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Why Do People Leave? a Study Of Nonsupervisory Restaurant Employees’ Polychronic Time Use Preference and Turnover Intention
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to present a comprehensive view on the associations among polychronicity, job satisfaction, work engagement, and turnover intention within a restaurant context. Using a sample of 252 servers in full-service restaurants, structural equation modeling results found that polychronicity positively linked with job satisfaction, work engagement, and turnover intention. An indirect effect from polychronicity to job satisfaction to turnover intention was found. Results can assist restaurant managers in selecting candidates that best fit their organization. It will also assist employees in determining which career path best matches their personality traits.
... It is against this background, that this research sought to understand how and why internal and external challenges which forced restaurant closure in Beirut, was perceived by restaurateurs and investors, including administrative challenges, supply chains, market conditions, and political instability. Since management issues are commonly attributed to restaurant failure (Zhang et al., 2018), the study sought to understand how this was perceived by owners and managers. To this end, research questions were: ...
... Interviewee #8 admitted: "I used to handle all the tasks by myself; doing everything all by myself." Zhang et al. (2018) cautioned that polychronicity, i.e., allocating time on different tasks simultaneously, was detrimental to customer and employee satisfaction in the restaurant industry. Interviewee #24 admitted: ...
... It is against this background, that this research sought to understand how and why internal and external challenges which forced restaurant closure in Beirut, was perceived by restaurateurs and investors, including administrative challenges, supply chains, market conditions, and political instability. Since management issues are commonly attributed to restaurant failure (Zhang et al., 2018), the study sought to understand how this was perceived by owners and managers. To this end, research questions were: ...
... Interviewee #8 admitted: "I used to handle all the tasks by myself; doing everything all by myself." Zhang et al. (2018) cautioned that polychronicity, i.e., allocating time on different tasks simultaneously, was detrimental to customer and employee satisfaction in the restaurant industry. Interviewee #24 admitted: ...
... According to Zhang et al. (2018), leadership and management may influence restaurant failures in post-conflict settings, but this research shows little consensus regarding the specific sources or dynamics of that influence. Usually, research on restaurant failure is confined to questions regarding the restaurateurs' economic capacity, and this focus has overshadowed the complexity of the industry. ...
... Usually, research on restaurant failure is confined to questions regarding the restaurateurs' economic capacity, and this focus has overshadowed the complexity of the industry. In post-conflict environments, the hospitality industry becomes more complex and cannot be understood solely by taking an economic approach (Zhang et al., 2018). Therefore, this paper moves toward a model for restaurant failures in post-conflict settings driven by macroenvironmental pressures (economic, political and social). ...
Purpose
Given the complexity of a post-conflict environment, the restaurant sector needs to be analyzed not just from the economic perspective. This paper aims to identify the diverse macroenvironmental and managerial factors underlying restaurant failures in Lebanon. The authors hope that this effort may help increasing restaurant success rates in other post-conflict settings.
Design/methodology/approach
The aim of this paper is to explain how macroenvironmental pressures influence the restaurant business and which managerial factors are most critical in a post-conflict context. The authors adopted a qualitative method by conducting face-to-face, semi-structured interviews.
Findings
The findings show that restaurant failures in a competitive and uncertain post-conflict environment were caused mainly by a snowball of internal organizational factors related to bad management, poor human resource management policies, inefficiency and fraud. Internal organizational factors can all be associated with human mistakes and bad decisions, including excessive initial investment, expensive decoration, inability to manage monthly expenses, bad communication and market research.
Originality/value
This study contributes to the literature regarding restaurant failures in post-conflict regions and presents results that are expected to help managers in family- and non-family-owned businesses to enhance their decision-making process.
... High job satisfaction can increase employee engagement (Badawy et al., 2016;Shoshani & Eldor, 2016;Zhang et al., 2018). There is the fact that individuals are personally involved in their job roles because work engagement has a relationship with job satisfaction and the role of managers to strengthen a conducive work environment to refer to employee work engagement (Andriani et al., 2021). ...
The health industry has the third highest voluntary turnover rate in the world; thus, the degree of participation in the health industry is still relatively low. Low employee engagement continues to make employee engagement an intriguing issue of study, notably in Indonesia. According to a survey, 76% of employees are not engaged in their work. This study aims to investigate the effect of polychronicity on employee engagement with the conditional process of job satisfaction as a mediating variable and compensation as a moderating variable. Testing the model using the PROCESS statistical tool version 3.5, the sample was determined based on the Slovin formula so that 212 individuals participated in the study. According to the findings, compensation is effective in moderating the effect of polychronicity on job satisfaction, compensation is effective in moderating the effect of polychronicity on employee engagement, and compensation is effective in moderating the effect of job satisfaction on employee engagement. Each interaction is in a high category. The study implicates the result of the analysis of the conditional process model on the effect of polychronicity, job satisfaction, and compensation on employee engagement in the health industry.
... It is supported by the literature that the restaurant industry has a high level of turnover, which is more than many other industries (Gordon & Parikh, 2021). Job satisfaction, which consists of various factors (such as working hours in this case), is one of the leading indicators of the turnover rate in the hospitality industry (Zhang et al., 2021). However, as this study is first from the restaurant labour context in the USA, our findings are original and shed light on the challenges that can help design the future of restaurant labour. ...
This study contributes to the literature by delving into the perspectives of restaurant employees and managers in the USA about the future of restaurant labour. Through a qualitative research approach, we conducted 25 semi-structured interviews with employees and managers. The findings reveal the challenges of restaurant labour, including high turnover rates due to long hours and working during holidays and weekends, lack of work-life balance, and high levels of stress and pressure on employees. The impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the future of restaurant labour are extracted as restaurant operations-related, management-related, employee-related, and patron-related impacts. Finally, this research highlights the requirements for the future of restaurant labour, which are requirements to enhance the quality of working conditions and decrease the turnover rate and requirements to sustain in the restaurant industry as an employee.
Bu çalışmanın amacı bireylerin aynı anda birden fazla görevi yerine getirmeyi tercih etmesini ifade eden “polikronisite” kavramına yönelik sistematik alan yazın incelemesi yapılmasıdır. Günümüz iş dünyasının girift yapısında çoklu görev yapabilen bireylere ihtiyaç giderek artmaktadır. Polikronisitenin çoklu görev yapmayı tercih etme özelliği taşıması işletmelerin performansı ve verimliliği açısından kritik önem taşımaktadır. Polikronisitenin işletmeler açısından etkilediği kavramların, sistematik içerik analizi yöntemiyle sıklıklarının tespit edilmesi ve bu tespitler doğrultusunda kavrama yönelik çıkarımlarda bulunarak literatüre katkı sağlamak hedeflenmektedir. Literatürde, polikronisite kavramına yönelik sistematik içerik analiz yönteminin uygulandığı herhangi bir çalışma tespit edilememiştir. Araştırma sonucunda, polikronisitenin 32 farklı kavramı etkilediği tespit edilmiştir. Polikronisite kavramı ile ilgili çalışmaların çoğunlukla iş performansı üzerindeki etkisini incelemeye yönelik olduğu gözlemlenmiştir.
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh job satisfaction dan job embeddedness terhadap turnover intention pada pekerja bidang food & beverage selama pandemi COVID-19. Sebanyak 71 pekerja bidang food & beverage dengan usia minimal 18 tahun hingga >40 tahun berpartisipasi dalam penelitian ini. Pengumpulan data menggunakan metode survei dengan alat ukur yang digunakan, antara lain skala Job Satisfaction milik Tsai & Huang, skala Job Embeddedness milik Crossley dkk., dan skala Turnover Intention milik Saeed dkk. Data dianalisis menggunakan regresi linear berganda dengan bantuan Jamovi 1.2.27 for Windows. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan nilai p<0,001 dan nilai R Square menunjukkan skor sebesar 0,202 yang berarti job satisfaction dan job embeddedness menyumbang 20,2% terhadap turnover intention. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat pengaruh antara job satisfaction dan job embeddedness terhadap turnover intention pada pekerja bidang food & beverage selama pandemi COVID-19.
This study was conducted to examine hotel and holiday village general managers’ (GMs’) turnover and to identify root causes of GM turnover. GMs who were serving five-star hotels and first-class holiday villages operating mainly in coastal sides of Turkey (mostly the Aegean coast and the Mediterranean coast) were researched. GMs in 144 hotels and holiday villages were faxed a one-page survey instrument developed by the researcher. At the end of two rounds, out of 144 GMs, 56 responded to the instrument. Analyzing the data, it is found that GMs are quitting hotels after 3.3 years on average, and hotels tended to change GMs every 2.5 years. The main causes of GM turnover are: management conflict and problems between property owners and GMs; and GMs’ career moves.
In this article, we provide guidance for substantive researchers on the use of structural equation modeling in practice for theory testing and development. We present a comprehensive, two-step modeling approach that employs a series of nested models and sequential chi-square difference tests. We discuss the comparative advantages of this approach over a one-step approach. Considerations in specification, assessment of fit, and respecification of measurement models using confirmatory factor analysis are reviewed. As background to the two-step approach, the distinction between exploratory and confirmatory analysis, the distinction between complementary approaches for theory testing versus predictive application, and some developments in estimation methods also are discussed.
Purpose
This paper aims to examine potential antecedents and consequences of work engagement in a sample of male and female hotel managers employed in Beijing, China.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were collected from 309 respondents, a 90 percent response rate, using anonymously completed questionnaires. Engagement was assessed by three scales developed by Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez‐Roma, and Bakker: vigor, dedication and absorption. Antecedents included personal demographic and work situation characteristics; consequences included measures of work satisfaction and psychological wellbeing.
Findings
The following results were observed. First, organizational level and organizational tenure were found to predict all three engagement measures but in opposite ways. Second, engagement, particularly dedication, predicted various work outcomes (e.g. job satisfaction, intent to quit). Third, engagement, particularly dedication, positively predicted various psychological wellbeing outcomes but less strongly than these predicted work outcomes. Surprisingly, absorption was related to some of these outcomes but in the opposite way.
Research limitations/implications
Questions of causality cannot be addressed since data were collected at only one point in time. Longitudinal studies are needed to determine the effects of work life experiences on engagement.
Practical implications
Organizations can increase levels of work engagement by creating supportive work experiences (e.g. control, rewards and recognition) consistent with effective human resource management practices. But caution must be exercised before employing North American practices in the Chinese context.
Originality/value
The study contributes to the understanding of work engagement among managers in a large Confucian country in transition to a market economy.
This study develops the hospitality industry culture profile, an instrument to assess organizational culture and individual values in hospitality organizations. An eight-factor structure of hospitality culture is identified. The effects of organizational culture, individual values, and the fit between the two (person–organization fit) on employees’ job satisfaction and behavioral intentions are assessed. Person–organization fit is shown to explain significant outcome variance. Implications are considered for assessing and enhancing person–organization fit in hospitality organizations.
To gain insights about the nature and expenses of specific aspects of employee turnover, the authors gathered data from thirty-three U.S. hotels and found that the costs of turnover were generally higher for (1) high-complexity jobs; (2) independent properties; (3) high-average dally rate (ADR) properties; (4) large properties; and (5) high-occupancy properties. The authors also identified several activities associated with recruitment, selection, and training that were linked to lower overall costs of turnover. The results shed new light on the nature and consequences of turnover and provide some prescriptive guidance for managing this serious operational and strategic challenge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Cornell Hotel & Restaurant Administration Quarterly is the property of Sage Publications Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)
One possible reason for the continued neglect of statistical power analysis in research in the behavioral sciences is the inaccessibility of or difficulty with the standard material. A convenient, although not comprehensive, presentation of required sample sizes is provided. Effect-size indexes and conventional values for these are given for operationally defined small, medium, and large effects. The sample sizes necessary for .80 power to detect effects at these levels are tabled for 8 standard statistical tests: (1) the difference between independent means, (2) the significance of a product-moment correlation, (3) the difference between independent rs, (4) the sign test, (5) the difference between independent proportions, (6) chi-square tests for goodness of fit and contingency tables, (7) 1-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and (8) the significance of a multiple or multiple partial correlation.
Turnover remains one of the most troubling issues for hospitality businesses. Through a national survey of foodservice managers, the study revealed several meaningful results: (1) Long hours of work was not a drive of turnover; (2) While compensation may not be
a factor that significantly affects intent to leave, it is a component
of job satisfaction; (3) Intrinsic satisfaction seems to be more important in the short term, and extrinsic satisfaction more important in the long run; (4) Over half of those who indicated an intent to leave were considering leaving the industry altogether — a particularly disheartening finding. Implications for the industry were discussed.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of polychronicity on frontline employees’ (FLEs) service recovery performance, perceived role overload, and work stress in a hotel work setting.
Design/methodology/approach
– In this survey, a total number of 267 usable questionnaires were personally retrieved from a sample of full-time FLEs in the research location. The hypothesized relationships were tested using hierarchical regression analysis.
Findings
– Results based on hierarchical regression analysis reveal that polychronicity had positive impact on service recovery performance and negative impact on role overload and work stress. Significantly, while education was found to be positively related to service recovery performance, on the other hand, age, education, and job tenure were found to be negatively related to role overload and work stress.
Practical implications
– This paper provides implications for managers in terms of minimizing FLEs role overload and work stress and maximizing their service recovery performance. Also, this study provides useful guidelines to implement effective management practices and improve organizational outcomes within a hotel work setting.
Originality/value
– Theoretically, the current study by examining the untried effects and relationships such as the effect of polychronicity on FLEs’ service recovery performance and work stress lends further contribution to the tourism and hospitality management literature.
This study began with the premise that people can use varying degrees of their selves. physically. cognitively. and emotionally. in work role performances. which has implications for both their work and experi ences. Two qualitative. theory-generating studies of summer camp counselors and members of an architecture firm were conducted to explore the conditions at work in which people personally engage. or express and employ their personal selves. and disengage. or withdraw and defend their personal selves. This article describes and illustrates three psychological conditions-meaningfulness. safety. and availabil ity-and their individual and contextual sources. These psychological conditions are linked to existing theoretical concepts. and directions for future research are described. People occupy roles at work; they are the occupants of the houses that roles provide. These events are relatively well understood; researchers have focused on "role sending" and "receiving" (Katz & Kahn. 1978). role sets (Merton. 1957). role taking and socialization (Van Maanen. 1976), and on how people and their roles shape each other (Graen. 1976). Researchers have given less attention to how people occupy roles to varying degrees-to how fully they are psychologically present during particular moments of role performances. People can use varying degrees of their selves. physically, cognitively, and emotionally. in the roles they perform. even as they main tain the integrity of the boundaries between who they are and the roles they occupy. Presumably, the more people draw on their selves to perform their roles within those boundaries. the more stirring are their performances and the more content they are with the fit of the costumes they don. The research reported here was designed to generate a theoretical frame work within which to understand these "self-in-role" processes and to sug gest directions for future research. My specific concern was the moments in which people bring themselves into or remove themselves from particular task behaviors, My guiding assumption was that people are constantly bring ing in and leaving out various depths of their selves during the course of The guidance and support of David Berg, Richard Hackman, and Seymour Sarason in the research described here are gratefully acknowledged. I also greatly appreciated the personal engagements of this journal's two anonymous reviewers in their roles, as well as the comments on an earlier draft of Tim Hall, Kathy Kram, and Vicky Parker.
The purpose of this study is to understand the interrelationships among employees’ emotional labor, emotional dissonance, job stress, and turnover intent in the foodservice industry. The study was administered to 338 family-style restaurant employees. The results showed that employees’ emotional labor was positively associated with emotional dissonance, job stress, and turnover intent. However, employees’ emotional dissonance did not have a significant, direct impact on turnover intent. In addition, employees’ job stress was positively associated with turnover intent.
The academic literature features organisational socialisation as playing a crucial role in the early stages of newcomer employment. During this assimilation stage, newcomers adapt to a new workplace more effectively if socialisation is encouraged. It has been found that socialisation minimises the negative effects of unmet expectations on overall organisational effectiveness, including employee turnover – an issue that has become a considerable problem for many hotels. Extending this logic, this study aims to understand socialisation by specifically assessing whether turnover is determined by employees' beliefs about job satisfaction and individual commitment to an organisation and the hotel profession in general. The study of 428 respondents from 61 international tourist hotels in Taiwan implies that social interaction enables organisations to gain, from an increase in commitment to the organisation, job satisfaction and a decrease in newcomers' intent to leave the hotel profession. Two major contributions to the existing literature result (a) commitment to the organisation plays a dominant role in employee turnover intent and (b) job satisfaction is a powerful method of reinforcing individual commitment to the organisation.
This study was conducted to examine hotel and holiday village general managers’ (GMs’) turnover and to identify root causes of GM turnover. GMs who were serving five-star hotels and first-class holiday villages operating mainly in coastal sides of Turkey (mostly the Aegean coast and the Mediterranean coast) were researched. GMs in 144 hotels and holiday villages were faxed a one-page survey instrument developed by the researcher. At the end of two rounds, out of 144 GMs, 56 responded to the instrument. Analyzing the data, it is found that GMs are quitting hotels after 3.3 years on average, and hotels tended to change GMs every 2.5 years. The main causes of GM turnover are: management conflict and problems between property owners and GMs; and GMs’ career moves.
The hospitality industry is characterized as a work environment where time use is important and where switching behavior among multiple tasks is frequently required within a given time period. These work environments promote polychronic behavior, which requires employees to deal with two or more activities in the same time block (Bluedorn et al., 1999). The purpose of this paper is to present the results of a study examining the interrelationship among polychronicity, job satisfaction, and turnover intention within a hotel context. The sample (n=609) was collected from non-supervisory employees of two hotels located in the southwestern United States. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was utilized to empirically test the proposed hypotheses. Our results provided evidence that polychronicity significantly contributed to job satisfaction and turnover intention. Implications of these results and directions for future research are discussed.
The present study investigates work engagement as a mediating variable in the relationship between polychronicity and performance outcomes. Respondents were full-time frontline employees in the five-star hotels in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. The results from structural equation modeling reveal that the impact of polychronicity on job performance and extra-role customer service is fully mediated by work engagement. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are presented in the study.
Presents the results of an empirical study of work motivation and job satisfaction among managers in Chinese restaurants in Hong Kong. The findings indicated that work environment, job itself, and rewards are critical factors in predicting managers’ satisfaction in this specific catering sector. A significant relationship was found between job satisfaction and turnover intentions that has supported many studies in the discipline of social psychology. In addition, sectorial and cultural specificity is suggested to address the unique characteristic of the Hong Kong Chinese restaurant environment.
The ten-item Inventory of Polychronic Values (IPV), a psychometric measure of polychronicity (the extent to which people in a culture prefer to be engaged in two or more tasks or events simultaneously and believe their preference is the best way to do things), was developed using data from 11 samples (N = 2,190) collected from bank employees, undergraduate students, hospital personnel, dentists and their staffs, and state agency managers. Principal components, alpha, correlation, and confirmatory factor analyses supported the IPV in its internal consistency, test-retest reliability, content adequacy, construct validity (both discriminant and convergent), and nomological validity.
This meta-analysis investigated the relationships between person–job (PJ), person–organization (PO), person–group, and person–supervisor fit with preentry (applicant attraction, job acceptance, intent to hire, job offer) and postentry individual-level criteria (attitudes, performance, withdrawal behaviors, strain, tenure). A search of published articles, conference presentations, dissertations, and working papers yielded 172 usable studies with 836 effect sizes. Nearly all of the credibility intervals did not include 0, indicating the broad generalizability of the relationships across situations. Various ways in which fit was conceptualized and measured, as well as issues of study design, were examined as moderators to these relationships in studies of PJ and PO fit. Interrelationships between the various types of fit are also meta-analyzed. 25 studies using polynomial regression as an analytic technique are reviewed separately, because of their unique approach to assessing fit. Broad themes emerging from the results are discussed to generate the implications for future research on fit.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the antecedents (i.e., role ambiguity and conflict, burnout, socialization, and work autonomy) and consequences (i.e., affective and continuance commitment, absenteeism, and employee turnover intention) of employee job satisfaction. Data obtained from a sample of 671 respondents drawn from 11 international tourist hotels in Taiwan were analyzed with the LISREL program. According to the results, role conflict, burnout, socialization, and work autonomy, but not role ambiguity, significantly predicted job satisfaction. In addition, job satisfaction significantly contributed to psychological outcomes in terms of organizational effectiveness (i.e., greater affective and continuance commitment and lower employee turnover intentions).
The current empirical study investigates the effects of work role and family role variables on frontline employees’ affective (job satisfaction, JSAT and intention to leave, INTLEAVE) and performance (service recovery performance, SERPERF) outcomes in the Turkish hotel industry. The results of the path analysis indicate that the proposed model fits the data well. Role ambiguity, work–family conflict (W-FCON), and family–work conflict (F-WCON) are significant predictors of SERPERF and INTLEAVE. Greater JSAT decreases frontline employees’ INTLEAVEs the hotel. While role stressors and F-WCON depict significant negative relationships with frontline employees’ satisfaction with the job, W-FCON does not. An increase in role conflict leads to an increase in employee performance. Findings also lend empirical support to the significant positive relationship between SERPERF and JSAT. Discussion of the results, implications for managerial action, and avenues for future research are presented in the study.
A pilot study conducted among 62 hotel human resources managers (HRM) in Central Florida was undertaken for the purpose of investigating the magnitude and underlying causes of absenteeism and voluntary turnover. The results indicated that a large proportion of the HRMs would not, or could not compute the magnitude of their absenteeism and voluntary turnover rates in their properties. In the opinions of these HRMs, the factors that affect employee absenteeism were mostly work-related rather than demographic. On the other hand the factors that affect employee voluntary turnover according to the survey's respondents were a combination of work-related and personal characteristics.
The purpose of this research was to examine the construct known as psychological empowerment as it was perceived by non-supervisory employees in full-service restaurants. The research instrument used in this study was first developed by Spreitzer (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1992) and modified by Fulford and Enz (J. Manage. Issues 7 (2) (1995) 161). Subjects of the survey represented three restaurant chains in Midwest United States. Nine hundred twenty four surveys from 66 units were received representing a 46.2% usable response rate. Factor analysis revealed a three-dimensional factor structure for psychological empowerment. Findings related to demographics of the respondents and psychological empowerment, as well as the dimensions of psychological empowerment are presented.
Keeping front-line retail employees satisfied, and subsequently reducing their turnover, is important in retail management. This study introduces polychronic-orientation, or an employee's preference for switching between multiple tasks within the same time-block, as an employee trait with important implications for retail employee turnover. It demonstrates empirically that a polychronic-orientation has both direct (employee fit) and indirect (through fairness perceptions) effects on retail employee satisfaction. Moreover, by exploring these effects across career stages, polychronicity is revealed to be a stable and enduring trait but one whose impact is magnified in early stages of the retail career. Implications for hiring and employee education are derived.
We present a model of realistic job previews (RJPs) and, using separate meta-analyses, examine three counterintuitive hypotheses about their operation. We found modest support for two of the three hypotheses. Findings indicate that RJPs reduce the rate of job acceptance among persons with prior exposure to the job and increase the rate of job acceptance among persons with no prior exposure to the job. Results also indicate that RJPs can be more effective in reducing turnover if the organization is able to restrict the exit of new employees for a period of time after the RJP. Finally, RJPs show a pattern of being more effective in reducing turnover after longer periods of time following administration of the RJP; however, this pattern failed to reach conventional significance levels.
The service orientation program developed for restaurant employees can be a competitive advantage for a restaurant operation. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between employee service orientation (customer focus, organizational support, and service under pressure) and employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and employees’ intention of leaving. For these purposes, the authors developed structural equations modeling. The empirical results are as follows. First, the customer focus of employees was negatively associated with employees’ job satisfaction, but positively associated with their organizational commitment. Second, organizational support was positively associated with job satisfaction. Third, job satisfaction was positively associated with organizational commitment, but negatively associated with employees’ intention of leaving. Finally, organizational commitment was negatively associated with intention of leaving.
This study examines the factorial structure of a new instrument to measure engagement, the hypothesized `opposite' of burnout in a sample of university students (N=314) and employees (N=619). In addition, the factorial structure of the Maslach-Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS) is assessed and the relationship between engagement and burnout is examined. Simultaneous confirmatory factor analyses in both samples confirmed the original three-factor structure of the MBI-GS (exhaustion, cynicism, and professional efficacy) as well as the hypothesized three-factor structure of engagement (vigor, dedication, and absorption). Contrary to expectations, a model with two higher-order factors – ‘burnout’ and ‘engagement’ – did not show a superior fit to the data. Instead, our analyses revealed an alternative model with two latent factors including: (1) exhaustion and cynicism (‘core of burnout’); (2) all three engagement scales plus efficacy. Both latent factors are negatively related and share between 22% and 38% of their variances in both samples. Despite the fact that slightly different versions of the MBI-GS and the engagement questionnaire had to be used in both samples the results were remarkably similar across samples, which illustrates the robustness of our findings.
Hypotheses involving mediation are common in the behavioral sciences. Mediation exists when a predictor affects a dependent variable indirectly through at least one intervening variable, or mediator. Methods to assess mediation involving multiple simultaneous mediators have received little attention in the methodological literature despite a clear need. We provide an overview of simple and multiple mediation and explore three approaches that can be used to investigate indirect processes, as well as methods for contrasting two or more mediators within a single model. We present an illustrative example, assessing and contrasting potential mediators of the relationship between the helpfulness of socialization agents and job satisfaction. We also provide SAS and SPSS macros, as well as Mplus and LISREL syntax, to facilitate the use of these methods in applications.
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