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A Comparison Between U.S. and Chinese Principal Decision-Making Power: A Measurement Perspective Based on PISA 2015
Abstract
Successful school leadership is highly contextually dependent. However, few studies focused on the comparisons of school leadership across different countries. Even among the existing studies, comparisons tend to be conducted with the assumption that the underlying factorial structure of the construct is the same. In this study, school principal’s decision-making power in 12 decision-making areas from the PISA database are compared between China and the United States. The test of measurement invariance of the construct of principal decision-making power is conducted. Findings and implications are discussed.
... An important new element, contextual intelligence, which has been proposed by Kutz (2008), was added to the usual leadership measurement in order to add translational aspects of the model into actual practices of school principals in context. Findings in previous studies (e.g., Akkary, 2014;Gao et al., 2018;Hallinger, 2016;Hariri et al., 2014;Madalińska-Michalak, 2014;Noman et al., 2017;Noman et al., 2018;Truong & Hallinger, 2015) and suggestions by prominent scholars in the field (e.g., Bush et al., 2018;Hallinger, 2016;Harris & Jones, 2017) have highlighted the need for leaders to be more cautious of the context they are dealing with. ...
Challenges in the VUCA world has brought to significant changes in how leaders’ competencies can help them to lead their organizations. Educational institutions all over the world are not excluded from this radical phenomenon of change. This chapter highlights some of the key characteristics of contextual leadership as a more robust type of leadership essential for the survival and continuity of educational institutions. It is vital for school leaders to be able to observe and be aware of the existing context they are in before they make the right decisions which can exert influence and give the kind of impact that can bring about leadership effectiveness and school improvements. Contextual intelligence is the mandated ability for leaders to acquire in order for them to become more sensitive and aware of the pressing situations in the context, which in turn, would assist them in enacting the necessary practices. As a way forward, contextual intelligence, in addition to social emotional intelligence, are recommended to enhance the practices of contextual leadership. This chapter highlights the characteristics of contextual leadership and how contextual intelligence can raise awareness of the unique school contexts among school principals for them to be able to lead more effectively.
... Dapatan yang tidak konsisten ini menyebabkan kesukaran bagi mendapatkan gambaran yang lebih jelas tentang kepimpinan yang berkesan terhadap komitmen organisasi guru. Sebagai contoh, sampel kajian kepimpinan tranformasional pengetua di Kenya seperti Chirchir et al. (2014) menunjukkan hubungan yang rendah dengan komitmen organisasi guru iaitu (r= 0.19), manakala gaya kepimpinan yang sama mempunyai hubungan yang sederhana di Malaysia seperti Ibrahim et al. (2017) iaitu ( Gao et al., 2018;González-Falcón et al., 2019;Gordon, 2018;Madalińska-Michalak, 2014;Marishane, 2020;Noman et al., 2017Noman et al., , 2018Noman & Gurr, 2020;Truong & Hallinger, 2015). Dalam hal ini, gaya kepimpinan yang sama dilihat memberikan nilai korelasi yang berbeza terhadap komitmen organisasi guru. ...
Psychological support for the emotions and concerns of school leaders needs to be
emphasized as the level of teacher commitment in some developing countries is still
not encouraging. Teachers need to be given trust and appreciation so that such work environment can trigger pleasure in the workplace despite facing various challenges. Thus, this study was conducted to identify the role of serial mediators, namely teacher empowerment and teacher’s workplace well-being to explain the indirect influence of contextual leadership of school principals towards teacher’s organizational commitment. This study is a quantitative research study that involves testing a model of structural equation modeling. Data were collected cross-sectionally through a modified questionnaire and constructed by the researcher. All instruments used were also tested for validity and reliability. The sample of the study is 371 teachers from fifteen secondary schools in the state of Kelantan, chosen by means of a multi-stage random sampling method. The analysis of the study involved Manova test through SPSS software version 25.0, structural path analysis, and structural equation model fit test using AMOS software version 24.0. The results of the study indicate that demographic factors, i.e. gender, age, and teaching experience are insignificant in differentiating the level of teacher empowerment, teacher well-being in the workplace, and teacher organizational commitment (p0.05). Model testing, on the other hand, showed that teacher empowerment and teacher well-being factors were significant serial mediators to explain the indirect influence of principals’ contextual leadership on teachers’ organizational commitment (β = 0.17, p = 0.00). Theoretically, this study provides empirical evidence for the integration of Theory Z to emphasize elements of well-being and empowerment, as well as Fiedler’s Contingency Theory, to support context-based leadership styles in an effort to increase teachers’ organizational commitment. Findings provide a novel comprehensive structural equation modeling of how the contextual leadership of school principals can be linked to teachers’ organizational commitment through serial mediator mechanisms.
... Dapatan yang tidak konsisten ini menyebabkan kesukaran bagi mendapatkan gambaran yang lebih jelas tentang kepimpinan yang berkesan terhadap komitmen organisasi guru. Sebagai contoh, sampel kajian kepimpinan tranformasional pengetua di Kenya seperti Chirchir et al. (2014) menunjukkan hubungan yang rendah dengan komitmen organisasi guru iaitu (r= 0.19), manakala gaya kepimpinan yang sama mempunyai hubungan yang sederhana di Malaysia seperti Ibrahim et al. (2017) iaitu ( Gao et al., 2018;González-Falcón et al., 2019;Gordon, 2018;Madalińska-Michalak, 2014;Marishane, 2020;Noman et al., 2017Noman et al., , 2018Noman & Gurr, 2020;Truong & Hallinger, 2015). Dalam hal ini, gaya kepimpinan yang sama dilihat memberikan nilai korelasi yang berbeza terhadap komitmen organisasi guru. ...
Psychological support for the emotions and concerns of school leaders needs to be
emphasized as the level of teacher commitment in some developing countries is still
not encouraging. Teachers need to be given trust and appreciation so that such work environment can trigger pleasure in the workplace despite facing various challenges. Thus, this study was conducted to identify the role of serial mediators, namely teacher empowerment and teacher’s workplace well-being to explain the indirect influence of contextual leadership of school principals towards teacher’s organizational commitment. This study is a quantitative research study that involves testing a model of structural equation modeling. Data were collected cross-sectionally through a modified questionnaire and constructed by the researcher. All instruments used were also tested for validity and reliability. The sample of the study is 371 teachers from fifteen secondary schools in the state of Kelantan, chosen by means of a multi-stage random sampling method. The analysis of the study involved Manova test through SPSS software version 25.0, structural path analysis, and structural equation model fit test using AMOS software version 24.0. The results of the study indicate that demographic factors, i.e. gender, age, and teaching experience are insignificant in differentiating the level of teacher empowerment, teacher well-being in the workplace, and teacher organizational commitment (p0.05). Model testing, on the other hand, showed that teacher empowerment and teacher well-being factors were significant serial mediators to explain the indirect influence of principals’ contextual leadership on teachers’ organizational commitment (β = 0.17, p = 0.00). Theoretically, this study provides empirical evidence for the integration of Theory Z to emphasize elements of well-being and empowerment, as well as Fiedler’s Contingency Theory,
to support context-based leadership styles in an effort to increase teachers’
organizational commitment. Findings provide a novel comprehensive structural
equation modeling of how the contextual leadership of school principals can be linked to teachers’ organizational commitment through serial mediator mechanisms.
... This study has resampled from a sample of data 5,000 times and the result of bootstrapping (H5: β=0.19, 95% CI, .001, .001) is significant and confirmed the existence of a serial mediator (TE and TWW) as a partial mediation for the influence of CLP towards TOC. Gao et al., 2018), and the present study extends this line of inquiry by examining quantitatively the influence of principals' contextual leadership practices towards TOC and the role of a serial mediator such as teacher empowerment and teachers' workplace wellbeing to explain the mechanism. Besides hypotheses testing, this current study also provides a significant measurement tool for principals' contextual leadership. ...
As integration of Theory Z and Fiedler's Contingency Theory in leadership, this study proposed a new model to reveal the underlying mechanism of psychological elements such as leadership practices, teacher empowerment, and teachers' workplace wellbeing towards teachers' organizational commitment (TOC). Despite the relevance of contextual leadership practices (CLP) and teachers' emotion in school effectiveness, little is known about the implication, specifically on TOC. Data were gathered from a sample of 371 secondary school teachers selected by multi-stage random sampling method from one of the states in Malaysia and structural equation modelling was employed to assess the proposed model. Results using Structural Equation Modeling confirmed that these psychological elements directly and positively influence TOC. Additionally, teacher empowerment (TE) and teachers' workplace wellbeing (TWW) as serial mediators significantly explained the indirect relationship sequentially. Findings provide an evidence of how a novel and comprehensive model can be practiced to enhance TOC through a serial mechanism as proposed by the integration of Theory Z and Fiedler's Contingency Theory in leadership.
... A principal's fundamental act is decision-making and involves a very complex problemsolving process (Hodgkinson, 1983). When comparing U.S. and Chinese principals' decisionmaking power, Gao et al. (2018) found that U.S. principals had greater decision-making power than Chinese principals. When there is a purpose for action to achieve an expected goal, there is a need for problem-solving (Ubben et al., 2016). ...
The purpose of this study was to contribute to the empirical literature concerning leadership role in Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) implementation. MTSS uses an evidence-based model and problem solving to provide academic, behavioral, and social-emotional supports to meet the needs of each student. This study focused on the critical components of MTSS implementation and highlighted leadership as an integral aspect of the success of any school initiative. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to see whether there is a significant relationship between leadership implementation of MTSS and student achievement in reading and mathematics in middle schools in Georgia while controlling for covariates.
... The principal decision making was a latent endogenous variable. It is measured by three sub dimensions (Gao et al., 2018;Nimota & Kadir, 2019) since the focus of the present study is the principals decision-making. The measurement indicates the stakeholder involvement in decision making, policy making, and agreement results with stakeholders in decision making (Kasprzhak 810 et al., 2015;Goldring et al., 2008). ...
The purpose of this research is to examine the model of good school governance and to establish the correlation between good school governance and the principal’s decision making in Indonesian vocational school contexts. The samples of the present quantitative descriptive study are the vocational school principals, vice-principals, and teachers by considering the representation of all provinces in Indonesia. The data were gathered from a structured questionnaire survey of 838 respondents. The factor analysis was applied to bring out the latent variables representing the attributes, and later, the causality between these variables was established using structural equation modeling (SEM). The result of confirmatory factor analysis shown that good school governance was constructed by six principles, namely; transparency, accountability, responsibility, autonomy, fairness, and participation. Supported by empirical evidence, good school governance has have impacted positively on the quality of the principal’s decision making. The research has affirmed that good school governance facilitates the participation of teachers and educational staff in the decision-making process. Moreover, good school governance improves a decision-making quality through the empowerment of teachers, the delegation of authority, and encouragement of shared decision-making.
... An important new element, contextual intelligence, which has been proposed by Kutz (2008), was added to the usual leadership measurement in order to add translational aspects of the model into actual practices of school principals in context. Findings in previous studies (e.g., Akkary, 2014;Gao et al., 2018;Hallinger, 2016;Hariri et al., 2014;Madalińska-Michalak, 2014;Noman et al., 2017;Noman et al., 2018;Truong & Hallinger, 2015) and suggestions by prominent scholars in the field (e.g., Bush et al., 2018;Hallinger, 2016;Harris & Jones, 2017) have highlighted the need for leaders to be more cautious of the context they are dealing with. ...
This article focuses on the development of the Contextual Leadership
Instrument for the Principals in Malaysian schools (MyCLIPS)*. Two sets of
data were gathered from school teachers in Malaysia to test instrument
reliability, content validity and construct validity via exploratory factor
analysis (EFA), using SPSS 25.0; followed confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA), via AMOS 24.0. The final measurement model has three-factors:
(1) contextual intelligence, (2) pedagogical support, and (3) collegiality;
with a total of 29 items. The validation of MyCLIPS extends knowledge
and practice in leadership; the instrument can be further tested in other
setting
... An important new element, contextual intelligence, which has been proposed by Kutz (2008), was added to the usual leadership measurement in order to add translational aspects of the model into actual practices of school principals in context. Findings in previous studies (e.g., Akkary, 2014;Gao et al., 2018;Hallinger, 2016;Hariri et al., 2014;Madalińska-Michalak, 2014;Noman et al., 2017;Noman et al., 2018;Truong & Hallinger, 2015) and suggestions by prominent scholars in the field (e.g., Bush et al., 2018;Hallinger, 2016;Harris & Jones, 2017) have highlighted the need for leaders to be more cautious of the context they are dealing with. ...
This paper explored the reliability of an instrument to evaluate organizational performance (OP) of the SMEs sector in Jordan employing Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). The paper used EFA and is different from other studies with regard to Total Quality Management (TQM) practice as a mediator between Entrepreneurial characteristics and OP. We applied cross-sectional study design, and data collection was from a proportionate Stratified Sampling with 100 questionnaires distributed to managers or owners of Jordanian SMEs grouped by industry type (food industry, machinery/equipment, and paper manufacturing). We verified the consistency of the instrument which contained 10 items for each one of the constructs. The researchers employed Cronbach's Alpha to verify the internal reliability of the current instrument and confirmed that it was reliable. This paper provides a detailed explanation of the procedures for conducting the EFA on Organizational Performance. The outcomes of this study would benefit those involved in future research related to Organizational Performance.
Keywords: Exploratory Factor Analysis, Entrepreneurial Characteristics, TQM Practices, Organizational Performance
JEL Classifications: L2, L3
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32479/irmm.10531
This study investigates whether rurality characterizes a distinct school leadership domain that transcends national contexts. While previous studies have recognized ways in which school leadership practices impact student learning outcomes, few have examined ways in which rurality, leadership actions, and student learning manifest across different cultural contexts. We compare the actions of rural principals in China and the United States and their impact on student achievement using 2015 PISA data with a two-level hierarchical linear modeling approach. Results suggest that leadership actions are significantly different between countries, with more minor patterns distinguishing rural principals. Results suggests that while the rural principalship is in some ways distinct, it is highly bound within its cultural context. The insights gained from this research can be valuable for developing policies and programs that are culturally sensitive and contextually appropriate to principal needs, and further help define the nature of the rural principalship cross-culturally.
Learners' autonomous learning is at the heart of modern education, and the convenient network brings new opportunities for it. We notice that learners mainly use the combination of online and offline learning methods to complete the entire autonomous learning process, but most of the existing models cannot effectively describe the complex process of knowledge diffusion under the multinetworks framework. By analyzing the relationship between online learning and offline learning in the autonomous learning, we develop a novel formal model to characterize the dynamic process of knowledge diffusion in the autonomous learning under multiple networks. To guide learners to learn independently and effectively expand the scope of knowledge through hybrid online learning, we then introduce the personalized needs of learners and the guidance of educators and further propose an effective algorithm (ERAA) to allocate educational resources. Through the experiments, we verify the effectiveness of the model and analyze the efficiency of the proposed algorithm. Then, we compare the proposed algorithm with the existing four algorithms and the results show that the proposed algorithm improves performance by 38%. This article provides highly realistic significance for education administrators to analyze the practice, develop autonomous learning strategy and put online educational resources.
Job satisfaction is important for employee well-being and retention, which are both crucial for high strained occupations such as teachers and school principals. We investigated the structure and relationship of teachers’ job satisfaction (N = 142,280) and principals’ job satisfaction (N = 8,869). Results of structural equation modeling using multilevel bi-factor models provide strong evidence for the validity of a model including both specific (satisfaction with the profession versus the working environment) and general job satisfaction factors. This differential conception of job satisfaction was further tested by including the student variables disciplinary climate and student achievement from linked TALIS 2013-PISA 2012 data. Only teacher job satisfaction factors (general and working environment) were related to the disciplinary climate perceived by students, whereas the working environment job satisfaction factor was related to student achievement for both teachers and principals. Controlling for socio-economic status reduced these estimates, but did not change the pattern of results.
Current interest in the assessment of measurement equivalence emphasizes 2 major methods of analysis. The authors offer a comparison of a linear method (confirmatory factor analysis) and a nonlinear method (differential item and test functioning using item response theory) with an emphasis on their methodological similarities and differences. The 2 approaches test for the equality of true scores (or expected raw scores) across 2 populations when the latent (or factor) score is held constant. Both approaches can provide information about when measurement nonequivalence exists and the extent to which it is a problem. An empirical example is used to illustrate the 2 approaches.
This study examined and compared school autonomy in China and the United States. Based on the international PISA 2012 school data, the authors examined three aspects of school autonomy. We found that in comparison with the United States, (1) principals from China were less likely to have responsibility over eleven school decisions (hiring teachers, firing teachers, salary increase, budget formulation, budget allocation, disciplinary policies, assessment policies, student admittance, textbook selection, course content, and courses offered) and were similar in having responsibility over teacher start salaries, and (2) teachers from China were less likely to have responsibility over six school decisions (hiring teachers, budget formulation, disciplinary policies, textbook selection, course content, and courses offered), were more likely to have responsibility over two decisions (firing teachers, student admittance), and were similar in having responsibility over four decisions (teacher start salaries, salary increase, budget allocation, and assessment policies). We also found that schools in China had (1) lower responsibility for curriculum/assessment and lower responsibility for resource allocation and (2) a lower level of teacher participation/autonomy. The findings have implications for educational policy in China and the United States.
Global leadership has been identified as a critical success factor for large multinational corporations. While there is much writing on the topic, most seems to be either general advice (i.e., being open minded and respectful of other cultures) or very specific information about a particular country based on a limited case study (do not show the soles of your shoes when seated as a guest in an Arab country). Both kinds of information are certainly useful, but limited from both theoretical and practical viewpoints on how to lead in a foreign country. In this paper, findings from the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) research program are used to provide a sound basis for conceptualizing worldwide leadership differences. We use a hypothetical case of an American executive in charge of four similar teams in Brazil, France, Egypt, and China to discuss cultural implications for the American executive. Using the hypothetical case involving five different countries allows us to provide in-depth action oriented and context specific advice, congruent with GLOBE findings, for effectively interacting with employees from different cultures. We end the paper with a discussion of the challenges facing global executives and how corporations can develop useful global leadership capabilities. A lmost no American corporation is immune from the impact of globalization. The reality for American corporations is that they must increasingly cope with diverse cross-cultural employees , customers, suppliers, competitors, and creditors, a situation well captured by the following quote.
Is the power relationship between public school teachers and principals a win-win situation or a zero-sum game? By applying hierarchical linear modeling to the 1999–2000 nationally representative Schools and Staffing Survey data, we found that both the win-win and zero-sum-game theories had empirical evidence. The decision-making areas characterized by the win-win theory are much more than those characterized by the zero-sum-game theory. The practice of win-win is more prevalent at the elementary than at the secondary level. Whether it is win-win or zero-sum depends on the decision-making areas and the school level. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.
By comparing principal profiles in China and the United States) this study would contribute to a better understanding of school leadership in the two countries. Participating principals included 144 from two states in the United States and 77 from seven provinces of China. A researcher designed Likert-scale questionnaire covered the principals) profiles in seven leadership areas: character) professional knowledge) professional skill) administrative style) administrative duties) personnel management) and student affairs management. This was supplemented by a survey of three open-ended questions on principal's responsibilities) challenges) and fulfillment. The findings of quantitative data were compared with those of qualitative data. Results of data analysis indicated significant differences in four leadership areas: principals) administrative skills) duties) personnel management) and student affairs management. In almost all areas of the profile) Chinese principals were found to be more reserved in their responses.
This article provides an overview of the literature concerning successful school leadership. It draws on the international literature and is derived from a more extensive review of the literature completed in the early stage of the authors’ project. The prime purpose of this review is to summarise the main findings from the wealth of empirical studies undertaken in the leadership field.
This simulation study compared maximum likelihood (ML) estimation with weighted least squares means and variance adjusted (WLSMV) estimation. The study was based on confirmatory factor analyses with 1, 2, 4, and 8 factors, based on 250, 500, 750, and 1,000 cases, and on 5, 10, 20, and 40 variables with 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 categories. There was no model misspecification. The most important results were that with 2 and 3 categories the rejection rates of the WLSMV chi-square test corresponded much more to the expected rejection rates according to an alpha level of. 05 than the rejection rates of the ML chi-square test. The magnitude of the loadings was more precisely estimated by means of WLSMV when the variables had only 2 or 3 categories. The sample size for WLSMV estimation needed not to be larger than the sample size for ML estimation.
This study examines the impact of macro-context factors on the behavior of school principals. More specifically, the article illuminates how a nation's level of economic development, societal culture, and educational system influence the amount of time principals devote to their job role and shape their allocation of time to instructional leadership, administration, and management of relationships with parents and community. The study employed a 2-level hierarchical linear model (HLM) to analyze data on 5,927 principals in 34 societies drawn from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2006. The results support the proposition that principal time use and allocation varies substantially across societies and that these patterns of behavior are influenced by economic, sociocultural and institutional features of their societies. The study contributes to a growing body of research that seeks to understand how the practice of school leadership is shaped by the organizational and cultural context.
The importance of principals to school improvement has been widely recognized, but few studies have focused on principals’ own perceptions of school change and their special roles in reform. This article reports findings from a comparative survey study of American and Chinese school principals’ basic beliefs regarding education and schooling, their views on school reform and the role of the principal in reform, and their visions of ideal schools in the 21st century. Although similarities exist in their perceptions, there are striking contrasts between the American and Chinese views and visions, which point to quite different directions and paths of reform in the two nations. While Americans are busy constructing common standards, developing and using more standardized tests for all students, and moving toward standards-based school reform, the Chinese seem to desire just the opposite—deconstructing uniform standards, moving away from the pressures of national exams, and focusing more on the interests and potentials of each individual student, a goal that has been largely ignored in the past in the Chinese culture and schools.
A Monte Carlo simulation study was conducted to investigate the effects on structural equation modeling (SEM) fit indexes of sample size, estimation method, and model specification. Based on a balanced experimental design, samples were generated from a prespecified population covariance matrix and fitted to structural equation models with different degrees of model misspecification. Ten SEM fit indexes were studied. Two primary conclusions were suggested: (a) some fit indexes appear to be noncomparable in terms of the information they provide about model fit for misspecified models and (b) estimation method strongly influenced almost all the fit indexes examined, especially for misspecified models. These 2 issues do not seem to have drawn enough attention from SEM practitioners. Future research should study not only different models vis‐à‐vis model complexity, but a wider range of model specification conditions, including correctly specified models and models specified incorrectly to varying degrees.
Addresses issues related to partial measurement invariance using a tutorial approach based on the {lisrel} confirmatory factor analytic model. Specifically, we demonstrate procedures for (a) using "sensitivity analyses" to establish stable and substantively well-fitting baseline models, (b) determining partially invariant measurement parameters, and (c) testing for the invariance of factor covariance and mean structures, given partial measurement invariance. We also show, explicitly, the transformation of parameters from an all-
X to an all-
Y model specification, for purposes of testing mean structures. These procedures are illustrated with multidimensional self-concept data from low (
n = 248) and high (
n = 582) academically tracked high school adolescents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Whether an ability test delivered on either paper or computer provides the same information is an important question in applied psychometrics. Besides the validity, it is also the fairness of a measure that is at stake if the test medium affects performance. This study provides a comprehensive review of existing equivalence research in the field of reading and listening comprehension in English as a foreign language and specifies factors that are likely to have an impact on equivalence. Taking into account these factors, comprehension measures were developed and tested with N = 442 high school students. Using multigroup confirmatory factor analysis, it is shown that reading and listening comprehension both were measurement invariant across test media. Nevertheless, it is argued that equivalence of data gathered on paper and computer depends on the specific measure or construct, the participants or the recruitment mechanisms, and the software and hardware realizations. Therefore, equivalence research is required for specific instantiations unless generalizable knowledge about factors affecting equivalence is available. Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis is an appropriate and effective tool for the assessment of the comparability of test scores across test media.
The renewed interest in personality factors as a prerequisite rather than a predictor of leadership is explored in a cross cultural context. This study compared samples of effective and not effective leaders in the US, the Republic of China (Taiwan) and Thailand. Based on the results of this study, there is evidence that the five-factor model of personality relationship to leadership has support in the US sample. Further, support was found for four of the five factors in the Republic of China sample but only for two of the factors in the Thailand sample. In general, the results raise questions about the consistency of the five factor model of personality when related to leadership and its usefulness in non-western cultures. However, effective managers differ from less effective ones in describing themselves as more extraverted, more agreeable, more conscientious, and less neurotic in all three cultures studied, and that US managers (but not Chinese and Thai) also describe themselves as more open to experience.
In confirmatory factor analysis, hypothesized models reflect approximations to reality so that any model can be rejected if the sample size is large enough. The appropriate question is whether the fit is adequate to support the model, and a large number of fit indexes have been proposed for this purpose. In the present article, we examine the influence of sample size on different fit indexes for both real and simulated data. Contrary to claims by Bentler and Bonett (1980), their incremental fit index was substantially affected by sample size. Contrary to claims by Joreskog and Sorbom (1981), their goodness-of-fit indexes provided by LISREL were substantially affected by sample size. Contrary to claims by Bollen (1986), his new incremental fit index was substantially affected by sample size. Hoelter's (1983) critical N index was also substantially affected by sample size. Of the more than 30 indexes considered, the Tucker-Lewis (1973) index was the only widely used index that was relatively independent of sample size. However, four new indexes based on the same form as the Tucker-Lewis index were also relatively independent of sample size., (C) 1988 by the American Psychological Association <2>
While numerous recent authors have studied the effects of school accountability systems on student test performance and school “gaming” of accountability incentives, there has been little attention paid to substantive changes in instructional policies and practices resulting from school accountability. The lack of research is primarily due to the unavailability of appropriate data to carry out such an analysis. This paper brings to bear new evidence from a remarkable five-year survey conducted of a census of public schools in Florida, coupled with detailed administrative data on student performance. We show that schools facing accountability pressure changed their instructional practices in meaningful ways. In addition, we present medium-run evidence of the effects of school accountability on student test scores, and find that a significant portion of these test score gains can likely be attributed to the changes in school policies and practices that we uncover in our surveys.
This study investigated the utility of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and item response theory (IRT) models for testing the comparability of psychological measurements. Both procedures were used to investigate whether mood ratings collected in Minnesota and China were comparable. Several issues were addressed. The first issue was that of establishing a common measurement scale across groups, which involves full or partial measurement invariance of trait indicators. It is shown that using CFA or IRT models, test items that function differentially as trait indicators across groups need not interfere with comparing examinees on the same trait dimension. Second, the issue of model fit was addressed. It is proposed that person-fit statistics be used to judge the practical fit of IRT models. Finally, topics for future research are suggested.
Principals are approaching the timits of the amount of time they can dedicate to the job. Legislators, school boards, and district administrators who are proposing additional changes that will affect the school and the principal's role should realize that many principals are severely limited in their capacity to take on additional duties. In addition to the time constraints, the principals, because of external priorities, are increasingly becoming managers, rather than instructional leaders.
The effectiveness of confirmatory factor analytic (CFA) and item response theory (IRT) methods of assessing measurement invariance were investigated using simulated data with a known lack of invariance. Across all study conditions, IRT likelihood ratio (LR) tests consistently outperformed both CFA and IRT differential functioning of items and tests (DFIT) analyses in terms of detecting a lack of invariance known to exist. Implications for varied results of measurement invariance tests are discussed and recommendations for best practice are provided.
This article will argue that diverse national, regional and local contexts leave different rooms for manoeuvre for school principals. The social technologies applied by the authorities (like accountability systems) can be 'tight' or 'loose' and so leave little or much room for principals' interpretations of what a good school is and what successful school principalship is. Thus it is important for their choice of forms of influence in exercising leadership. We will outline the relations between the state, local authorities and schools in each of eight countries participating in the International Successful School Principal Project (ISSPP): the USA, UK, Canada, Australia, China, Norway, Sweden and Denmark, based on previosly published case studies. We want to obtain a deeper and more nuanced understanding of the social technologies used and the room for interpretation of the purposes and objectives left to the schools. Principals choose the forms of influence they can exercise when setting directions for the school. The arguments on which principals base their decisions are also diverse, but heavily flavoured by the contexts in which the schools function. Comparing education and educational leadership and the values and practices of school principals is a contested enterprise because the contexts in which the values are constructed and practice developed is often forgotten. In posing the questions from above and below the level of principal, we try to take account of the findings from many leadership studies, which indicate that educational leadership and its successes are highly contextually dependent even within educational systems.
This article reports a study of the changing role of the principal in Washington State. Utilizing survey research, the findings reinforce role change and that the impact of changes vary between school levels and geographic location. In addition, the findings suggest that several aspects of role change for principals have resulted in principals reporting more hours worked, increasing managerial responsibilities supplanting leadership, and increased levels of frustration. In the midst of an environment of policy and social change, the role of the principal continues to be both important and under increasing strain. The article concludes with recommendations for policy makers and principal preparation and support.
This article reviews the literature on Chinese principalship written in English and Chinese between 1998 and 2008. The first sections discuss the rationale for the research, the review process, and the state of education research in mainland China. The review findings are presented as a set of core patterns and contributory subpatterns, which flow from either the empirical or non-empirical literature. Two core patterns are identified from the non-empirical pieces – prescriptions and commentaries. Prescriptions focus on telling principals what they need to do to be successful, especially in the present reform environment. Commentaries focus on the key concerns and problems confronting principals. Three core patterns can be discerned from the empirical pieces – imported frameworks, indigenous investigations, and contextual influences. The final section offers a number of conclusions that look within and across the core patterns and pose questions to guide further research.
In contrast to the prevailing image that elements in organizations are coupled through dense, tight linkages, it is proposed that elements are often tied together frequently and loosely. Using educational organizations as a case in point, it is argued that the concept of loose coupling incorporates a surprising number of disparate observations about organizations, suggests novel functions, creates stubborn problems for methodologists, and generates intriguing questions for scholars. Sample studies of loose coupling are suggested and research priorities are posed to foster cumulative work with this concept.
After more than 20 years of vague reference to the principal as instructional leader, progress is finally being made, and the specificity and results are truly awesome. In 1989, William Smith and Richard Andrews wrote a monograph titled "Instructional Leadership: How Principals Make a Difference." In their study of 1,200 school principals, they found that effective principals are engaged in four areas of strategic interaction with teachers: as resource provider, as instructional resource, as communicator, and as visible presence. As valid as these findings still are, they had no sticking power because they failed to lead to practical action on any scale. But now people know specifically what being an instructional leader looks like. The author and his colleagues in Ontario, Canada, and elsewhere have been working with various systems, bringing about impressive reforms on an ever larger scale and with ever greater precision and practicality. The author presents two case examples that demonstrate clearly what this new work looks like and reveal six features that stand out as essential to principals in their efforts toward school reform. He discusses the essence of a principal's power and describes six steps to take to move theory to practice in organizational change. From practice to theory, from doubt to conviction, the key to the speed of quality change is embedded in the power of the principal helping to lead organization and system transformation.
The establishment of measurement invariance across groups is a logical prerequisite to conducting substantive cross-group comparisons (e.g., tests of group mean differences, invariance of structural parameter estimates), but measurement invariance is rarely tested in organizational research. In this article, the authors (a) elaborate the importance of conducting tests of measurement invariance across groups, (b) review recommended practices for conducting tests of measurement invariance, (c) review applications of measurement invariance tests in substantive applications, (d) discuss issues involved in tests of various aspects of measurement invariance, (e) present an empirical example of the analysis of longitudinal measurement invariance, and (f) propose an integrative paradigm for conducting sequences of measurement invariance tests.
Recently, there has been increased interest in tests of measurement equivalence/ invariance (ME/I). This study uses simulated data with known properties to assess the appropriateness, similarities, and differences between confirmatory factor analysis and item response theory methods of assessing ME/I. Results indicate that although neither approach is without flaw, the item response theory–based approach seems to be better suited for some types of ME/I analyses.
There is great interest in educational leadership in the early part of the twenty-first century. This is because of the widespread belief that the quality of leadership makes a significant difference to school and student outcomes. In many parts of the world, including both developed and developing countries, there is increasing recognition that schools require effective leaders and managers if they are to provide the best possible education for their students and learners. More governments are realising that their main assets are their people and that remaining, or becoming, competitive depends increasingly on the development of a highly skilled workforce. This requires trained and committed teachers but they, in turn, need the leadership of highly effective principals with the support of other senior and middle managers.
This article examines the adequacy of the “rules of thumb” conventional cutoff criteria and several new alternatives for various fit indexes used to evaluate model fit in practice. Using a 2‐index presentation strategy, which includes using the maximum likelihood (ML)‐based standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR) and supplementing it with either Tucker‐Lewis Index (TLI), Bollen's (1989) Fit Index (BL89), Relative Noncentrality Index (RNI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Gamma Hat, McDonald's Centrality Index (Mc), or root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA), various combinations of cutoff values from selected ranges of cutoff criteria for the ML‐based SRMR and a given supplemental fit index were used to calculate rejection rates for various types of true‐population and misspecified models; that is, models with misspecified factor covariance(s) and models with misspecified factor loading(s). The results suggest that, for the ML method, a cutoff value close to .95 for TLI, BL89, CFI, RNI, and Gamma Hat; a cutoff value close to .90 for Mc; a cutoff value close to .08 for SRMR; and a cutoff value close to .06 for RMSEA are needed before we can conclude that there is a relatively good fit between the hypothesized model and the observed data. Furthermore, the 2‐index presentation strategy is required to reject reasonable proportions of various types of true‐population and misspecified models. Finally, using the proposed cutoff criteria, the ML‐based TLI, Mc, and RMSEA tend to overreject true‐population models at small sample size and thus are less preferable when sample size is small.
While the phenomenon of leadership is widely considered to be universal across cultures, the way in which it is operationalized is usually viewed as culturally specific. Conflicting viewpoints exist in the leadership literature concerning the transferability of specific leader behaviors and processes across cultures. This study explored these conflicting views for managers and professional workers by empirically testing specific hypotheses which addressed the generalizability of leadership behaviors and processes across five nations in North America and Asia. Confirmatory factor analyses provided evidence for conceptual and measurement equivalence for all six leader behaviors employed in the study. The findings showed cultural universality for three leader behaviors (supportive, contingent reward, and charismatic), and cultural specificity for the remaining three leader behaviors (directive, participative, and contingent punishment).
Incl. bibl., abstract, tables. This study revisits the existing scholarly debate on the possible impact of the principal's leadership on student achievement. Both 'direct effect' and 'indirect effect' models are discussed. A quantitative meta-analysis examines to what extent principals directly affect student outcomes. The small positive effects found in this meta-analysis confirm earlier research findings on the limitations of the direct effects approach to linking leadership with student achievement. Finally, lines of future research inquiry are discussed.
Incl. bibl. The English National College for School Leadership organized a programme of study visits to several international leadership centres in 2001. This article reports the findings of these visits and relates them to recent research on school leadership preparation. This shows a widespread commitment to training and preparation for headship but considerable diversity in the nature of such provision. There are many courses foraspiring, beginning and experienced principals but few examples of a coherent programme for all three stages. Preparation for leadership teams and middle managers is very limited. Learning modes include on-line provison, mentoring, coaching and internship as well as courses. The article recommends the establishment of an international network of leadership centres.
This article examines educational decentralization efforts in both developed and developing countries, guided by two questions: (1) under what conditions does school-based management (SBM) produce best results and (2) what are the roles and relationships of the school/community and of the region/center. The authors summarize, from recent literature, reasons for the usual failure of SBM and identify the conditions under which SBM works, noting school/community relations and external infrastructure as important factors. In looking at research from developing countries, the authors highlight similarities and differences compared to Western research, focusing on projects with promising results. Finally, the article draws strategic implications for establishing the kind of school-based developments that will positively affect learning outcomes.
Incl. abstract, bibl. The complexity of principals work is often characterized in terms of dilemmas. In this paper three are identified. The autonomy dilemma concerns providing strong and shared leadership. The efficiency dilemma concerns leading collaborative decision-making that is efficient. The accountability dilemma concerns empowering local decision-making while complying with external requirements. These are explored using data from a standards framework for school principals in a large restructuring system. Judgements on what matters in principals' work reveal the skills, knowledge and dispositions required for principals in restructuring schools, and judgements about level performance are shown by how well particular examples of principles work are rated using a Rasch analysis. This study found what matters is that principals care for and involve others, are strong, fair and open to alternatives, articulate long-term views and balance conflicting qualities. But, when faced with the dilemmas of restructuring, principals favour strong leadership over shared leadership, efficiency rather than collaboration, and accountability to central requirements over shared local decision-making. [BEMAS]
We describe mathematical and statistical models for factor invariance. We demonstrate that factor invariance is a condition of measurement invariance. In any study of change (as over age) measurement invariance is necessary for valid inference and interpretation. Two important forms of factorial invariance are distinguished: "configural" and "metric". Tests for factorial invariance and the range of tests from strong to weak are illustrated with multiple group factor and structural equation modeling analyses (with programs such as LISREL, COSAN, and RAM). The tests are for models of the organization and age changes of intellectual abilities. The models are derived from current theory of fluid (Gf) and crystallized (Gc) abilities. The models are made manifest with measurements of the WAIS-R in the standardization sample. Although this is a methodological paper, the key issues and major principles and conclusions are presented in basic English, devoid of technical details and obscure notation. Conceptual principles of multivariate methods of data analysis are presented in terms of substantive issues of importance for the science of the psychology of aging.
What constitutes significant differences in evaluating measurement invariance?
- G W Cheung
- R B Rensvold
Correlates and effects of data-informed decision-making: An empirical examination of the loose coupling theory using a national data set (Doctoral dissertation
- X Gao
The impact and transformation of education policy in China
- T Huang
Implementing the every student succeeds act: toward a coherent, aligned assessment system
- C Brown
- U Boser
- S Sargrad
- M Marchitello
Same question, different answers: CFA and two IRT approaches to measurement invariance. Symposium presented at the 19th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology
- A W Meade
- G J Lautenschlager
Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on some major issues concerning comprehensively deepening the reform
- Cccpc
- Hallinger P.