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Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Managing Customer-Based Brand Equity
Abstract
The author presents a conceptual model of brand equity from the perspective of the individual consumer. Customer-based brand equity is defined as the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand. A brand is said to have positive (negative) customer-based brand equity when consumers react more (less) favorably to an element of the marketing mix for the brand than they do to the same marketing mix element when it is attributed to a fictitiously named or unnamed version of the product or service. Brand knowledge is conceptualized according to an associative network memory model in terms of two components, brand awareness and brand image (i.e., a set of brand associations). Customer-based brand equity occurs when the consumer is familiar with the brand and holds some favorable, strong, and unique brand associations in memory. Issues in building, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity are discussed, as well as areas for future research.
... Consumer-based brand equity (CBBE) refers to the value that a brand holds in the minds of consumers [18]. It is the impression consumers have of a brand based on their interactions and experiences with the brand. ...
... Keller's [18] brand equity pyramid model is a framework that consists of four levels: brand identity, brand response, brand resonance, and brand performance. The pyramid starts with brand identity, which includes brand elements such as name, logo, and symbol, and progresses to brand resonance, which refers to the emotional and psychological relationship consumers have with the brand. ...
... Brand image was defined by Keller [18] as the "perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory". A similar concept of brand image was also put forth by Aaker [20], who viewed brand image as a consumer's interpretation of the marketer and its products and services that take into account their memorable experiences and interactions. ...
The proliferation of digital payments has paved the way for the greater use of E-wallets or mobile payments in over-the-counter (OTC) retail transactions. Nevertheless, given its economic and accessibility benefits over NFC forms of mobile payment, relatively little is known about QR-code E-wallet (QREW) adoption from the consumer–brand relationship perspective. The study aims to address this knowledge void by augmenting brand equity elements (perceived value, brand image, and brand awareness) to comprehensively analyze consumers’ QREW usage intention in the OTC retail environment. A structural equation modeling analysis was performed on 305 consumers in the greater Klang Valley, Malaysia. The empirical findings suggest that brand awareness positively affects QREW usage intention and mediates the effects of both perceived quality and brand image on the outcome. Moreover, the results reveal a serial mediation effect involving all of the examined factors. Theoretically, this study supplements the literature on mobile payments from the consumer–brand relationship view, in which the predictive nature of brand equity factors is examined separately. In practical terms, considering that the Malaysian market QREW is in a relatively early growth stage, the findings should offer QREW providers insights into how to capitalize on brand equity mechanisms for attracting consumers to utilize their offerings.
... Brand loyalty refers to a consumer's dedication to a brand through continued and consistent repurchases (Aaker, 1991;Vogel, Cook, & Watchravesringkan, 2019). Finally, brand awareness and associations are memory nodes in consumers' minds that link the meaning of specific brands (Aaker, 1991(Aaker, , 1992Keller, 1993). This principle originates from the classic field of cognitive psychology known as associative network theory. ...
... This theory stipulates that information about a brand is stored in consumers' minds in patterns of links between nodes representing the brand and its specific characteristics (Anderson, 1983;Collins & Loftus, 1975). When consumers reminisce about favorable elements of brands, brand associations directly influence brand equity, brand attitude, and purchase decisions (Aaker, 1991;Keller, 1993;Yoo et al., 2000). ...
... Consumers who are highly engaged with a brand are fully invested in brand interactions (Hollebeek, 2011b) and build a strong bond with the brand (Dwivedi, 2015). Consequently, they are prone to unique brand associations (Aaker, 1991;Keller, 1993). Moreover, the benefits of CBE are connected to a specific brand (Brodie, Hollebeek, Jurić, & Ilić, 2011;Dwivedi, 2015), which inevitably tends to increase brand equity. ...
Brand tribalism Inconspicuousness Brand engagement Brand equity Brand happiness A B S T R A C T Consumption of masstige brands has emerged as an important research domain. This study investigates the key determinants, mediators, and consequences of masstige brands as they impact the willingness to pay a premium price. Following a pre-test with experts, we identified several brands belonging to masstige categories. Based on a sample of 1249 U.S. respondents, the data were analyzed using structural equation modeling to test the proposed conceptual model. The findings reveal that ideal self-congruence, brand tribalism, inconspicuousness, and brand engagement are key determinants of willingness to pay a premium price through the mediating effect of brand equity and brand happiness. This study's contribution to the literature is critical because it helps better understand the relevant factors underlying the emerging domain of masstige consumption. The theoretical and managerial implications, limitations, and future research directions are also discussed.
... Therefore, the need arises to analyse whether the dimensions that shape brand equity in nascent and less established festivals may differ from those that are found to be more influential in mature festivals, in order to help organisers focus their marketing strategies on the dimensions that are most significant, and thus on the marketing communications that actually influence those dimensions and that may be controlled by the organisation or external to the organisation (Berry 2000;Keller 1993;Llopis-Amorós et al. 2018;Yoo et al. 2000). ...
... The brand awareness component refers to the recall of the brand name or the ability to do so by the consumer (Aaker 1996;Keller 1993), this ability can be increased through the use of a correct advertising strategy (Llopis-Amorós et al. 2018), positively influencing, through customers' decisions, and the creation of brand value (Huang and Sarigöllü 2014). However, in the results obtained in the studies conducted in the context of music festivals, this dimension does not seem to have an influence on the overall brand value of the festival (Llopis-Amorós et al. 2018, which could be explained by the fact that its influence has been analysed in high-prestige festivals that already have a high brand awareness. ...
... Brand associations or brand image relate to the consumer's mental image, positive or negative, of the brand (Aaker 1996;Hossien et al. 2012;Keller 1993). This dimension can be understood as an instrument for compiling information, so a strategy focused on its increase can be followed using different information media, such as news, reviews, word-of-mouth, and various aspects related to the brand image (Llopis-Amorós et al. 2018Šerić et al. 2014). ...
Background: Music festivals are part of the cultural industry, and have become an ever-growing phenomenon. It is essential for organisers to identify whether the marketing strategies implemented are positive and effective in generating a competitive advantage. The aim of this study is to identify the elements that make up the brand equity of an emerging music festival, and to find out whether the overall brand equity determines the satisfaction and subsequent behaviours of festival-goers. Methods: Quantitative research was used by conducting an ad hoc structured survey during the development of a live music festival in May 2022. The questionnaire collects information about dimensions that make up the global brand value and how they influence satisfaction and behavioural intentions, consisting of a total of 33 indicators.; Results: Awareness, perceived quality, and loyalty are the most influential dimensions in shaping the brand of a festival. There is a correlation between the overall brand value and the satisfaction of the attendees, and that the latter influences the subsequent loyalty and recommendation of the event. Conclusions: The causal relationships between the dimensions of brand equity and overall brand equity are shown, where three of the four hypotheses are accepted. Similarly, the three hypotheses related to the influence of overall brand image and behavioural intentions are also accepted.
... The cognitive psychology path of CBBE is based on memory structure (David, 1991;Blackston, 1992;Keller, 1993Keller, , 1998Sharp, 1995). (Blackston, 1992) focused his conceptualization on the communicationbased viewpoint using signalling theory. ...
... (Blackston, 1992) focused his conceptualization on the communicationbased viewpoint using signalling theory. While (Keller, 1993), established his view of the effect of knowledge on the customer response to the marketing of the brand. The second viewpoint of CBBE is information economics. ...
... (Whan Park et al., 2010) argued that a strong brand attitude is the driver of brand equity. While (King and Grace, 2008) argued that brand knowledge is an important driver of brand equity and this is in accordance with the conceptualization of CBBE by (Keller, 1993). Other studies focused on the antecedents and consequences of brand equity (Faircloth, Capella and Alford, 2001;Broyles, Schumann and Leingpibul, 2009;Chang and Liu, 2009;Shekhar Kumar, Dash and Chandra Purwar, 2013;Sasmita and Mohd Suki, 2015). ...
This study aims to examine the relationships among the antecedents of the employee-based brand equity’s building process. It answers the following questions: how does the relationship between internal branding actions and employees’ understanding and attitudes lead to employee-based brand equity?
... Brand equity is the sum of the assets and liabilities arising from customer experiences. Several scholars (e.g., Aaker & Keller, 1990;Christodoulides et al., 2015;Keller, 1993) consider brand equity as one of the leading corporate properties that can help explain marketing strategies, mechanisms, and effects (Reynolds & Phillips, 2005). There is three brand equity (Farjam & Hongy, 2015). ...
... First, financial brand equity measures a brand's asset value (Simon & Sullivan, 1993). Second, customer-based brand equity tests a customer's response to a brand name (Keller, 1993). Third, employee-based brand equity (Kwon, 2013) is similar to customerbased brand equity but focuses on employee-based employment and the corporate culture environment (King & Grace, 2009). ...
... Thus, it is not commensurate with the other four components, so almost all researchers use the first four dimensions to measure brand equity. Keller (1993) measures brand equity on dual factors, brand image and brand awareness. However, Pinar et al. (2020) combine brand awareness, perceived quality, brand association, and brand trust with three additional factors to calculate university brand equity: learning environment, dynamic environment, and university reputation. ...
The current study investigates the effect of a composite model of the marketing mix and brand equity on motorcycle purchase decisions. For second-order, the marketing mix and brand equity were constructed using a disjointed two-state approach and a formative-formative weighting scheme. The purchasing decision was measured as a latent variable using a consistent partial least square (PLSc) model. The data was collected from 148 people who have bought motorcycles in Thailand. The results show that the lower-order constructs demonstrate how well they are organized by the indicators, as determined by the model fit indexes. To begin, the hypothesis regarding the three model fitting indexes is rejected. Thus, all bias indicators with shallow values and a negative symbol were removed from the composite model. Furthermore, multicollinearities exist between PLACE indicators, and they are addressed by removing the indicator with the highest variance inflation factors (VIF). Concerning purchasing decisions, the PLSc model with an indicator loading of less than 0.708 was eliminated. As a result, all three total model fit hypotheses returned to be accepted. For the higher-order construct, the composite model created a marketing mix positively linked to brand equity and purchasing decisions, and brand equity positively correlates with purchasing decisions. The hybrid model can generate model fit indexes for both the first and second construct.
... Given this reality, firms invest much time and effort in supporting their brand image through strategic brand concept management [5]. Enterprises traditionally manage their brand by targeting or using advertising and other promotional messages to have an effect on customers' minds [6]. Enterprises deliver positive information to customers and thus generate a positive brand impression on them. ...
... Qing T and Haiying D (2021) [20] demonstrate that consumers tend to know the quality and intent of the brand in terms of information asymmetry. The research of Keller (1993) [21] indicates that consumer psychology and signal theory transfer achievement information such as brand type, favorability, strength, and uniqueness to consumers in order to impress on their minds. Therefore, the key concepts of brand value are conceptualized and measured from the perspective of consumers' brand knowledge, brand image, and brand awareness [22]. ...
Could the corporate carbon information disclosure strategy influence a firm’s brand value, and how does corporate carbon information affect it? Previous research mainly examines the impact of ESG information disclosure on firm value and other financial indicators, but little research has focused on the effect of carbon information on brand value. This paper focuses on the influence of corporate carbon information disclosure on brand value, and we find that it positively impacts corporate brand value. In addition, when a company chooses to adopt a more quantitative and diverse carbon information strategy, it increases its brand value. We also examine the potential mechanisms involved in how corporate carbon information disclosure influences brand value. We focus on three types of factor: analyst rating, customer attitude, and corporate financial performance, and find that higher analyst forecasts and positive customer attitudes have a positive impact on the association between the carbon information strategy and corporate brand value. In contrast, corporate financial performance provides only weak evidence. These results are consistent with demands by users for more precise guidelines from regulators and standard-setters for measuring and disclosing carbon-related information.
... Brand image refers to customer perceptions about a certain brand name, which has a connection with those consumers' memories [44]. Strong brand image can develop a strong link (between the users and brands), which leads to brand association [45]. ...
... Strong brand image can develop a strong link (between the users and brands), which leads to brand association [45]. In brand association, there are three main classifications (attributes, benefits, and attitudes) that demonstrate brand strengths, favorability, and uniqueness to consumers [44,45]. ...
Purchase intention has been acknowledged as an important factor influencing businesses’ sales performances and sustainability. Thus, finding factors that influence purchase intention is essential to all relevant businesses. Based on the current importance of purchase intention to businesses, the main objective of this research was to investigate how country of origin, brand image, and perceived value influenced intentions to purchase COVID-19 medicines among Thai consumers. To accomplish this objective, researchers created a Google Form to survey 862 people around Thailand. However, researchers found only 653 valid data, which were analyzed through the structural equation model. The research findings revealed that perceived COVID-19 medicine value increased once the values of country of origin and brand image were highly considered by consumers. At the same time, consumers attempted to buy COVID-19 medicines for their COVID-19 treatments if the products contained high country of origin and perceived values. Finally, the perceived value was found to be a full mediator between brand image and purchase intention. In comparison, despite country of origin and perceived value being the significant factors in purchase intention, consumers’ intention to purchase COVID-19 medicines depended significantly on the degree of the consumers’ perceived value because perceived value contributed the highest impact on purchase intention. These results revealed that COVID-19 medicines were highly valued by many consumers because these medicines could help prevent heavy illness in consumers. As a result, consumers had a higher intention to purchase these medicines for their future COVID-19 treatments.
... Diverse studies follow the Aaker's (1991) perspective which operationalizes the construct as a set of assets (or liabilities) comprising brand awareness, brand associations, perceived quality, brand loyalty and other proprietary assets (Sloot et al., 2005). Keller (1993) considers brand equity as customer-based brand equity, meaning the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand. ...
... Identification represents the process by which consumers identify themselves with the brand/firm asset. Prior studies attempt to conceptualize and analyze constructs such as: brand associations, self-identification, or corporate social responsibility (Keller, 1993(Keller, , 2003. ...
With this study, brand managers can have an overview of the major concepts and characteristics of brands over time, while academics receive a mapping of the most analyzed topics and suggestions for future research. Based on the documents published in Scopus and Web of Science databases using the word “brand”, this article aims to provide an overview of the brands and suggest opportunities for future research. Text mining clustering allowed the processing of a large amount of information and organized the first overview of the concepts that have been studied. Thus, first, we examine the existing definitions of a brand. Then, we provide a historical perspective of the topics associated with brand constructs and their associations and present a framework for the psychological characteristics of the branding process. Finally, we present the future trends.
... In what has been termed elemental perspective by Lievens and Slaughter (2016), the associations formed about an employer's attributes require extensive cognitive processing and are reflective of the perceived image of the company. The categorization of these attributes has been subject to plethora of approaches but the most well-known and longstanding of these has been the alignment of attributes being either functional, symbolic or experiential (Keller, 1993). This is further solidified by Ambler and Barrow's original definition of employer branding as amalgamation of economic, social and functional benefits that an employer can offer. ...
... The incorporation of work experience as a factor in employer branding is backed theoretically by Aaker (1996)'s observation: in the marketing context, consumers who are relatively inexperienced have difficulty in comparing and contrasting products at a cognitive level. Such consumers are hence more likely to be dependent on their perceptions of the brand to guide them in the evaluation process (Keller, 1993). Similarly, in the recruitment context, job seekers with limited work experience may find it more difficult than experienced workers to evaluate the attributes of an employer and hence may lean on the organization's corporate reputation to make career decisions. ...
The current study aims to extend Sivertzen et al. (2013)’s proposed model to garner insights pertaining to employer branding, social-media use, work experience and intention to apply for prospective applicants within the Pakistani context and, creating a more cohesive view of employer branding for academics and practitioners. Questionnaire data was collected from 220 MBA students of varying levels of professional experience from Pakistani universities about their perceptions of potential employers and their intention to apply. Data analysis carried through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) revealed that employer attractiveness dimensions such as “Economic Value” and “Development Value” were significantly linked to a company’s “Corporate Reputation” which in turn was linked to “Intention to Apply”; additionally, Social-Media Use was identified as a moderator for the relationship between Corporate Reputation and Intention to Apply. These results highlight the impact perceived functional social and psychological benefits have on the interaction between individuals and organizations and, the influence of social-media during the recruitment process and can. From a managerial standpoint, the results underscore the importance of understanding the needs of the workforce and, of curating an effective corporate reputation for recruitment purposes
... Researchers have also found that various types of brand equity, including brand knowledge, brand attitudes, and brand loyalty, are antecedents of Muslim consumers' purchase intentions. According to the associative network memory model (Keller, 1993), if a Korean brand name is well established in consumers' memory and a strong and favourable brand image is formed, consumers have positive attitudes and loyalty toward the Korean product, which leads to positive purchase intention (e.g., Agustini & Devita, 2019;Shalehah et al., 2019). Perceived quality, defined as the consumer's perception of a product's overall quality and superiority related to its intended purpose (Zeithaml, 1988), was also found to be an influential antecedent of Muslims' purchase intention (e.g., Halim & Kiatkawsin, 2021). ...
... 2 Please note that double quotation marks ("") indicate the name of the topic, while italic fonts imply top words, as shown in Tables 2 and 3. 3 When the ego is a brand, the set of associations between the ego and its alters become the 'brand image'-based on Keller's (1993) definition, 'the set of associations linked to the brand that consumers hold in memory'. ...
This study introduces structural topic modeling (STM), a sophisticated unsupervised machine‐learning algorithm for text analysis, to compare Indonesian and Malaysian Muslim consumers’ approach‐avoidance behaviors toward Korean beauty products using social media data. The STM results revealed 16 topics for each country, including new common themes belonging to K‐beauty culture and wannabe Korean skin. Intriguing differences were also observed between these countries. Korea‐related constructs, such as Korea's image and wannabe Korean skin, were approach factors for only Indonesians. Korean cosmetic brand‐specific topics were extracted for only Malaysians and were significantly associated with their behavioral responses. Unsuitable Korean beauty products and domestic product preferences were avoidance factors for Indonesians, but new product risks and conflicts between Muslim and Korean cultures for Malaysians. We demonstrate that STM is a helpful tool in cross‐national research for corroborating and extending the existing theoretical frameworks. The practical implications are also provided for global marketers.
... Factor 6 (BAW) Keller, 1993;Yoo & Douth, 2001;Boo, Busser, & Baloglu, 2009;Foroudi et al., Having carried out EFA, confirmatory factor analysis has been conducted by using the measurement model in LISREL8.5 software. In the process, measures number 8 and 18 related to brand association, and measures number 2 and 3 related to brand loyalty were omitted due to fact that their factor loadings were less than 0.5. ...
... Finally, confirmatory factor analysis, which includes the measurement model, was examined using Lisrel 8.50. The research conceptual model consists of the variables of customer-based brand equity and includes 4 dimensions namely: brand awareness, brand association, perceived quality, and brand loyalty in conjunction with customer perceived value and customer repurchase intention.Brand awareness includes 3 measures: brand recall (BAW1), brand recognition (BAW2), and top-of-mind awareness (BAW3)(Keller, 1993; Yoo & Douth, 2001;Boo, Busser, & Baloglu, 2009, Foroudi et al., 2018Phung, Ly, & Nguyen, 2019). ...
Objetivos: As marcas como ferramentas eficazes e os ativos intangíveis mais valiosos das empresas são amplamente aplicadas para mudar as intenções comportamentais dos clientes. Criar marcas com alto posicionamento na mente dos clientes, que possam agregar grande valor a eles e afetar seus processos decisórios e intenções de compra, é a prioridade das empresas. Este estudo examina os efeitos do valor da marca baseado no cliente e suas dimensões compreendendo conhecimento da marca, associação à marca, qualidade percebida e lealdade à marca (modelo de Aaker) na intenção de recompra do cliente por meio do valor percebido pelo cliente à luz da teoria da sinalização.Método: Essas relações são investigadas em uma amostra de segurados de vida iranianos (267 clientes) no contexto de seguros. Os dados da pesquisa são coletados por meio de questionário com coeficiente de confiabilidade igual a 0,95. A validade é investigada por meio de análise fatorial exploratória (EFA) e análise fatorial confirmatória (CFA). Para testar as hipóteses, são utilizadas análises de correlação e modelo de equações estruturais (path analysis).Resultados: Os resultados mostram que o conhecimento da marca e a associação da marca não afetam o valor percebido pelo cliente e a intenção de recompra do cliente. A fidelidade à marca é a única dimensão que afeta diretamente a intenção de recompra do cliente. O valor percebido pelo cliente medeia os efeitos da qualidade percebida e da fidelidade à marca na intenção de recompra do cliente. Além disso, o valor da marca baseado no cliente, direta e indiretamente, por meio do valor percebido pelo cliente, influencia a intenção de recompra do cliente.Theoretical contributions: This research examines the relationships between customer-based brand equity and its dimensions including brand awareness, brand association, perceived quality, and brand loyalty based on Aaker’s model and customer repurchase intention through customer perceived value in the light of signalling theory. These relationships have not been investigated in insurance context in Iran to date. Relevance/Originality: The investigation of mentioned relationship based on signalling theory in insurance context in Iran.Implicações para a gestão: O estudo atual fornece um padrão e uma ampla gama de sugestões para as seguradoras aprimorarem seu valor de marca baseado no cliente e seus aspectos, a fim de persuadir os clientes a comprar suas marcas novamente em um setor de seguros competitivo.
... All of the conceptual definitions of loyalty attempt to describe it as a lasting phenomenon, whether through the idea of repeated purchases or of the passage of time. These different definitions argue that customer loyalty encompasses attitudinal and behavioral components Keller, 1993). For example, the attitude of commitment to an ecommerce firm will occur if consumers believe that the electronic commerce firm possesses desirable attributes, in which case they will have more favorable attitudes in relation to that firm. ...
... As diferentes definições argumentam que a lealdade do cliente envolve componentes atitudinais e comportamentais Keller, 1993). Por exemplo, o compromisso de atitude com uma empresa de e-commerce ocorre se o consumidor acreditar que uma empresa de comércio eletrônico possui atributos desejáveis, ele terá uma atitude mais favorável em relação à empresa. ...
Purpose: This paper presents an exploratory study of a conceptual model developed with the objective of identifying the main factors that antecede loyalty of e-commerce retail customers. Methodology/approach: More specifically, we propose that the serial and multiple mediating effects of trust and commitment can help to explain the causal relationship of quality with perceived value. We also demonstrate the moderating power of trust, which systematically moderates the shapes of relationships with the criterion variable. Data were collected from retail customers on-line by conducting a survey on the main social networks. Empirical analyses were conducted by multivariate regression with SPSS and PROCESSv3.5. Findings: The results of these analyses show that e-commerce retail markets are very sensitive to levels of quality, perceived value, and customer satisfaction and loyalty. The control variables included in the analyses of moderation show that that customers' perceptions with relation to their experience are directly impacted by the retailers' interfaces. Research implications: For making low-value purchases, consumers are more willing to take risks in terms of the importance of perceived quality. When purchasing higher-value products, the resources perceived via the interface have a direct impact on the decision to purchase and on customer loyalty. Originality/value: This paper uses themes and concepts to conceptualize consumer loyalty. Thus, the study innovates by investigating the mediating and moderating effect on the understanding of loyalty in the e-commerce environment in Brazil, contributing to the results of the international literature.
... Brand image, in contrast, pertains to the collective perception held by consumers with regard to a company and its associated product offerings. Keller (1993) posits that brand image is the set of connections that are associated with a brand in the minds of consumers. This includes external cues, such as product quality and value that customers use to evaluate products before making a purchase. ...
This study aims to examine the influence of brand image as a mediator between social media marketing activity and tourist intentions to visit tourist sites in Jordan. To test the hypotheses, we utilized the partial least square method and distributed a questionnaire survey to 400 visitors, receiving 289 responses for analysis using SMART-PLS4 software. The study made significant contributions to the literature on social media marketing by developing a research model that links social media usage to brand image and shopping intention, and by using statistical techniques to quantitatively assess the effect of social media marketing activity on the brand image as a mediator. The findings exposed that word of mouth, a construct of social media, significantly positively influenced tourists' purchase intention to visit sites in Jordan. This study sheds light on the importance of social media marketing and its impact on the tourism industry in Jordan, providing useful insights for practitioners and policymakers in the field.
... According to Aaker [26], brand associations represent types of brand assets and liabilities that include anything "linked" to a brand. This includes preferences, uniqueness, and benefits of the brand [27]. Iyer and Griffin [28] proposed that WOM communication plays a key role in buyer behavior decisions. ...
Blogs remain a popular and reliable form of online communication. As the number of dining blogs continues to rise, competition is increasingly fierce. Thus, it is important to not only draw the attention of users but to also secure followers. To increase reader loyalty, bloggers must consider blog marketing from a blog reader’s perspective. Although previous studies have explored how blog narratives influence consumer behaviors, few studies have focused on exploring the enablers of contagious content for dining blogs from a blog reader’s perspective. Creating contagious content helps to achieve the maximum benefits from blog marketing. Therefore, this study identifies the enablers of contagious blogs and models their interrelationships to aid dining bloggers in framing a consistently popular blog. Based on Berger’s six principles—social currency (S), triggers (T), emotion (E), public (P), practical value (P), and stories (S) (STEPPS)—13 main factors were first compiled through a literature review. Qualitative content analysis was then applied to extract the 31 enablers related to the main factors within the context of dining blogs. In order to identify the hierarchical relationships among the extracted enablers, this study applied interpretive structural modeling (ISM). Based on the results of ISM, cross-impact matrix multiplication applied to classification (MICMAC) describes the driving and dependence behaviors of the enablers. The results of ISM and MICMAC show areas of priority on which dining bloggers should focus to create contagious content. The most important areas include emotional stimulation, storytelling, and gamification. Finally, the theoretical and managerial implications of the findings were provided.
... Finally, four views of how to measure brand equity exist in general: finance-based brand equity [31,32]; consumer-based brand equity [14,16,33]; employee-based brand equity [34][35][36]; stakeholder-based brand equity [3,21,25,37]. Indeed, the stakeholder-based brand equity is more inclusive than the other three since it encompasses the first three views. ...
Stakeholder-based brand is increasingly recognized as a measure for corporate sustainability, although the knowledge in this area is relatively unknown. Through a systematic review approach, the present study explores the global knowledge base on sustainability and brand. The most influential authors and documents are identified, followed by a discovery of the intellectual
structure of the sustainability and brand knowledge base with five schools of thought. First, the
Customer Attitudes and Behavior school refers to behavioral studies (one of the common approaches
in sustainability studies). Second, the Tourism Marketing school represents the popular context of
sustainability studies that mainly relates to hospitality, destination marketing, and fashion brand
management. Third, the Brand Strategy school refers to corporate strategy concerning brand that
is widely used to measure corporate sustainability performance such as brand equity. Fourth, the Societal Marketing school provides insights into the marketing strategy that leads a firm to achieve competitive advantages under concerns about finite resources and rising environmental and social costs. Finally, the Advanced Quantitative Analysis school reveals an approach that is mainly used when conducting sustainable marketing studies. A model on sustainability brand is then derived, adopting the grounded theory approach. Future research opportunities are also identified and discussed to continuously advance the scholarship in this specific area.
... The model is used to assess how meaningful the brand is to customers, if the brand is not meaningful to customers, then the product of that brand is also meaningless. Therefore, Keller defines brand equity from the customer's point of view as "The distinct effect of brand awareness on the customer's response to marketing that brand" [27]. ...
This research explores and focuses on customer perceptions, because there is still a lack of research in knowing the relationship between customer perceptions of products and retail stores. Data collection by interviews, questionnaires, and observations on Panasonic AC retail customers. This study tries to examine the influence of the dimensions of customer loyalty which are influenced by the dimensions of Customer Based Brand Equity (CBBE), Company Reputation and Product Quality. This research is associative, with a quantitative method approach. The research was validated using SPSS-26 with data analysis techniques using multiple linear regression analysis. The results showed that CBBE and product quality had a positive and significant effect on customer loyalty. Furthermore, the company's reputation partially has a positive but not significant effect on customer loyalty. Whereas CBBE, Company Reputation, and Product Quality simultaneously have a positive and significant effect on Customer Loyalty. From the results of this study, it was also concluded that there is a tendency for loyal customers to not guarantee that they will recommend the products they buy to others. Product (brand) selection recommendations are also more influenced by salespeople in retail stores where customers will buy products. From this research, it was found that the novelty of customer perceptions of company reputation has no effect on customer loyalty, especially for retail store customers.
... Brand equity consists of four fundamental components: perceived quality, brand loyalty, brand awareness and brand association (Aaker, 1991;Keller, 1993). Perceived quality is the customer's assessment of the overall superiority of goods or services as compared to competitors (Zeithaml, 1988). ...
Purpose-Firms can now access users' digital histories due to advances in technology and deliver personalized recommendations through social network sites (SNS) such as Facebook that offers advanced targeting options and reliable conversion tracking. This paper aims to examine the effects of personalized advertisements on SNS on the relationship between consumers and brands, tests the impact of brand attachment and experience on brand equity through personalized SNS ads and investigates the influence of such ads on branded products and services. Design/methodology/approach-Two studies were conducted. Study 1 (n = 275) was a survey-based design that leveraged structural equation modeling to test the hypotheses, while Study 2 (n = 350) used experimental design to compare two groups who saw service brand ads versus those who saw product brand ads. Findings-Results showed that SNS ads supporting the brand had a significant positive impact on respondents' brand attachment and brand experience. In both studies, brand experience positively impacted all the elements of brand equity, while brand attachment was found to impact brand loyalty. Originality/value-The findings illustrate how personalized ads for brands appearing on SNS can change consumer perceptions, thus affecting the consumer-brand relationship. The results bode well for brands considering leveraging SNS in their marketing mix, particularly when the strategy behind the advertising is brand building.
... Once the brand has previously been noticed and known, the consumer has trust in it and considers that the product is the only one of its kind in a particular market (Tritama & Tarigan, 2016). Brand awareness has an impact on consumer's decision-making for it influences the brand association formation and strength in the image of a company (Keller, 1993). Consumers will more likely consider choosing the company he/she heard or seen. ...
Determining the effects of social media marketing on food MSME’s brand awareness to senior high school (SHS) students at University of Santo Tomas (UST) aims to evaluate the impact of digital technology on modern society. The target of the study is to achieve the positive outcome that provides solutions about the repercussions on different factors of social media marketing in establishing the benefits of it to the SHS students in UST. Further, SHS students of UST were used in the study. In acquiring the results, 250 senior high school students were being asked to answer surveys or questionnaires that are closed-ended questions. Thus, this correlational technique was being used to utilize stratified random sampling methods. 41.20% said they used Tiktok the most frequently, followed by Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and Youtube. Additionally, the majority believes that advertising itself is more necessary in brand awareness than on different platforms. However, others are thinking that the impact of different social media applications plays a significant role in promoting food MSME’s brand awareness to SHS students of UST. This study is conducted to learn and gain knowledge that social media usage can also affect the food MSME brand awareness. Lastly, the people under business industry can use this as reference in determining the usage of social media in terms of promoting food MSME’s brand awareness.
... Wood (2000) notes that company-based performance measures are often used for accounting purposes rather than marketing diagnostics. It is widely agreed that customer-based brand equity drives a brand's financial performance (Ailawadi, Lehmann, and Neslin, 2003;Keller, 1993;Lassar, Mittal, and Sharma, 1995). Research showed that brand orientation has a positive effect on brand performance in general (Hankinson, 2012;Wong and Merrilees, 2008;Baumgarth, 2010;Gromark and Melin, 2011). ...
A path model is tested in an endeavor to explain the relationship among brand orientation, internal branding and brand performance in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) pre, during and post COVID-19 pandemic. A questionnaire-based survey was conducted to collect data from Egyptian SMEs. PLS-SEM was used to test proposed hypotheses of the study. The results suggested that brand performance during the pandemic has a significant impact on post-pandemic brand orientations for SMEs. Additionally, this relationship is mediated by internal branding during the crisis. This study addresses the research gap in branding literature regarding the roles of brand orientations, internal branding and brand performance. Few managerial implications are provided for brand managers.
... Brand equity consists of four fundamental components: perceived quality, brand loyalty, brand awareness and brand association (Aaker, 1991;Keller, 1993). Perceived quality is the customer's assessment of the overall superiority of goods or services as compared to competitors (Zeithaml, 1988). ...
Purpose
Firms can now access users’ digital histories due to advances in technology and deliver personalized recommendations through social network sites (SNS) such as Facebook that offers advanced targeting options and reliable conversion tracking. This paper aims to examine the effects of personalized advertisements on SNS on the relationship between consumers and brands, tests the impact of brand attachment and experience on brand equity through personalized SNS ads and investigates the influence of such ads on branded products and services.
Design/methodology/approach
Two studies were conducted. Study 1 ( n = 275) was a survey-based design that leveraged structural equation modeling to test the hypotheses, while Study 2 ( n = 350) used experimental design to compare two groups who saw service brand ads versus those who saw product brand ads.
Findings
Results showed that SNS ads supporting the brand had a significant positive impact on respondents’ brand attachment and brand experience. In both studies, brand experience positively impacted all the elements of brand equity, while brand attachment was found to impact brand loyalty.
Originality/value
The findings illustrate how personalized ads for brands appearing on SNS can change consumer perceptions, thus affecting the consumer–brand relationship. The results bode well for brands considering leveraging SNS in their marketing mix, particularly when the strategy behind the advertising is brand building.
... Product performance (i.e., product-related experiences with the core offering) and brand associations (i.e., brand-related experiences with the core offering) can stimulate CE. Perceptions of the firm's core offering, developed over time, often get stored in customers' minds (Anderson & Bower, 2014;Harmeling et al., 2017;Keller, 1993), and when these positive experiences are recalled, customers are more likely to engage with the firm. Such product and brand knowledge may trigger cognitions, emotions, and behaviors (Anderson & Bower, 2014), signaling their positive links to the three dimensions of CE (Dessart et al., 2016). ...
As part of their customer engagement (CE) marketing, firms use different platforms to interact with customers, in ways that go beyond purchases. Task-based CE strategies call for customers’ participation in structured, often incentivized tasks; experiential CE initiatives instead aim to stimulate pleasurable experiences for customers. But the optimal uses of these two strategies, in terms of improving customer engagement to produce more positive marketing outcomes, are unclear. With a meta-analysis and data from 395 samples, pertaining to 434,233 customers, the present study develops and tests a unifying framework of how to optimize investments in both two engagement strategies across different engagement platforms. On average, task-based initiatives are more effective in driving customer engagement, but the effects depend on the platform. If platforms support continuous or lean interactions, task-based initiatives are more effective; on platforms that encourage spot interactions, experiential initiatives are preferable. Three customer engagement dimensions (cognitive, emotional, and behavioral) in turn lead to positive marketing outcomes, though in ways that depend on the platforms’ interaction characteristics (intensity, richness, initiation) and differ across digital versus physical platforms. These results provide clear guidance for managers regarding how to plan their CE marketing activities to benefit both their firms and their customers.
... Brand awareness is the level of brand knowledge that a consumer possesses and influences their purchasing decisions. Aaker and Equity (1991); Keller (1993). Brand awareness is influenced by consumer brand usage (Huang and Sarigöllü, 2014). ...
Purpose
Despite the rich history of examining the connections between symbolic consumption and identity formation, nearly all the research has focused on brands and possessions; the role of activities has been critically overlooked. This study aims to expand marketing’s understanding of identity formation by examining it in conjunction with attribution theory, exploring the relationship between activity engagement and separation distress.
Design/methodology/approach
A pilot study ( n = 90) using a thematic content analysis reveals six themes (i.e. separation distress, negative emotions, indifference, adapting, positive decision and acceptance), providing support for the conceptual model. The main study ( n = 347) tests the conceptual model via five hypotheses.
Findings
Self-worth match with an activity predicts the perceived separation distress of stopping the activity. Furthermore, self-activity connection mediates this relationship, but only if consumers believe they are in control of or the cause for stopping the activity.
Research limitations/implications
This research provides critical baseline understanding of activity consumption. Yet, future research on the topic of activities is needed to advance activity engagement as a unique category of consumer behavior.
Practical implications
To craft effective messaging and strategies, marketers should consider the meaning and value embedded in consumer activities (not just possessions and brands).
Originality/value
This research reveals that consumers use activities to construct their identity and manage their self-worth. It also demonstrates that stopping an activity may lead to separation distress.
Purpose: With the fast-paced growth of MMA (mixed martial arts) globally as an individual-based sport, MMA leagues are required to develop their fans’ involvement with the brand.
Design: (N = 416) fans’ responses were collected at the UFC Fight Night in Abu Dhabi.
Findings: This research measured how MMA leagues’ brand association can predict MMA brand credibility through SEM and found that star athletes and group experience have a positive impact on brand credibility, but nostalgia and atmosphere were found to be insignificant. Moreover, brand credibility was found as a positive predictor of brand involvement.
Originality: This empirical research contributes to sports marketing literature by defining the brand associations of athlete-based sports leagues, and by showing the positive impact of the league’s brand credibility on its fans’ brand involvement.
Implications: The novel framework can serve as a blueprint or guideline for organizations in the MMA sector to gain a competitive edge by providing a clear and structured understanding of the industry, identifying the key concepts and relationships that underpin the art of branding, better recognizing opportunities for growth and diversity, and developing more effective strategies and tactics.
The purpose of this study is to examine the TPB(Theory of Planned Behavior) factors that affect the purchasing behavior of bio cosmetics consumers and to examine the mediating effect of brand image in the relationship between them. In this survey, cosmetics consumers aged 20 or older residing nationwide were selected as the population. Bio-cosmetics consumers in their 20s or older living in the Seoul metropolitan area were selected as a sample group, and an online survey was conducted for about 4 weeks in October 2022. For statistical processing of the collected data, multi-regression analysis and bootstrapping were performed using SPSS 28.0 and SPSS Macro 3.4 to verify the hypothesis. As a result of the study, Attitude, Subjective Norm, and Perceived Behavioral Control had a significant effect on purchase behavior, and the mediating effect of brand image was confirmed. Therefore, in order to increase consumers' purchasing behavior, it seems to be very important in terms of marketing to build an image such as awareness and trust in the brand as well as the functional efficacy of bio-cosmetics. These research results will have great implications for the bio-cosmetics industry preparing for the post-corona era.
As technology develops rapidly nowadays, people’s living standard has risen and this makes the cosmetics market in China starts growing. Perfect diary as a new famous cosmetics brand, which people could see on social media every day is becoming an object of reference for other brands, this is because of their strong promotions and effective advertisements. While Perfect diary is growing, it still has some limitations in different areas like labor, capital, enterprise, and so on. They have potential improvements that could have been down to better achieve their business targets. This research will identify the problems of marketing including advertisements, quality of products and also the solutions for each of them respectively.
The topic of this article is based on the domestic jewelry market, taking brand marketing in the fast fashion consumption era as the starting point and choosing the top domestic jewellery enterprise---- CHOW TAI FOOK (CTF) as the research objective. Through the analysis of the internal and external environment of CHOW TAI FOOK (macro environment, competitive environment, market environment, the enterprise’s own resources and capacities), this article uses marketing models (SWOT analysis) to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats and analyze this firm. At the end, this paper proposes some optimization plans in terms of advertising, product quality and product design according to its weaknesses so as to enhance the media exposure and keep building the best jewelry enterprise in China.
This study explores the role of employees as both a target group and co-creators of employer brand equity in tourism and hospitality. Extant research has largely focused on the effects of external employer brands; however, studies on internal employer branding have been lacking. The research problem is addressed through the conceptual lens of employer brand equity. To provide empirical insights into employee experiences, exploratory in-depth interviews were conducted with 16 employees in hotels, restaurants, and retail stores in Northern Sweden. While employees constitute a target market for internal employer branding, they also co-create the employer value proposition. Employees act as brand members, representatives, advocates and influencers, increasing knowledge about the organization internally and externally. However, in practice, companies in the service sector seem to place more focus on the customer experience than on reminding the employees of the brand promise towards them. This study identifies and describes the role of employees in the employer branding process by developing a new conceptual framework. Thereby, it adds to the understanding of co-creation in employer branding, an under-researched area which has been suggested to become a new paradigm in the employer branding literature.
Çalışmanın amacı, futbol taraftarlarının marka sadakati ile kulüp imajı algılarının incelenmesidir. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu, 126 Ankaragücü Kulübü taraftarı, 105 Gençlerbirliği Kulübü taraftarı olmak üzere toplamda 231 kişi oluşturmaktadır. Bu bağlamda nicel olan bu çalışmada, çalışmanın genel amacı ile tutarlı olan korelasyonel (ilişkisel) araştırma modeli kullanılmıştır. Araştırmada, veri toplama aracı olarak “Marka Sadakati Ölçeği” ve Kulüp İmajı Ölçeği” kullanılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde öncelikli olarak veri türü gözetilerek tanımlayıcı istatistikleri hesaplanmıştır. Daha sonra, elde edilen verilere ilişkin ölçeklerin Cronbah’s Alpha iç tutarlık analizi, regresyon analizi ve korelasyon analizi kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın sonucunda ise, futbol taraftarlarının gösterdiği marka sadakatinin kulüp imajına etkisinin olduğu; bu etkinin yordayıcı değişkenlerinin ise marka davranışı ve marka tatmininden kaynaklandığı görülmektedir.
Araştırmanın amacı, bireylerin UNESCO Dünya Miras Listesi’ndeki (DML) alanlara ziyaret etme niyetlerini ve buna etki eden faktörleri belirlemektir. Bu amaç doğrultusunda araştırma, UNESCO Dünya Miras Listesi’nde yer alan ve Türkiye’nin önemli varlıklarından olan Ayasofya üzerinden uygulanmıştır. Araştırmanın evrenini Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi Turizm Fakültesi öğrencileri ve Nişantaşı Üniversitesi Turizm Rehberliği bölümü öğrencileri oluşturmaktadır. Veriler online anket ile toplanmıştır. Araştırmada kolayda örnekleme yöntemi uygulanıp, örneklem 316 öğrenciden oluşmaktadır. Verilerin analizinde belirlenen ölçek için öncelikle yapı geçerliliği ve güvenilirlik analizleri uygulanmıştır. Sonrasında ölçekte belirlenen madde ve boyutlar için betimleyici analizler (standart sapma, frekans analizi, aritmetik ortalama) gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırma modelinde belirlenen bağımsız değişkenler ile bağımlı değişken arasında ilişkinin belirlenmesinde ise yapısal eşitlik modellemesi aracılığıyla (YEM) yol analizi uygulanmıştır. Araştırma bulgularına göre “algılanan davranışsal kontrol”, “öznel norm” ve “UNESCO DML algısı” boyutlarının katılımcıların UNESCO DML alanına ziyaret etme niyetlerini etkilediği ancak tutum ve kendine uyum boyutlarının istatistiksel olarak herhangi bir anlamlı bir etkisinin bulunmadığı belirlenmiştir.
Empirical evidence concerning the effects of brand activism on brand equity is growing but remains mixed at best. Although non-profit brands increasingly implement activism initiatives, there are not yet any studies that look outside the commercial sector. Non-profit brands are well placed to step up and engage in political dialogue—social change is at their core. Yet, the risks of neglecting a warm charitable image are considerable in terms of alienating current supporters and losing donations. Our research contributes to this debate by employing signalling theory to examine the effects of non-profit brand activism on brand equity in the ‘third sector’. The mediating roles of brand bravery and brand hypocrisy in this central relationship are also explored. Survey data were obtained from 518 British respondents and analysed using structural equation modelling. Our results show evidence of partial serial mediation, where the direct negative effect of non-profit brand activism on brand equity is eliminated in the presence of brand bravery and brand hypocrisy. Interestingly, in studying the mediated-moderation links, we also find the strengthening effects of a donor’s moral foundations at play. Our study suggests that there are equity gains for non-profit brands that shed traditional ‘warmth’ positioning and embrace activism and bravery.
The damage to soil and water resources due to pesticides and other chemicals used in conventional agriculture has been proven. The uncontrolled production created by the consumption patterns that emerged as a result of high consumer demand in the 2000s caused a great destruction in natural resources. Understanding that the anarchic production model that created this destruction caused losses has increased the importance of organic products.
In recent years, dietary habits have been reviewed and interest in organic farming has increased. A healthy diet and the use of chemical-free products mean a life that does not harm human health. With this awareness, there has been an increase in the consumption of organic product brands over time. Consumers perceive organic products as health promoting and associate them with a healthy lifestyle. Many consumers believe that organic products are misunderstood because of the very limited production and consumption for the domestic market in Turkey. Consumer preferences are important in terms of developing the domestic market. It is believed that selling organic products through supermarkets, where consumers regularly choose to shop, increases the chances of consumers encountering these products. It is very important to provide accurate information to consumers about certification and inspection, which are the most important elements of the system in order to build trust in organic products. In Turkey, as in the rest of the world, the interest in organic brands is increasing. Product variety, easy accessibility and price competition of brands will increase their power in the market. The proliferation of organic brands is an important process for the health and lifestyle of future generations.
The aim of this article is to investigate the effects of Turkish organic brands' loyalty to consumers and purchase intentions of different generations. An online survey was conducted for this study. A total of 598 questionnaires were filled and analyzed. The collected data were analyzed with the SPSS program. The results were presented by applying descriptive and descriptive analyses, independent sample t-test, Mann-Whitney u, one-way analysis of variance and Kruskal Wallis-h analysis. A structural equation model was created to determine the effect of brand loyalty on purchase intention. This study concluded that consumers' commitment to organic food brands is not related to generations and that brands should consider this relationship in their marketing strategies.
Higher education institutions (HEIs) engage more and more in branding activities to sustain an advantage in an increasingly high competitive environment. In such a pressing managerial context, research on brand management in the specific context of higher education expanded over the past few years. While research indicates that brand authenticity is more and more important for consumers in the consumption sphere, it has remained unexplored in the context of HEIs. This paper contributes to the developing research area on HEIs branding by examining the determinants and implications of brand authenticity for those institutions. Across one field study with two different HEIs, we identify indexical, iconic and existential cues as antecedents of authenticity perceptions and examine the effects of such perceptions on theoretically grounded practical outcomes: brand attitude, emotional attachment, word-of-mouth, and willingness-to-pay. The study revealed that HEIs authenticity perceptions are a strong predictor of brand attitude, positive word-of-mouth, and emotional brand attachment.
Purpose
The purpose of the research paper is to examine customers' online purchase intention towards apparel in the online environment, with a focus on the role of conviction and brand reputation of the e-retailer.
Design/methodology/approach
Hypotheses are based on an extensive literature review and tested using adapted existing scales for the constructs-social media usage for apparel, electronic word of mouth (EWOM), conviction, apparel e-retailer's brand reputation and online purchase intention towards apparel, and data are collected from 362 online customers of apparel brands in eight major cities across the country. Structural equation modelling (SEM) is applied to analyze data and test hypotheses because of multiple dependent variables.
Findings
The quantitative results indicate that impact of social media and EWOM on online purchase intention towards apparel is mediated by conviction. The results also explain the moderating effect of apparel e-retailer's brand reputation.
Originality/value
Findings provide suggestions for the apparel business in an online environment that address the issue of breach of trust and implications for apparel e-retailers, managers and researchers. The study contributes to the existing retail literature by proposing concept of conviction and role of apparel e-retailer's brand reputation in this context.
This research investigates both the downstream effect of perceived brand authenticity on consumers' actual, consequential choice and the important role of inferred brand dedication in the relationship between perceived brand authenticity, anticipated quality, and purchase intentions. We also investigate the interactive effect of two source‐related factors—intrinsic motivation and congruity—on consumers' brand authenticity perceptions. We present findings from three studies using different product categories (utilitarian/consumable: hand sanitizer; hedonic/consumable: chocolate; hedonic/non‐consumable: sunglasses). Study 1 shows that consumers use information regarding the intrinsic motivation of those behind the brand and congruity between the brand's actions and what it represents to consumers when forming brand authenticity perceptions and that intrinsic motivation and congruity interact to increase authenticity perceptions. We anticipate that consumers' positivity toward brands perceived as authentic will extend to actual choice through anticipated quality. Study 2 demonstrates that consumers choose authentic brands over inauthentic brands above what chance would dictate and anticipated quality can forecast this choice. Next, we extend our collective process knowledge by exploring an underlying reason why consumers anticipate that brands presented through marketing communications as authentic will have higher quality. We suggest that when managers present brands as authentic, consumers infer greater dedication of those behind the brand and inferred dedication influences anticipated product quality. Study 3 provides support and uncovers a serial mediation process, highlighting the importance of inferred dedication. Specifically, perceived brand authenticity increases consumers' brand dedication inferences, which in turn increases anticipated product quality, and ultimately purchase intentions.
Objective: This paper aimed to provide a systematic review of brand identity and understand how literature streams impact the current brand identity frameworks. Method: There are few systematic reviews about this salient topic, and the existing ones have not analyzed how the research in brand identity has evolved in the last 30 years, what have been the leading research streams and gaps, and which future avenues of study could be pursued. To fill this gap, this paper analyzed 67 articles published in 24 leading academic journals (Academic Journal Guide grades 3, 4, and 4*) between 1990 and 2021. Main Results: Five key research streams were identified: brand identity frameworks; consumer behavior; corporate branding; visual brand identity; co-creation. Despite the impressive progress made over the last 30 years, our review points out what we defined as a “middle-age brand identity crisis”, since there is still no convergence among scholars about what brand identity is and what would be its main components. Also, the current research streams uncover concepts and ideas that were not previously included in brand identity frameworks. Relevance / Originality: This study performed a comprehensive systematic analysis of the brand identity literature, highlighting essential recent research not considered by the current brand identity frameworks and connecting it to branding constructs. We also identified that there is still a lack of consensus regarding the brand identity components and dimensions. Theoretical / Methodological Contributions: This paper contributes to the literature by presenting a new framework to shed light on the interactions of brand identity with other branding constructs, proposing that brand identity has a core (brand essence) and extended identity (composed of personality, relationship, symbology, and cultural expressions). A new brand identity taxonomy is also proposed, with complexity and tangibility as its dimensions.
Purpose
This study examines the effect of face on consumer responses to socially responsible hospitality brands and the influence of the consumption setting. Based on the literature on face concern, the consumption setting is expected to influence the effect of face on consumer responses to socially responsible brands.
Design/methodology/approach
An experimental design with face concern (low vs high) under two consumption settings (private vs public) was adopted for a fictitious hotel involved in community service. To test this design, 360 participants were recruited.
Findings
The results showed that face positively affected consumer responses to socially responsible hospitality brands. Consumers with a high (vs low) level of face concern had higher purchase intention and a greater propensity to spread positive word-of-mouth for hospitality brands with strong corporate social responsibility (CSR) associations. In addition, the favorable effect of face concern on consumer responses was more pronounced in a public consumption setting than in a private consumption setting.
Practical implications
Hospitality service managers could strengthen the physical evidence of CSR brands during service encounters. This strategy would be more effective for consumers who have a high level of face concern and lead to an increase in revisit intention.
Originality/value
This study highlights the effect of face on consumer responses to CSR brands and the influence of the consumption setting. Managerial implications for hospitality service managers regarding communication and brand management strategies are discussed.
Historicamente, o design era um recurso funcional visual para o marketing passar seus valores de marca para o consumidor, mas com a evolução dos pensamentos de design e do marketing, esses dois campos de estudo começam a vislumbrar possíveis intersecções em seus processos e entregáveis contribuindo para a estratégias centradas cada vez mais nos clientes e usuários de
produtos e serviços. Esta dissertação buscou contribuir com a discussão de práticas de design para a criação de estratégias de marketing mais centradas no cliente, propondo uma mudança na visão tradicional na relação de marketing e design. Para alcançar seu objetivo, foi realizada uma pesquisa-ação com grupo de pesquisadores de forma prática em dois experimentos que rodaram em organizações privadas de Pernambuco, para entender qual contribuição do design
para a segmentação - uma das etapas da elaboração do plano de marketing - e para gerar insights para direcionar as estratégias de marketing. A partir das análises e considerações realizadas pela equipe de pesquisadores e pelos gestores das organizações, através de grupo focal e entrevistas, identificou-se que a construção de estratégias de marketing guiadas pelo design é um novo caminho para o marketing colocar o cliente no centro da estratégia.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of consumers’ moral preferences between moral and economic benefits and consumers’ moral and rational behaviour intentions based on moral decision-making models of previous studies.
Design/methodology/approach
Respondents were asked to answer a questionnaire measuring moral and economic benefits, consumers’ moral preferences and moral and rational behaviour intention after reading a stimulus describing imaginary fashion brand A’s unethical activities.
Findings
Moral and economic benefits directly and significantly affect moral and rational behaviour intention. Homo economicus evoked by an economic benefit had a negative effect on moral behaviour intention.
Research limitations/implications
This study focused only on a moral benefit and an economic benefit as factors evoking consumers’ moral preferences. This study was also conducted only in a Korean context and considered a specific industry. In future research, the results of this study should be extended to design the “possibility of punishment” to encourage moral behaviour by discouraging the effect of homo economicus. The results have implications for companies such as social enterprises and charities that want to promote consumers’ moral behaviour.
Originality/value
This study provides evidence on why ethical consumers do not always make ethical decisions by confirming that homo economicus has a significant influence on not only rational behaviour intention but also moral behaviour intention.
Die Digitalisierung vergrößert nicht nur das (Über-)Angebot an Produkten und Services, sondern beeinflusst auch die Kommunikation, unter anderem indem der Informationsüberfluss für Konsumenten noch mehr ansteigt. Demzufolge versuchen Unternehmen mittels externer Markenkommunikation – konkret durch Anwendung verschiedener Sprachvarietäten – die Aufmerksamkeit von Konsumenten zu erlangen. Eine hierzu in jüngerer Zeit entstandene Sprachvarietät ist die internetbasierende Vong-Sprache, welche insbesondere auf eine Modifizierung von Rechtschreib- und Grammatikregeln oder Anglizismen setzt. Hier setzt der vorliegende Beitrag an: Es soll der Frage nachgegangen werden, inwiefern die Nutzung der Vong-Sprache im Vergleich zur Standard-Sprache in der externen Markenkommunikation einen Einfluss auf die Markeneinstellung und Kaufabsicht sowie auf die Glaubwürdigkeit der Kommunikation nimmt. Im Beitrag werden hierzu sowohl die theoretischen Hintergründe als auch die Ergebnisse einer eigens zur Beantwortung der Forschungsfrage durchgeführten quantitativen Studie aufgezeigt, bei der insbesondere eine Werbeanzeige mit Standard-Sprache mit einer Werbeanzeige mit Sprachvarietät Vong als Stimuli verwendet und die Wahrnehmungen und Wahrnehmungsunterschiede bei einer ausgewählten Stichprobe (n = 118) aufgezeigt werden. Im Ergebnis zeigt sich, dass die Sprachvarietät im untersuchten Fall einer etablierten Marke einen negativen Effekt hat. In abschließenden Diskussionen wird aufgezeigt, woran dies liegen könnte und warum entsprechend je nach Marke und Umfeld positive, aber auch negative Effekte bei derartigen Sprachvarietäten zu erwarten sind.
This paper presents Systematic Theory Mapping (STM), a comprehensive and systematic method, as the first step toward defining and dealing with complex and wicked problems. Social systems exhibit a messy, multifaceted, and multi-level composite of problems characterized by causal complexities and non-linear interactions of numerous contributing variables. Exploring such a wicked composite of problems for causal explanations and theory building through reductionist empiricism is unrealistic, expensive, and futile. Systems thinking is required to understand the configurations driving wicked problems and navigate their causal complexities. We construed brand externalities as a wicked problem and provided an illustrative example for STM. A systematic narrative review is used to amalgamate diverse stakeholder perspectives and capture the structures and processes that generate brand externalities. System dynamics, employing a causal loop diagram, is used to organize the findings and develop a causal theory of brand externalities. The proposed method can help scholars, managers, and policymakers better define complex managerial and social problems and identify the likely consequences of their actions.
Goals give orientation and enable the evaluation of cultural tourism marketing activities. They contain statements about desired conditions to be achieved by tourism service provider with suitable marketing strategies and measures, and thus support the decision-making for the use of scarce resources. The strategies are long-term behavioural plans that build on the previously defined goals. They also serve as a binding basis for the selection of concrete measures. Strategies that traditionally play a particularly important role in the practice of cultural tourism marketing are to segment the market, to build and maintain brands, to use innovation and to enter cooperation and building networks.
Objetivo: O objetivo desse estudo foi examinar a relação entre emoções, percepção de risco, valor percebido e lealdade à marca durante uma crise global para entender como as emoções incidentais, ou seja, emoções não relacionadas à decisão, podem influenciar as percepções do consumidor sobre valor de bens e lealdade à marca.Metodologia/abordagem: Usando dados coletados de 290 brasileiros durante a pandemia da Covid-19, um modelo estrutural baseado na percepção de risco, emoções positivas e negativas, valor percebido e lealdade à marca foi proposto e testado empiricamente.Originalidade/valor: Esta pesquisa confirma que emoções incidentais podem impactar o valor percebido. Sendo assim, a pesquisa aumenta a compreensão do papel das emoções na relação consumidor-produto-marca. Em segundo lugar, o estudo faz uma contribuição metodológica ao analisar as relações entre percepção de crise, emoções positivas e negativas, valor percebido e lealdade à marca em uma situação real. Vale ressaltar que estudos sobre emoções incidentais no comportamento do consumidor são geralmente induzidos por experimentos.Resultados: Os resultados mostraram que os respondentes se sentiram alertas e atentos, e estas emoções desempenharam uma função significante na relação entre emoções e valor percebido durante a pandemia. Observou-se que a percepção de risco influencia as emoções negativas e positivas, mas não influencia diretamente a lealdade à marca.Contribuição teórica e prática: Os resultados fornecem suporte para o modelo, onde as emoções incidentais influenciam o valor percebido. Sendo assim, o estudo contribuiu para a literatura examinando e confirmando a relação entre emoções incidentais e valor percebido. No entanto, a percepção de risco e as emoções não influenciam diretamente a lealdade à marca. Desenvolver produtos e serviços que resolvam os problemas oriundos das emoções vivenciadas durante uma crise podem despertar o interesse do consumidor. Como contribuição social, a pesquisa apresenta que bens e serviços podem auxiliar na regulação emocional.
Objetivo: O estudo visou validar empiricamente um modelo conceitual que analisa como o engajamento com marcas e comunidades online promove os vínculos relacionais do consumidor e o papel da natureza hedônica ou utilitária da oferta neste processo.Metodologia: A netnografia, uma abordagem qualitativa para estudar o comportamento humano no ambiente virtual, foi adotada visando revelar as motivações dos usuários das mídias sociais e obter evidências para o modelo teórico. Posteriormente, aplicou-se um estudo quantitativo através de uma pesquisa que obteve 583 respostas e permitiu o teste de hipóteses através da modelagem de equações estruturais com uma abordagem multigrupos.Resultados: O teste de hipóteses confirmou que a "identidade social" e a "autoexpressividade" do consumidor são determinantes do "engajamento com a comunidade da marca". A "identificação com a marca" influenciou o "engajamento com a comunidade da marca", para o grupo que usa marcas hedônicas. O estudo confirmou todas as conseqüências propostas do "engajamento com a marca".Relevância/Originalidade: A inovação do presente estudo consistiu em: 1) verificação do impacto de construções individuais relacionadas ao self (autoexpressividade, identidade social, identificação com a marca) no engajamento do consumidor, hipóteses com poucas evidências na literatura; 2) verificação e confirmação do efeito de novas variáveis moderadoras (utilidade versus valor hedônico) no modelo estrutural.Contribuições teórico-metodológicas: a contribuição teórica central do artigo é apresentar suporte para a plausibilidade do modelo proposto, o alcance das escalas de medição das construções propostas e a aplicação da Netnografia.
The development of the “metaverse” has created new opportunities for brands’ crypto marketing and metaverse commerce. Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) are blockchain-based digital assets that behave similarly to cryptocurrencies, and many brands participate in the metaverse by developing branded NFTs (BNFTs). Given the potential of this new market, practical issues associated with it, and lack of related research, this study analyzed the attributes associated with metaverse commerce using BNFTs. We used a stimulus–organism–response (SOR) model to examine how BNFT attributes can generate positive brand outcomes using text mining and structural equation modeling. We found that BNFT attributes (i.e., scarcity, financial value, prestige, uniqueness, originality, and communication consistency) promote a favorable brand attitude, which enhances brand commitment, BNFT purchase intention, and active engagement with BNFTs. Our findings indicate that brands can engage the rapidly expanding metaverse economy and use BNFTs to build long-term customer relationships.
In three experiments, the effects of presenting a subset of competing brands on the recall of the remaining brands was studied. The first two experiments showed that using a subset of the brands as cues may either enhance or inhibit recall of the remaining brands, depending on the knowledge level of the consumer. The third experiment showed that presentation of even two brands can inhibit recall of entire categories of competing brands. An explanation of the results and a discussion of their implications are presented.
Conveying a brand image to a target market is a fundamental marketing activity. The authors present a normative framework, termed brand concept management (BCM), for selecting, implementing, and controlling a brand image over time. The framework consists of a sequential process of selecting, introducing, elaborating, and fortifying a brand concept. The concept guides positioning strategies, and hence the brand image, at each of these stages. The method for maintaining this concept-image linkage depends on whether the brand concept is functional, symbolic, or experiential. Maintaining this linkage should significantly enhance the brand's market performance.
Evidence from past research and insights from an exploratory investigation are combined in a conceptual model that defines and relates price, perceived quality, and perceived value. Propositions about the concepts and their relationships are presented, then supported with evidence from the literature. Discussion centers on directions for research and implications for managing price, quality, and value.
The chapter discusses the role of the manner of attitude formation. It focuses on the development of an attitude through direct behavioral experience with the attitude object and examines whether such attitudes better predict subsequent behavior than attitudes formed without behavioral experience. The chapter provides an overview of the attitude-behavior consistency problem and describes the effect of the manner of attitude formation through the “housing” study, the “puzzle” experiment, and the “subject pool” study. The prior-to-later behavior relation is also discussed in the chapter, wherein it has described the self-perception of past religious behaviors, attitudes and self-reports of subsequent behavior, an individual difference perspective, and a partial correlation analysis. The chapter discusses attitudinal qualities—namely, confidence and clarity, the persistence of the attitude, and resistance to attack. The reasons for the differential strength are also explored in the chapter—namely, the amount of information available, information processing, and attitude accessibility. The chapter briefly describes the attitude-behavior relationship, personality traits, and behavior.
A laboratory experiment examines factors affecting evaluations of proposed extensions from a core brand that has or has not already been extended into other product categories. Specifically, the perceived quality of the core brand and the number, success, and similarity of intervening brand extensions, by influencing perceptions of company credibility and product fit, are hypothesized to affect evaluations of proposed new extensions, as well as evaluations of the core brand itself. The findings indicate that evaluations of a proposed extension when there were intervening extensions differed from evaluations when there were no intervening extensions only when there was a significant disparity between the perceived quality of the intervening extension (as judged by its success or failure) and the perceived quality of the core brand. A successful intervening extension increased evaluations of a proposed extension only for an average quality core brand; an unsuccessful intervening extension decreased evaluations of a proposed extension only for a high quality core brand. Though a successful intervening extension also increased evaluations of an average quality core brand, an unsuccessful intervening extension did not decrease core brand evaluations regardless of the quality level of the core brand. The relative similarity of intervening extensions had little differential impact, but multiple intervening extensions had some different effects than a single intervening extension.
Results of four studies demonstrate that perceptions of how different a brand is from other brands in the product category affect perceptions of the brand's position within the category. Specifically, perceptions that a brand is strongly discrepant result in a subtyped (or niche) position, whereas perceptions that a brand is moderately discrepant result in a differentiated position within the general category. Perceptions of discrepancy are affected both by the extent of discrepancy on an attribute and whether the discrepant information is concentrated in a single ad for the brand or dispersed across multiple ads for the product. The effects associated with a subtyped position, in comparison with a differentiated position, are identified (study 1) and are found to increase with time (study 2). The subtyped versus differentiated distinction for a strongly versus moderately discrepant brand is validated with a sorting task (study 3). This distinction is shown to hold in the context of multiple discrepant brands that differ in their extent of discrepancy (study 4). Implications of the findings for a theoretical understanding of subtyping versus differentiation and for the application of positioning strategies in the marketplace are discussed.
The authors examine the effects of brand strategy (i.e., brand extensions vs. individual brands) on new product market share and advertising efficiency, and the degree to which these effects are moderated by characteristics of the brand, the product to which it is extended, and the market in which that product competes. The findings indicate that brand extensions capture greater market share and realize greater advertising efficiency than individual brands. The strength of the parent brand is related positively to the market share of brand extensions but has no effect on advertising efficiency. Neither the market share nor the advertising efficiency of extensions is affected by the number of products affiliated with the parent brand. The relative effect of brand extensions on market share is not moderated by the degree of similarity between the extension and other products affiliated with the brand. Advertising efficiency effects, however, are elevated when similarity is high, but only when it is based on intrinsic attributes. Market share and advertising efficiency effects are elevated when the extension is composed primarily of experience attributes and competes in markets where consumers have limited knowledge of the product class. Competitive intensity does not moderate advertising efficiency effects; however, market share effects are elevated when the extension competes in markets comprising few competitors. Finally, both market share and efficiency effects diminish as the extension becomes established in the market.
Many advertisers believe the pictorial and verbal components of an ad should convey the same meaning. Based on theoretical and empirical evidence from a variety of areas, three experiments were conducted that show superior recall for ads in which the picture and copy convey discrepant information about product attributes when the picture and brand name are linked interactively. An elaborative processing explanation for the effect is supported by the finding that this superiority diminishes if consumers have less opportunity to process the ad and form associative linkages in memory.
The need to identify the boundaries of increasingly complex product-markets has spawned a number of analytical methods based on customer behavior or judgments. The various methods are compared and contrasted according to whether they are consistent with a conceptual definition of a product-market, and their ability to yield diagnostic insights.
The effects of brand salience on brand recall were investigated in five experiments, each involving a different product category. The authors demonstrate that increasing the salience of a single brand can significantly impair unaided recall of competing brands. The effect was observable even in the early stages of the recall process.
Findings from a laboratory experiment support three research propositions on how processing goals at ad exposure and retrieval cues in the brand decision environment affect recall of communication effects and ad and brand judgments. The first proposition, the “cue compatibility principle,” is that compatibility or a match between the type of information stored in memory at encoding and the type of information present as cues at retrieval is necessary for successful recall of communication effects (e.g., cognitive responses). The second proposition is that though retrieval cues can facilitate recall of strongly associated information, they can inhibit recall of other, less strongly associated information in memory. The third proposition is that because processing goals and retrieval cues affect the accessibility and diagnosticity of communication effects, they “frame” brand judgments by influencing (1) the importance or weight placed on different types of communication effects in ad and brand judgments, and therefore (2) the actual favorableness of the judgments reached. The theoretical and managerial implications of these memory factors on advertising effectiveness are discussed.
The authors explore the implications of considering a brand as representing a category consisting of its products. They report results of a laboratory experiment in which response times and verbal protocols were used to examine processes related to the evaluation of brand extensions. Evaluations of brand extensions were influenced both by the extension's similarity to the brand's current products (brand extension typicality) and by the variation among a brand's current products (brand breadth). An inverted U describes the relationship between brand extension typicality and evaluation process measures. Moderately typical extensions were evaluated in a more piecemeal and less global way than were either extremely typical or extremely atypical extensions. Subjects’ attitudes toward brand extensions were correlated highly with their ratings of brand extension typicality.
Two studies were conducted to obtain insights on how consumers form attitudes toward brand extensions, (i.e., use of an established brand name to enter a new product category). In one study, reactions to 20 brand extension concepts involving six well-known brand names were examined. Attitude toward the extension was higher when (1) there was both a perception of “fit” between the two product classes along one of three dimensions and a perception of high quality for the original brand or (2) the extension was not regarded as too easy to make. A second study examined the effectiveness of different positioning strategies for extensions. The experimental findings show that potentially negative associations can be neutralized more effectively by elaborating on the attributes of the brand extension than by reminding consumers of the positive associations with the original brand.
Empirical evidence is presented which supports the explicit consideration of situational factors in the study of consumer behavior. Situational variation of brand choice behavior and attitude is identified. The use of situation-specific measures in an attribute-based attitude model is found to increase the ability of the model to predict subsequent brand choice behavior as reported in a multiple wave survey.
A model for consumer package goods is described by which consumers can be segmented into loyalty groups. A survey is used to obtain measures of consumer willingness to switch from a regular brand, if there is one. Each loyalty group is associated with a unique purchase probability vector. The probabilities are derived empirically from purchase behavior. By use of the purchase probability vectors, brand shares and repeat rates can be simulated by the loyalty group segmentation (LGS) model, which yields good fits. Empirical data were available which reflected the effect of price changes on brand switching behavior by loyalty groups. At first price elasticities based on deviations from average price were used with poor results. By a revised version of the model, average price was recomputed as the sum of the prices of competitive brands weighted by the percentage of the brand's total switching with each other brand. By use of such loyalty group cross-price elasticity measures, high correlations were obtained with the empirical observations of share, repeat rate, and switching behavior.
Consumer behavior depth interviews are grouped with other kinds of story telling—fairy tales, novels, psychological test responses, and myths—as imaginative statements that can be qualitatively interpreted for their functional and symbolic content. Drawing upon the Claude Lévi-Strauss approach to the analysis of myths, a structuralist interpretation illustrates application to the age, sex, and social status dimensions of food consumption.
The authors update and extend their 1978 review of conjoint analysis. In addition to discussing several new developments, they consider alternative approaches for measuring preference structures in the presence of a large number of attributes. They also discuss other topics such as reliability, validity, and choice simulators.
As a company tries to find the factors accounting for strong and weak markets, typical consumer explanations for both tend to be in terms of the physical attributes of the product. Carling Brewing Company used a relatively inexpensive experiment to help dichotomize contributing influences as being either product or marketing oriented and, also, to indicate the magnitude of the marketing influence for various brands. The experiment involved the use of groups of beer drinkers that tasted (drank) and rated beer from nude bottles and from labeled bottles.
When a buyer perceives risk in a purchase he can pursue different strategies of risk resolution. This article presents research findings which indicate that consumers have preferences for different methods of risk reduction associated with various types of loss.
The authors explore the implications of considering a brand as representing a category consisting of its products. They report results of a laboratory experiment in which response times and verbal protocols were used to examine processes related to the evaluation of brand extensions. Evaluations of brand extensions were influenced both by the extension's similarity to the brand's current products (brand extension typicality) and by the variation among a brand's current products (brand breadth). An inverted U describes the relationship between brand extension typicality and evaluation process measures. Moderately typical extensions were evaluated in a more piecemeal and less global way than were either extremely typical or extremely atypical extensions. Subjects' attitudes toward brand extensions were correlated highly with their ratings of brand extension typicality.
The authors examine the effects of brand strategy (i.e., brand extensions vs. individual brands) on new product market share and advertising efficiency, and the degree to which these effects are moderated by characteristics of the brand, the product to which it is extended, and the market in which that product competes. The findings indicate that brand extensions capture greater market share and realize greater advertising efficiency than individual brands. The strength of the parent brand is related positively to the market share of brand extensions but has no effect on advertising efficiency. Neither the market share nor the advertising efficiency of extensions is affected by the number of products affiliated with the parent brand. The relative effect of brand extensions on market share is not moderated by the degree of similarity between the extension and other products affiliated with the brand. Advertising efficiency effects, however, are elevated when similarity is high, but only when it is based on intrinsic attributes. Market share and advertising efficiency effects are elevated when the extension is composed primarily of experience attributes and competes in markets where consumers have limited knowledge of the product class. Competitive intensity does not moderate advertising efficiency effects; however, market share effects are elevated when the extension competes in markets comprising few competitors. Finally, both market share and efficiency effects diminish as the extension becomes established in the market.
Results of four studies demonstrate that perceptions of how different a brand is from other brands in the product category affect perceptions of the brand's position within the category. Specifically, perceptions that a brand is strongly discrepant result in a subtyped (or niche) position, whereas perceptions that a brand is moderately discrepant result in a differentiated position within the general category. Perceptions of discrepancy are affected both by the extent of discrepancy on an attribute and whether the discrepant information is concentrated in a single ad for the brand or dispersed across multiple ads for the product. The effects associated with a subtyped position, in comparison with a differentiated position, are identified (study 1) and are found to increase with time (study 2). The subtyped versus differentiated distinction for a strongly versus moderately discrepant brand is validated with a sorting task (study 3). This distinction is shown to hold in the context of multiple discrepant brands that differ in their extent of discrepancy (study 4). Implications of the findings for a theoretical understanding of subtyping versus differentiation and for the application of positioning strategies in the marketplace are discussed.
A model for consumer package goods is described by which consumers can be segmented into loyalty groups. A survey is used to obtain measures of consumer willingness to switch from a regular brand, if there is one. Each loyalty group is associated with a unique purchase probability vector. The probabilities are derived empirically from purchase behavior. By use of the purchase probability vectors, brand shares and repeat rates can be simulated by the loyalty group segmentation (LGS) model, which yields good fits. Empirical data were available which reflected the effect of price changes on brand switching behavior by loyalty groups. At first price elasticities based on deviations from average price were used with poor results. By a revised version of the model, average price was recomputed as the sum of the prices of competitive brands weighted by the percentage of the brand's total switching with each other brand. By use of such loyalty group cross-price elasticity measures, high correlations were obtained with the empirical observations of share, repeat rate, and switching behavior.
Findings from a laboratory experiment support three research propositions on how processing goals at ad exposure and retrieval cues in the brand decision environment affect recall of communication effects and ad and brand judgments. The first proposition, the "cue compatibility principle," is that compatibility or a match between the type of information stored in memory at encoding and the type of information present as cues at retrieval is necessary for successful recall of communication effects (e.g., cognitive responses). The second proposition is that though retrieval cues can facilitate recall of strongly associated information, they can inhibit recall of other, less strongly associated information in memory. The third proposition is that because processing goals and retrieval cues affect the accessibility and diagnosticity of communication effects, they "frame" brand judgments by influencing (1) the importance or weight placed on different types of communication effects in ad and brand judgments, and therefore (2) the actual favorableness of the judgments reached. The theoretical and managerial implications of these memory factors on advertising effectiveness are discussed.
Though most observers acknowledge that consumers make inferences among product attributes, the influence of such inferences on product evaluation is much less clear. Study respondents evaluated products for which information on one of two attributes was systematically omitted. A general model is built to estimate the directional effect of inferences on product evaluation. The effect of inferences to a missing attribute is statistically significant and in the expected direction. In one case, the marginal value of the remaining attribute (price) reverses in sign because of an inference. Thus, inferences are theoretically important and a potentially troublesome issue in the modeling and measurement of consumer choice processes.
As a company tries to find the factors accounting for strong and weak markets, typical consumer explanations for both tend to be in terms of the physical attributes of the product. Carling Brewing Company used a relatively inexpensive experiment to help dichotomize contributing influences as being either product or marketing oriented and, also, to indicate the magnitude of the marketing influence for various brands. The experiment involved the use of groups of beer drinkers that tasted (drank) and rated beer from nude bottles and from labeled bottles.
A theoretical framework that integrates all individual product benefits into seven general motivation classes, for the purpose of formulating brand strategy.
In three experiments, the effects of presenting a subset of competing brands on the recall of the remaining brands was studied. The first two experiments showed that using a subset of the brands as cues may either enhance or inhibit recall of the remaining brands, depending on the knowledge level of the consumer. The third experiment showed that presentation of even two brands can inhibit recall of entire categories of competing brands. An explanation of the results and a discussion of their implications are presented.