002; Scragg and Shah 1994), arson (Geluk et al.
2012; Allen et al. 2008; Haskins and Silva 2006;Murrieetal.;
Siponmaa et al. 2001; Scragg and Shah), and sexual offenses
(Kohn et al. 1998; Barry-Walsh and Mullen; Murrie et al.;
Hart-Kerkhoffs et al. 2009; Griffin-Shelley 2010).
There is an overall a lack of information about those with
ASD involved in the CJS (Loynes 2001). Cheely et al. (2011)
measured this prevalence among a sample of 609 youths with
ASD between the age of 12–18 and revealed that 32 (5%)
were charged with 103 offenses, of which 26 (27.1%) were
prosecuted. Despite these results, it remains unknown whether
there is an overrepresentation of those with ASD in the juve-
nile or adult CJS. Involvement in CJS for offenders with ASD
can be particularly challenging for those with average or
above average intelligence. They may appear more Bnormal^
and intelligent, where any social and communication deficits
may go unrecognized or misunderstood by others. For exam-
ple, an individual’s lack of social or emotional reciprocity or
failure to make eye contact may be interpreted as having a lack
of remorse, indifference, or callousness. Frith (1991) noted
when apprehended by authorities, those with ASD often do
not appear to feel guilt, may not attempt to conceal or excuse
their behavior, and may even bluntly and honestly admit their
behavior. An individual with ASD may laugh, speak loudly,
and have an aloof body language (inherent to ASD), which
could lead many police, prosecutors, and judges and to con-
clude that the individual isguilty and lacks remorse (Debbaudt
2004). Safety for all those involved is also a concern. Specific
de-escalation techniques must also be used, as Edworthy and
Hylton (2010) noted, common restraint methods used by the
police, such as handcuffs, may escalate the situation. If the
individual is unable to communicate, they may become phys-
ical towards the police to prevent restraint or what Chown
(2009)referredtoastheBfright,^Bfight,^or Bflight^response.
Individuals with ASD may be more susceptible to interrog-
ative pressure during formal interviews, referred to as inter-
rogative suggestibility (Gudjohnsson 1984; North et al. 2007).
Interrogative pressure may provide misleading statements, as
standard interrogation techniques utilize deception that may
confuse those with ASD who tend to be Bconcrete-thinkers^
into providing false confessions (Debbaudt 2004). It has also
been suggested that among those with ASD who commit
criminal offenses, the manner in which they are handled in
the CJS may also be due to their ASD characteristics
(Debbaudt 2004). To handle those who enter the CJS fairly
and justly, it is imperative to understand any underlying causes
that may be responsible for or to explain their current behavior
(Crane et al. 2016; Debbaudt 2004). Individuals with ASD
who come into contact with the CJS are often misunderstood,
mistreated, and sometimes receive harsher punishments than
are warranted (Attwood et al. 2014; Crane et al. 2016;
Freckelton 2013; Haskins and Silva 2006; Mayes 2003;
Mogavero 2016; North et al. 2007; Taylor et al. 2009).
As Lost or Missing Persons
An important issue that primarily concerns police officers and
other first responders is elopement. Eloping (leaving a
predetermined area without the permission or supervision of
caregivers) is often reported among parents, teachers, and
caregivers of those with ASD (Anderson et al. 2012;
Barnard-Brak et al. 2016;Langetal.2009;Riceetal.2016;
Solomon and Lawlor 2013). Anderson et al. (2012)revealed
that about 50% of parents/teachers/caregivers reported an
elopement incident, and police were involved in about one-
third of such cases. The consequences of elopement can be
serious and may sometimes result in death (Lowe et al. 2007;
Mouridsen et al. 2008). The high-profile case of Avonte
Oquendo who fled from his school on October 4, 2013 and
was later found deceased months later on January 16, 2014
drew nation-wide attention to elopement among those with
ASD (Hilton 2017). Moreover, Rice et al. (2016)havenoted
that those who eloped tended to have more limitations in so-
cial and communication skills than those who did not wander,
making them particularly vulnerable to harm.
>Police officers may encounter a person with ASD in the
community or be requested to locate a lost or missing person
with ASD. Therefore, it is imperative that police understand
characteristics of ASD, recognize the behaviors, and
understand how to best approach those with ASD to
minimize risk. As Debbaudt (2002) and Debbaudt and
Rothman (2001) noted, when approached by law enforcement,
individuals with ASD may not respond to Bstop^or other
commands or may run/walk away when approached. They
may react negatively to lights, sirens, or canine officers and
may begin to pace, flap their hands, hit themselves, or scream.
To an untrained or uninformed officer, they may mistake some-
one with ASD as someone who is under the influence of alco-
hol or having a psychotic episode (Debbaudt 2002;Debbaudt
and Rothman 2001). When police encounter an unsupervised
individual with ASD, parents often find themselves in a posi-
tion to explain or Beducate^police officers about autism, for
example, Bhe has autism, he’snotverbal^(Solomon and
Lawlor 2013, p. 111). Such precautions can help prevent for-
mal allegation of the use of excessive force. In addition, a
police report or involvement of child protection services may
also be avoided when police are informed and understand the
situation (Solomon and Lawlor 2013).
Knowledge and Awareness of ASD
Research on police officers’knowledge and experience with
individuals with ASD is lacking, particularly in the US, but
the little research that has accessed such knowledge in the UK
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has been discouraging. A survey of police officers in the UK
revealed that nearly half (48%) believed that they were knowl-
edgeable about ASD while 20% reported that they had little
knowledge (Crane et al. 2016). Similarly, Chown (2009)mea-
sured the knowledge of ASD among a sample of 120 police
officers in the UK and reported that although more than half
were able to identify the main characteristics of autism, only
half were able to correctly identify Asperger’ssyndromeas
being on the autism spectrum. Modell and Mak (2008)sur-
veyed 124 police officers about their knowledge and percep-
tion of autism and revealed that 80% were unable to identify
accurate characteristics of ASD and more than 35% simply
listed, BRain Man
3
^as their response.
According to Debbaudt (2004),a gap remains with both the
skill and training for professionals in dealing with a rapidly
increasing population of individuals diagnosed with ASD.
The survey of police officers by Crane et al. (2016)revealed
that nearly half (48%) believed they were well equipped to
work with individuals with ASD, while 29% believed they
were poorly equipped to work with such individuals. Only
37% of officers surveyed reported that they had received train-
ing on ASD, and of those 28% reported that they were unsat-
isfied with the training (Crane et al. 2016). Chown (2009)
revealed that 62% received no formal training in autism and
Modell and Mak (2008) similarly revealed that 48% received
no training, and 45% indicated they had some training de-
scribed as minimal, basic, or vague. Overall, it appears from
the three studies (two of which were published a decade ago)
that police officers are uninformed and ill-equipped to handle
this vulnerable population during their policing duties and
perhaps more can be done to prepare them prior to entering
their careers. The above study results assessed police officers
in the UK, and therefore, it is unknown whether such results
are generalizable to police officers in the US.
Current Study
The purpose of the current study was to report on results
of an exploratory and descriptive study regarding knowl-
edge of autism among a large and diverse sample of un-
dergraduate CJ students. Few studies have been conduct-
ed to measure the level of ASD knowledge among college
students (e.g., Tipton and Blacher 2014), but none to the
author’s knowledge were conducted on this specific stu-
dent population. Are our future CJ professionals knowl-
edgeable about this population that, statistically, they will
encounter at some point during their careers? The author
assessed basic knowledge and understanding of ASD with
regard to behavior and communication characteristics,
misconceptions, and understanding the broad spectrum
of the characteristics of this disorder. CJS professionals
must handle a person with ASD differently when first
approaching, stating commands, and asking questions, es-
pecially during formal interviews, to better ensure that
they handle individuals with ASD properly, respectfully,
and justly.
Four primary questions were addressed: (1) What was the
overall level of knowledge about autism among the respon-
dents? (2) Which specific domains were respondents more or
less knowledgeable? (3) Does knowing someone with ASD
and the relationship increase level of knowledge? (4). Are
primary demographics (gender, race/ethnicity, class year) as-
sociated with the extent of knowledge?
Methods
The author administered the Autism Knowledge Survey-
Revised (AKS-R, Swiezy 2007,2013), the updated ver-
sion of the original by Stone (1987).
4
The AKS-R is a 20-
item measure that assesses a respondent’s degree of agree-
ment with statements (10 accurate, 10 inaccurate) regard-
ing ASD, including etiology, interventions, diagnosis, and
outcomes. The AKS has been revised several times to
reflect current knowledge informed by research of ASD
(Swiezy et al. 2005;Swiezy2007,2013). Respondents
either agree or disagree to each statement on 6-point
Likert-type scale (fully agree = 1, fully disagree = 6).
Subjects were encouraged to respond to the AKS-R to
the best of their knowledge. If subjects skipped questions
on the AKS-R, those questions were not counted towards
their overall score. The accurate statements were reverse
coded, so that a higher number reflected greater knowl-
edge of autism (highest possible AKS-R score = 120). The
surveys were anonymous, and no names, social security,
or student identification numbers were collected. Each
survey was assigned a number that could not be linked
back to the subject completing the survey.
Subjects for this study were drawn from a purposive
and convenience sample of the student body enrolled in
undergraduate CJ courses at two public and two private
universities in New Jersey and Pennsylvania (one public
and one private in each state). The Institutional Review
Board application was approved from each university. The
four universities varied in student enrollment size (ap-
proximately 2100, 3900, 8200, 8500) and location setting
(rural, suburban, urban). The universities were selected to
obtain a diverse sample of undergraduate CJ students with
3
Rain Main (1988) see https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0095953/awards?ref_=
tt_awd
4
An analysis of the Stone’s original 1987 survey conducted by Campbell,
Reichle, and Van Bourgondien (1996) revealed that it was unidimensional,
had reasonable internal consistency (alpha = 0.66), stable
reliability, and showed initial reasonable validity.
J Police Crim Psych (2019) 34:428–438 431
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different backgrounds. The courses varied in size and lev-
el (100-level to 400-level) to capture students of different
ages and stages in their academic program. The author
selected students in CJ courses to capture a greater per-
centage of CJ or related program majors, as such pro-
grams are typically designed educate students, in part,
about the CJS (law enforcement, courts, corrections). It
is important to measure the reactions, thoughts, and per-
ceptions of such behaviors of this specific student popu-
lation that will most likely work in some sector of CJS in
the future, prior to entering their careers. The data was
collected in the Spring 2017 through Spring 2018 semes-
ters. Students were not compensated for their participation
and the response rate varied per class and ranged from 84
to 100%.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 25.
Tab le 1displays the characteristics and demographics of
the sample by university. All four academic years were
represented, with slightly fewer first year students partic-
ipating(16.7%),withfourthyearstudentsbeingthemost
represented (32.5%). These percentages allowed a com-
parison by time in academic program, with a sufficient
sample of upper-class students to measure any acquired
knowledge of ASD. The sample was approximately half
male and half female, and racially and ethnically diverse,
with 54.5% white/Caucasian, 15.5% black/African
American, 19% Hispanic, and another 11% identifying
as either Asian, Native American, or bi-racial/multi-racial.
Multivariate Analyses
Tab le 2displays the mean average of the AKS-R scores by
academic year, race, and gender and whether they know
someone with ASD exposure and their relationship to the
person they know with ASD. Participants were asked
whether or not they know someone with ASD, and whether
the person was a family member, and acquaintance (e.g.,
friend, neighbor, co-worker, classmate), or if they knew
someone through your employment (e.g., work at daycare,
school). As demonstrated, the AKS-R scores across aca-
demic year show moderate knowledge of ASD (maximum
score is 120). An analysis of variance (ANOVA) failed to
demonstrate statistically significant differences among the
class years (F= 0.387, p< .818) and a Pearson Chi-square
test failed to demonstrate gender differences (X
2
= 2.2,
p< .704). There were racial differences noted in AKS-R
scores, with Caucasians having higher scores than all other
racial/ethnic groups, and African Americans having lower
scores (F= 10.7, p< .000). However, these differences are
likely attributed to knowing someone with ASD, as more
than two-thirds (67.4%) of Caucasians reported knowing
someone with ASD while only 38.7% of African
Americans reported such.
Tab le 3displays the mean AKS-R scores by the amount
of persons known with ASD and the relationship. An
Table 1 Sample characteristics,
N=400 University
PA Public
n=153
n(%)
PA Private
n=67
n(%)
NJ Public
n=119
n(%)
NJ Private
n=61
n(%)
Tot al
N=400
n(%)
Academic year (n=396)
1 18 (12.4) 13 (31.5) 10 (8.0) 13 (22.4) 54 (16.7)
2 36 (26.3) 21 (22.6) 23 (24.8) 12 (17.9) 92 (24.0)
3 44(28.1) 20(25.8) 29(22.6) 16(23.9) 109(25.7)
4 55(33.2) 13(19.4) 53(41.6) 20(35.8) 141(32.5)
Gender (n=399)
Male 87 (56.9) 37 (55.2) 62 (52.5) 27 (44.3) 213 (53.4)
Female 66 (43.1) 30 (44.8) 55 (46.6) 34 (55.7) 185 (46.4)
Race/ethnicity (n=400)
White/Caucasian 103 (67.3) 52 (77.6) 29 (24.4) 34 (55.7) 218 (54.5)
Black/African Am. 20 (13.1) 1 (1.5) 28 (23.5) 13 (21.3) 62 (15.5)
Hispanic 21 (13.7) 10 (14.9) 33 (27.7) 12 (19.7) 76 (19.0)
Others 9 (5.9) 4 (6.0) 29 (24.4) 2 (3.3) 44 (11.0)
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ANOVA revealed that those who know someone with
ASD and those who know more than one person with
ASD scored significantly higher on the AKS-R than those
who did not (F= 13.1, p< .000). With regard to relation-
ships, an independent ttest revealed that only those who
knew an acquaintance appeared to increase scores on the
AKS-R (t=−3.33, p< .001).
Tab le 4displays the results of a bivariate linear re-
gression predicting AKS-R score by the relationship to
the person(s) known with ASD, controlling for the total
number of persons known with ASD. The author con-
ducted a series of bivariate regression analyses to sepa-
rately test the influence of each ASD relationship on the
AKS-R. Only the acquaintance relationship was statisti-
cally significant (B=2.15, p< .001) after controlling for
the total number of persons known with ASD. It ap-
pears that those who knew someone in a social manner,
opposed to family member or in a professional environ-
ment, had more overall knowledge.
Tab le 5displays the results of a ttest of the mean indi-
vidual item scores for the 20 AKS-R items by the
amount of persons known with ASD and the whether
they were an acquaintance. Items 1, 3, 7, 9, 12, 18, and
19 represent misconceptions or lay beliefs regarding the
causes, symptoms, and interventions for ASD. Only
items 1 and 18 demonstrated little difference across
groups. Most incorrectly identified ASD as an emotional
disorder, opposed to development or neurological. Items
3, 4, 5, 7, 10 represent social-affective characteristics,
reflecting the social skills and social engagement fea-
tures of ASD. Of these, there were no significant dif-
ferences across exposure level among item 5, suggesting
that the sample students understood that ASD is differ-
ent than other psychiatric disorders, and among item 10,
suggesting that students are unaware that the delay or
lack of communication is the first concern. More of
those who reported knowing more than one person
agreed that a lack of eye contact is not present with
Table 2 Mean full AKS-R scores by demographics and ASD exposure
(N=400)
Demographics AKS-R scores Know someone
w/ ASD
Academic year n= 399 Mean (SD) N(%)
1(1–29 credits) 83.2 (9.3) 36 (67.9)
2(30–59 credits) 82.6 (8.5) 60 (65.2)
3(60–89 credits) 83.7 (7.6) 62 (57.4)
4 (90 + credits) 83.8 (8.8) 87 (62.6)
F=0.387,p< .818
Pearson X
2
=2.2,p<.704
Race ethnicity n=400
White/Caucasian 85.3 (8.1) 147 (67.4)
Black/African Am. 78.9 (8.2) 24 (38.7)
Hispanic 82.2 (7.1) 48 (64.0)
Others 82.3 (8.9) 28 (65.1)
F=10.7,p< .000
Pearson X
2
=21.6p< .001
Gender n=399
Female 83.8 (8.5) 127 (59.6)
Male 83.1 (8.4) 118 (64.5)
ttest t=−.915, p< .361
Pearson X
2
=1.1,p<.577
Table 3 Mean full AKS-R scores by amount of ASD exposure (N=
400)
Know someone w/ ASD N= 394 Mean (SD)
No 81.2 (8.3)
182.9(7.3)
2 or more 86.0 (8.7)
F=13.1,p< .000
Know family member N=395
Yes 84. 7 (8. 3)
No 83.1 (8.5)
ttest t=−1.45, p< .147
Know through employment N=395
Yes 85. 5 (8. 4)
No 83.1 (8.4)
ttest t=−.915, p< .361
Know an acquaintance N=395
Yes 85. 1 (8. 5)
No 82.2 (8.6)
ttest t=−3.33, p< .001
Table 4 Bivariate linear regression of AKS-R score by ASD
relationship (N=395)
BStd. E βtsig.
Constant (1) 82.6 .528 156.52 .000
Family Member .704 1.10 .033 .638 .524
Tot al know n numbe r
of persons with ASD
.427 .157 .141 2.71 .007
R
2
=.023,f(4.618) = .010
Constant (1) 2.57 .215 11.94 .000
Employment .800 1.394 .032 .574 .566
Tot al know n numbe r
of persons with ASD
.412 .168 .136 2.45 .015
R
2
=.023,f(4.578) = .011
Constant (1) 81.96 .581 141.19 .000
Acquaintance 2.15 .887 .126 2.43 .016
Total known number of
persons with ASD
.342 .158 .113 2.17 .031
R
2
=.037,f(7.43) = .001
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Table 5 Mean AKS-R item scores by race/ethnicity and ASD exposure (N= 400)
Survey items Know someone Know 2 or more Know acquaint. Ideal score
YNYNYN
1. Autism is an emotional disorder 3.3 (1.5) 3.1 (1.3) 3.1 (1.5) 3.1 (1.3) 3.2 (1.5) 3.2 (1.4) 6
2. Early intervention can lead to significant gains
in children’s social and communication skills.
1.9** (1.1) 2.1** (1.1) 1.8** (1.1) 2.1** (1.1) 1.9 (1.1) 2.0 (1.1) 1
3. All people with autism display poor eye contact. 4.1 (1.4) 4.0 (1.2) 4.2*** (1.3) 3.9*** (1.3) 4.2** (1.3) 1.4** (1.4) 6
4. People with autism typically perform better when tasks are presented visually
than when tasks are presented verbally.
2.4*** (1.2) 2.7***(1.1) 2.4 (1.2) 2.5 (1.1) 2.5 (1.2) 2.5 (1.1) 1
5. Problems with social relatedness that are present in autism are different from social
problems seen in other psychiatric conditions
2.8 (1.1) 2.9 (0.9) 2.8 (1.2) 2.8 (1.0) 2.8 (1.0) 2.8 (1.2) 1
6. Autism is more frequently diagnosed in males than in females. 2.9** (1.3) 3.3** (1.3) 2.9 (1.4) 3.1 (1.3) 3.0 (1.3) 3.1 (1.4) 1
7. Children with autism do not show attachments, even to parents/caregivers 4.7* (1.3) 4.5* (1.3) 4.8** (1.3) 4.5** (1.3) 4.8* (1.3) 4.5* (1.3) 6
8. Research indicates that sensory integration therapy is an effective treatment for
autism and its symptoms
2.8*** (1.0) 3.1*** (1.0) 2.8 (1.1) 2.9 (1.0) 2.8** (1.0) 3.0** (1.1) 1
9. Children with autism are deliberately uncooperative 4.8 (1.3) 4.8 (1.2) 4.9 (1.3) 4.7 (1.2) 4.9 (1.2) 4.7 (1.3) 6
10. Most parents/caregivers of children with autism report their first
concerns were related to the child’ssocialbehavior.
2.5 (1.2) 2.6 (1.0) 2.5 (1.1) 2.5 (1.0) 2.6 (1.1) 2.5 (1.0) 6
11. Autism tends to run in families 3.4 (1.3) 3.4 (1.2) 3.3 (1.4) 3.5 (1.2) 3.5 (1.3) 3.4 (1.3) 1
12. We now have treatments that can cure autism. 4.7** (1.4) 4.4** (1.2) 4.8** (1.4) 4.4** (1.3) 4.7** (1.4) 4.4** (1.3) 6
13. People with autism can grow up to live independently. 2.4*** (1.4) 2.8*** (1.4) 2.3** (1.4) 2.7** (1.4) 2.4** (1.4) 2.7** (1.5) 1
14. There is one approach or program that works for all people with autism. 4.8** (1.4) 4.5** (1.5) 4.9** (1.3) 4.6** (1.5) 4.9*** (1.4) 4.5*** (1.5) 6
15. It is important that all people diagnosed with autism receive some form
of special education services at school.
4.8 (1.4) 4.5 (1.5) 2.2 (1.2) 2.2 (1.1) 2.1 (1.1) 2.2 (1.2) 1
16. Autism occurs more commonly among higher socioeconomic and
educational levels.
4.0 (1.3) 4.1 (1.2) 4.1 (1.4) 4.1 (1.2) 4.1 (1.3) 4.1 (1.3) 6
17. Autism can be diagnosed as early as 18 months. 2.7 (1.4) 2.9 (1.2) 2.4*** (1.2) 3.0*** (1.3) 2.7 (1.4) 2.8 (1.3) 1
18. With the proper treatment, most children diagnosed with autism eventually
outgrow the disorder
4.1 (1.5) 4.1 (1.3) 4.3* (1.5) 4.0* (1.4) 4.1 (1.6) 4.1 (1.4) 6
19. People with autism do not show affection, even to parents/caregivers. 5.0** (1.2) 4.7** (1.2) 5.0 (1.3) 4.8 (1.2) 5.0** (1.2) 4.8** (1.3) 6
20. The need for routines and sameness is one of the earliest behavioral features of autism 2.7*** (1.2) 3.1*** (1.1) 2.7 (1.2) 2.9 (1.2) 2.7* (1.2) 2.9* (1.2) 1
1 = fully agree; 2 = mostly agree; 3 = somewhat agree; 4 = somewhat disagree; 5 = mostly disagree; 6 = fully disagree
ttest: ***p< .01, **p< .05, *p<.10
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all persons with ASD. Those who reported knowing
someonewithASDopposedtothosewhodidnotap-
pear to better understand that those with ASD often
communicate better visually than verbally.
Items 2, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17 reflect knowledge
related to early interventions for ASD. Of these, items
13 and 14 demonstrated significant differences across
groups, noting that there is not one approach that works
for all persons with ASD, recognizing the different
needs and levels of independence. Items 6, 11, 16 re-
flect knowledge of causes and performance in ASD.
With the exception of item 6, there were few significant
differences reported among groups.
Discussion
The results demonstrate that overall, CJ students’knowl-
edge of ASD is lacking or is moderate at best. Those who
reported knowing someone with ASD consistently scored
closer to the ideal score (see Stuart et al. 2008) than those
who did not. The results demonstrate that having expo-
sure to those with ASD is key to better understanding the
complexities of the disorder. The more knowledge and
information one possesses, the better equipped they will
be when having to make critical decisions (Debbaubt
2004). Specific to the AKS-R, those who understand that
although lack of eye contact may be a common character-
istic of ASD, it is not present with all persons, and if
someone gives eye contact while speaking, one must not
assume that they cannot have ASD. Those working in the
CJS must have other communication methods aside from
strictly verbal. Many persons with ASD perform better
when tasks or commands are presented with visual cues,
and as Edworthy and Hylton (2010) noted, a pictorial
toolkit should be present when necessary to help those
with communication difficulties understand questions
and commands.
It is also imperative that those working in the CJS
understand the vast array of needs and simply because
one method worked in the past, does not mean it will
be effective for others they encounter with ASD in the
future. There is no one approach that works for all
persons with ASD, and it is important to recognize dif-
ferent needs. Lastly, it is also important that many indi-
viduals with ASD become independent adults, and sim-
ply because for example, they are driving a vehicle, one
must not assume that cannot have ASD. To better serve
thosewithASDwhocomeintocontactwithanymem-
ber of the CJS, it is imperative they not only be aware
of various communication methods, but also be aware
of and disregard misconceptions about those with ASD.
Limitations
Although the results demonstrate moderate knowledge of
ASD, with increased knowledge and understanding among
those with greater exposure to those with ASD, this study is
not without limitations. The principle limitation would be
the representativeness of the sample, as this was a conve-
nience sample of college students enrolled in CJ classes and
reported to be majoring in CJ or a related field. The subjects
may not be representative of the general population of all CJ
students in the US. The sample also measured reactions of
CJ students or likely future CJ professionals, and not the
knowledge of those who have already entered their careers
in the CJS. The author did not question students if they had
taken any psychology courses where they may have been
exposed to the diagnostic criteria and other characteristics
of ASD, and thus, may have increased their scores on the
AKS-R. The authors also did not control for socio-
economic status; therefore, it is unknown whether this has
an effect on the amount of exposure, resources in the com-
munity, and level of knowledge or views of ASD, in general.
Nonetheless, the large sample of a variety of students at
different universities provided valuable insight to the level
of knowledge they possess of ASD. Future research could
examine this extent of knowledge and perhaps inquire how
CJ professionals react to, and handle those with ASD when
encountering them during their professional duties.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The rate of ASD increasing and the various circumstances
someone with ASD may have contact with the CJS, it is a
matter of when, not if, a CJ professional will encounter
someone with ASD. Are we preparing future CJ professions
to work with specialized populations? In order to better
serve community members with ASD, it is imperative that
CJ professionals are knowledgeable and informed of vari-
ous ways to communicate and interact with those with ASD,
prior to entering their careers. It is imperative that CJ pro-
fessionals understand the broad spectrum of the disorder
and the wide range of characteristics an individual with
ASD can present with so that when police encounter such
an individual, so they can both better identify the persons as
being on the autism spectrum. If they are unable to identify
the ASD, they risk misinterpreting behaviors as a refusal to
comply or cooperate and may perceive failure to cooperate
with questions or commands as deliberate. Due to the char-
acteristics of ASD, during initial contact, those with ASD
may be unable to quickly process questions, repeat what is
stated to them (echolalia), make Brude^statements, have
difficulty understanding common figures of speech, or
avoid eye contact.
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It is important to approach those with ASD in a quiet,
non-threatening manner, and speak calmly in a moderated
voice (Debbaudt 2004; Debbaudt and Rothman 2001). They
must understand the importance of putting a person with
ASD at ease and use a range of techniques available to
prevent escalation (Chown 2009). Considering that the sam-
ple of students has only moderate knowledge of ASD,
which does not appear to increase with time in the program
(i.e., across academic years), and knowing/exposure to
someone with ASD increases knowledge, the author high-
lights the following points:
&It is recommended that CJ curriculums add course(s) re-
lated to working with special populations, including those
with ASD and other communication disorders/disabilities,
and perhaps be required for those in practitioner-related
tracks or concentrations.
&Students should be encouraged to work, volunteer, or per-
form internships where they would have exposure to those
with ASD and other disabilities, to be better prepared to
serve and protect the entire community, including resi-
dents with disabilities.
&Such valuable knowledge and experience should be
known prior to their hiring and serving the community.
CJ programs can better prepare students to work effective-
ly with various members of the community in various
sectors of the CJS. It is also important to note that not all
law enforcement agencies require a college education, or a
degree in CJ or related field. Therefore, it is also recom-
mended that such education and training be provided in
police academy training and continue among CJ profes-
sionals. Several states
5
have passed legislation that re-
quires police officers and certain first responders to under-
go autism awareness and education training. However,
Debbaudt
6
noted most training programs have no standard
for the content, length, and/or credentials of the person
administering the training, which is what he recommend-
ed be included in Florida’s legislation (D. Debbaudt, per-
sonal communication, March 4, 2016).
As mentioned, research on CJ professionals experience with
individuals with ASD and the experiences and satisfaction among
those with ASD with the CJS in the US is lacking. To date, such
research has only been conducted in the UK. More information
about both CJ professionals and the experience community mem-
bers with ASD have had with the CJS in the US is needed in order
to determine how to best serve and meet the needs all community
members and improve overall satisfaction with the CJS.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Exclusivity The author is submitting this manuscript for exclusive con-
sideration as an article in the Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology
and declares the manuscript or parts of the manuscript have not been
published elsewhere.
Conflicts of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
Research Involving Human Participants All procedures performed in
studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical
standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with
the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable
ethical standards.
Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual
participants included in the study.
Publisher’sNote Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdic-
tional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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