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The urban development of Damascus: a study of its past, present and future
Abstract
Despite holding the title of the ‘oldest continuously inhabited city in the world’,
Damascus has seldom been the focus of academic research in urban studies. As
the city has been of prime importance to major historical Empires, this study of
Damascus’ urban development reflects global shifts in culture, religion, and
economics over time. The problems Damascus faces today are in many ways
representative of those in other Less Developed Countries. Moreover, particularly
in the Middle East where factors such as oil and water supply come in to play, the
outcomes increasingly affect tomorrow’s globalised world as a whole.
Currently the capital of a closed ‘market-socialist’ economy, Damascus is now
attempting to reposition itself as a ‘modern’ city, with various new reforms
paving the way for it to become a centre of trade, commerce and tourism.
However, it is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site whose proud status is under
threat as it disregards historical buildings, and struggles with one of the world’s
highest urban growth rates, exacerbated inequality and endemic corruption.
Therefore, developers are faced with important questions: What does it mean to
be a modern city? In a Less Developed Economy, where should priorities lie?
To better understand Damascus’ present situation, this paper provides an indepth
analytical study of the city’s urban formation, from Ancient times until
today. It is written chronologically, taking into account changes in land tenure
policy, political environments and economic situations that have influenced
development. To provide a contemporary context, this paper also carries
interviews with key players in Syrian property development, including
developers, investors, academics and members of parliament. Further interviews
with architects, civil engineers and local Damascenes add local insight.
By placing these first-hand accounts within a historical socio-economic context,
this paper is a unique examination of Damascus and a useful reference for future
development.
Aside from government reforms to combat corruption, this paper concludes that
long-term, educated strategies need to be adopted to safeguard the city’s
historical wealth, preserving social cohesion and its potential for tourism. New
industrial cities outside traditional urban areas would help manage high urban
populations, and reduce pressure on the fragile ecological basin of Damascus.
... This traditional style, marked by winding streets and a hierarchy of spaces that were centered around religious sites, evolved through several Islamic periods. Ref. [30], noted that the initial Islamic city retained the Roman street network, but with successive Islamic rules, these wide streets transformed into narrow, winding lanes. ...
... The urban and architectural development of Damascus up to 1929 reflected a rich interplay between traditional Islamic and Western influences. This evolution, as documented by various scholars, showcased the city's transition from a classical Islamic city to one exhibiting Western urban patterns [30]. The urban and architectural development of Damascus up to 1929 reflected a rich interplay between traditional Islamic and Western influences. ...
... The urban and architectural development of Damascus up to 1929 reflected a rich interplay between traditional Islamic and Western influences. This evolution, as documented by various scholars, showcased the city's transition from a classical Islamic city to one exhibiting Western urban patterns [30]. ...
Facing substantial challenges due to rapid urbanization and socio-political shifts, the urban identities of our cities are in a state of significant transformation. This study explored the dynamic evolution of Damascus’s urban identity over distinct historical periods, employing a multi-dimensional methodology, which integrated spatial assessments, observational data from urban planners, and historical analyses. The findings revealed a transition from a stable urban identity in the pre-colonial period, to fragmented and, eventually, lost states in the post-colonial era. This study has underscored the need for strategic interventions to preserve the city’s identity amidst modernization pressures, providing valuable insights for urban planners and policymakers. The findings underscore the pressing need for strategic, context-sensitive interventions that can restore and revitalize Damascus’s unique urban identity, contributing to a broader discourse on the sustainable preservation of the cultural heritage in historic cities facing modernization pressures.
... The Greek city of Damascus is located within the walls of today's old city (Lababedi, 2008). In general, the roads network of Greek cities was developed following the planning methods of the Hippodamus of Miletus. ...
... Romans worked on improving the grid system of the Greeks, moreover, they shaped and built the walls of the city and its seven gates. The most important gates of the walled city are the eastern 'Bab Sharqi' and the western 'Bab Al-Jabia', as a result of their location on the main axis street 'Via Recta' (Lababedi, 2008) (Figure 11). Furthermore, the first water supply system is considered one of the main important developed elements in the Roman city. ...
... Generally, Damascus was developed following the compact organic pattern of growth, since architects in that era were applying climate responsive design strategies, houses were built in rows with deferent heights to prevent direct sun and create shadows (Lababedi, 2008). Moreover, the grid system of the city was developed to include narrow semi-roofed alleys to decrease the temperature and to create more shadowed areas. ...
The emergence of advanced technologies, globalization and modernization policies has affected architectural and urban practices negatively. Nowadays, buildings are considered the major source of greenhouse gas emissions and global warming. The urgent need to reduce energy consumption and design more self-sufficient buildings have made some countries comply with the Kyoto protocol. The directive of building’s energy performance (EPBD, 2002) that was published in 2002 has emphasized two aspects: reducing energy consumption and improving energy efficiency in buildings. Moreover, the published recast of the directive (2010) has decided that all buildings after 2020 have to be self-sufficient ‘nearly-zero energy’ buildings. Nevertheless, the building sector in Syria is accounted for 50% of total energy consumption. Furthermore, Syria is relying on fossil fuels to generate energy since the country has yet to develop renewable energy capacity. Nowadays, the energy sector is in chaos due to political conflict. Therefore, architects should enhance building performance and design energy-efficient buildings that can be achieved by referencing vernacular, regional strategies and understanding the dynamics of the region’s inhabitants to achieve environmental sustainability goals and to create meaningful places.
This dissertation is drawing on damascene houses, accordingly, a comprehensive analysis of the vernacular architecture and modern architecture of the city is conducted to propose an energy-efficient, regional design guide for the hot-arid climate of the region. Hence, the dissertation starts with discussing a brief contextualization of the previously done literature, it continues with the second chapter, which is providing a comprehensive analysis of the vernacular dwellings in Damascus in terms of the early settlements and the implemented regional, passive strategies. The third chapter is discussing regionalism in architecture, architectural identity, and the socio-cultural aspects that are affecting energy consumption. Thus, the chapter is investigating the tangible and intangible dimensions of Damascene buildings, besides; the abandoned vernacular strategies are discussed. After the first three chapters, the data is collected to propose design strategies in chapter four that could cope with the user(s) and the climate. Finally, a new design that is relying on an existing representative case is proposed. Thus, the dissertation aims to provide an energy-efficient, regional guide model for architects to follow.
Keywords: Energy-efficiency, Regional architecture, Vernacular dwellings, Damascene houses, Architectural identity.
... (Fries, 1994). • Follow the proposed masterplan of Morocco by Lucien Vilbert, it was aiming to separate the city into different parts of the old city and "the modern city" to maintain the socio-economy stable (Lababedi, 2008). • Integrating Industrial sites. ...
... The proposals of the masterplan were emphasizing on the idea that the old city was a "dirty" and "backward" place as they mentioned and left it neglected, instead of restoring the historical site (Lababedi, 2008)(map1).The main aim was to separate the city into "morphological-functional zones" (Kallaa, 1993) (map2),because French planners were examining the "French town planning concept" they wanted to integrate the "universal idea of modernity" (Fries, 1994). ...
... Indeed, locals and activists were upset with the proposed masterplan they considered it "a masterplan which is aiming to distort the local identity" (Totah, 2014). And it faced resistance and rejection from a city that is "originally" formed by 5000 years of history (Lababedi, 2008). Some aspects of the masterplan were applied until 1953 UNESCO committee came to visit Syria in reaction against the proposal that would harm the Umayyad mosque and they asked Ecochard to prepare another masterplan of the city (Matsubara, 2015). ...
Abstract:
Cities reflect as well as shape their inhabitant’s values and outlooks in various ways” (Bell & De shalit, 2011)
Cities and their built environment are reflections of the cultural structure and the dynamics of local identity. hence, they are clearly revealing history, religious and ethnic settings of the region. the difference between each region’s environment, architecture, and beliefs are what creates the place’s identity and makes it unique. The middle east region has been known for its architectural and urban legacy, where inhabitants were raised to preserve and praise it. At the end of the 20th-century middle eastern countries have witnessed radical changes on several levels: economic, political, and social. The emergence of modernization and globalization policies in such region have affected it negatively, changed the region’s architectural and urban character from traditional (vernacular) to modern, and that date was a turning point of the region’s history. This paper aims to explain the impact of modern urban planning practices by foreign urban planners on the historical identity of Damascus city and its historical urban square “Al Marjeh square”, how modern “functional” masterplans could determine the fate of historical buildings and the architectural style of the city. Finally, the paper will draw on criticisms by activists, writers and architects who raised their voices to resist the concept of “modern functional city”
Keywords: Urban planning, Modernization, City identity, Historical buildings, Criticism.
... The municipal authorities for spatial planning and civic affairs were abolished and decision-making powers decentralized to Islamic courts, that allowed for any form of development accepted by the neighbors. Because no new extensions of the city were planned, this resulted in a rapid and semi-formal densification of the city (Lababedi, 2008). Large residential complexes, were several generations and family branches lived together emerged, fueled by the Islamic tradition that distributes ownership shares of the family home across all sons after the death of the head of the family (Burns, 2007). ...
... Hatched units are densified in a later period. Source: Naito, 1988;Al-Qattan, 2002;Lababedi, 2008;Verdeil, 2012;Stockhammer & Wild, 2009). ...
In the spring of 2019, the Syrian civil war has entered its eight year. Although the heaviest fighting has taken place elsewhere, Damascus is heavily affected by the ongoing conflict. First, large parts of the eastern and southern fringe of the city are heavily damaged or destroyed. Second, the inflow of internally displaced persons is large, which has resulted in a very tense housing market in the undamaged districts. Third, the war-time political economy has changed the role of public and private actors in spatial planning and housing provision. This paper shows how the geography- and political economy of warfare has impacted upon residential patterns and housing practices in Damascus during the civil war. The empirical results are based on satellite imagery, policy documents and a survey among spatial planning experts and students. The results indicate that the formal response to the housing crisis consists of a reinforcement of the existing authoritarian neo-liberal planning model. This model has resulted in the construction of unaffordable luxurious showcase projects at symbolic locations. The informal response to the housing crisis is more pronounced. Alternative housing strategies, such as to self-construction, family housing, squatting and sub-letting have increased in popularity, as the formal response does not deliver immediate relief for war-affected households. The use of alternative housing strategies is concentrated in the existing informal settlements. This suggests that the civil war exacerbates housing poverty, but as well contributes to rising levels of socio-economic segregation.
... Furthermore, Islam regulated urban society and determined the essential elements of urban culture, influencing the early formation of Roman and Hellenistic cities in Middle Eastern urban development in general. The Islamic urban approach defined the structural core of cities that still exist today; both Aleppo and Damascus are good examples of cities developed in a typical Islamic style, with features still visible Fig. 2 (Lababedi, 2008). Still, there are several exceptions to the Islamic style, like Maaloula, a Christian village that has an exceptional architecture and location (Aldaher, 2021). ...
Damaged infrastructure and society's sense of ownership has to be rebuilt simultaneously during the aftermath of civil conflicts. Otherwise, heritage can become a barrier rather than an aid to integrated recovery.Syrian heritage is protected and monitored by the Antiquities Law; however, this law has not been updated since 1999. Thus, it is unable to deal appropriately with the post-war situation. When international actors and funders started reconstructing heritage sites in 2016, they could not rely on a central governmental heritage strategy, so many developed their strategies and agendas. The fragility of Syrian law compared to the international agendas resulted in various treatments and actions. While some projects have achieved a high quality of protection, others have not considered integration within recovery plans. This led to a research gap on the best ways to carry out heritage protection activities in Syria.This paper fills this gap in knowledge by describing the policy environment in Syria regarding the most frequently applied treatment and action methods while differentiating the treatment models and patterns that align modern purposes with authenticity. The results include a comparative classification strategy showcasing the Syrian conservation practice, highlighting the shared ideals, aims, and parameters. The developed assessment method and classification system can be applied to objectively determine the best ways to deal with any new heritage project in the Syrian context.
... The selection criteria of "historical city" included having a border along the Mediterranean Sea, having settlements within the historic city centres, having a planned regeneration project and scale of settlement. The regeneration processes of selected historic city centres from Europe; Athens, Greece [29][30][31][32][33], Palermo-Sicily, Italy [34][35][36][37][38], and Valetta, Malta [39][40][41][42] and the Middle East; Beirut, Lebanon [43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51], Damascus, Syria [52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60], and Jerusalem, Israel [61][62][63][64][65][66] were studied. Based on this study, selected examples of cities were marked on the map, prepared by the authors as shown in Figure 1. ...
For thousands of years, cities have evolved with changing needs. Cities are like living organisms, which are exposed to transformations as a result of changing needs and requirements. City centres are one of the attractive, essential, and vital parts of the city that are also affected by these changes. Specifically, historic city centres, which refer to the origins of the city, will be discussed within this context. Urban design aims to shape our cities with better quality and provide better places for everyday life. In addition, urban regeneration can be utilized as generic public policy for solving problems and providing physical improvements for these cities. Although the problems that emerge in each city are similar, sometimes they change circumstantially. As a result, the planning, implementation, and management of urban regeneration projects as well as their sustainability can produce serious complications. This article focuses on the process of urban regeneration, historic city centres, and the Mediterranean region and aims to develop an applicable regeneration framework for historic city centres limited to the Mediterranean region. First, the main problems of these cities are described. Next, characteristics of historic city centres and associated problems of the Mediterranean region are explained. Subsequently, the concept of urban regeneration is clarified, and the processes involved are discussed. Finally, an applicable urban regeneration framework for historic Mediterranean city centres, developed by the authors, is explained with the goal to reduce social segregation while incorporating the contributions of views from both local inhabitants and stakeholders in the process. The methodology of the overall research presented in this article is mainly based on a critical review of primary and secondary documents from the literature through a comparative and exploratory approach.
The Mesopotamian and Fertile Crescent regions of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) are historically significant as the cradle of civilization, where agriculture-driven settlements around 3500 BCE evolved into urban centers, fostering trade networks, governance systems, and cultural exchanges. These early developments align with modernization theory, positioning urbanization as a natural outcome of societal advancement. In the modern era, MENA’s urbanization has accelerated due to rapid population growth, rural-to-urban migration, agricultural modernization, and oil-driven economic transformations. Urban populations rose from 32% in 1960 to 64% in 2019, surpassing global trends and reshaping land use patterns, particularly in resource-rich coastal areas.
However, rapid urban expansion poses significant challenges, including climate change impacts, geopolitical instability, and threats to food security, water resources, and biodiversity. These challenges highlight the urgent need for sustainable urban policies. Globally, urban areas occupy less than 3% of Earth’s surface but house over 55% of the population, generate nearly 80% of GDP, and contribute more than 70% of carbon emissions. MENA mirrors these trends, with oil economies driving urban growth since the 1930s. By 2050, over 70% of the region’s population is projected to reside in urban areas, creating socioeconomic pressures and ecological vulnerabilities.
Developing Smart Sustainable Cities (SSCs) offers a pathway to managing rapid urbanization by integrating information and communication technology (ICT), clean energy, waste recycling, and efficient resource use. SSCs enhance quality of life and mitigate environmental risks, but their development faces barriers such as illiteracy, infrastructure deficits, and conflicts. While Gulf nations lead SSC initiatives, countries like Egypt and Morocco require capacity-building, and war-torn nations like Syria and Yemen prioritize basic survival. Advancing SSCs necessitates investments in education, governance reforms, and technology to ensure urban resilience, tailored to the unique contexts of MENA countries. This approach addresses socioeconomic demands while fostering sustainability and resilience amidst the challenges of rapid urban growth.
This chapter analyzes the two selected case studies, namely, DamascusDamascus \i city in SyriaSyriaSyrian refugees \iand ZaatariZaatari refugeeRefugee \i campCamp \i in JordanJordan \i. The chapter first investigates the direct urbicideUrbicide \i in Damascus city through analyzing its urbanUrban \i developmentUrban development \i; studying the distribution of the informal settlementsInformal settlements \i in Damascus; understanding Damascus urban scenario in wartime; exploring the Syrian approach in constructionConstruction \i and discussing the organization laws in SyriaSyriaSyrian refugees \i, including the law 10Law 10 \i, the Law No. 33, the Law 9Law 9 \i. It analyzes the damage, especially in the housingHousing \i sector in an aim to determine the real need for the city. The second section analyzes the indirect urbicideIndirect urbicide \i in Zaatari refugee camp in Jordan. It discusses the urban scenario, the laws and regulations that govern building construction and urban planningPlanning \i in the country, such as Municipality law no 29 for 1955 Law of Planning Cities; Towns Villages and Buildings No. 79 for the year 1966 on Planning and building regulations; Jordan National Building Law no. 7/93; Antiquity Law No. 21 for the Year 1988 of Antiquities and Archaeology; Law no. 21/1971—Public Health; Law no. 1 of 2003 Environmental Protection; Agricultural Law No. 20, 1973 and the AmmanAmman \i building and urban planning regulation of 2011. Then, it discusses the population growth and investigates the Zaatari campZaatari camp \i from urban housing perspective, not as an abrupt spaceSpace \i for an emergencyEmergency \i.
Şam, yüzyıllar boyunca pek çok yıkım ve imar görmüştür. Bu makale şehrin XIX. asırda kaydettiği tarihsel sürece ilişkin bir panorama sunmayı hedeflemektedir. Bu şehir portresi aynı zamanda bir Osmanlı şehri olan Şam’ın politik, sosyal ve ekonomik tarihinin ilgili süreçteki durumunu da aksettirecektir. Şam’da XIX. yüzyıl boyunca tarım, sanayi ve ticaret gibi iktisadi faaliyetler icra edilmekte fakat bunlar arasında ağırlığı ticaret oluşturmaktaydı. Tarım için kullanılan tek su kaynağı şehrin içinden geçen ve Altın nehir denilen Baradâ Nehri’ydi. Şehrin hac güzergahında yer alması şüphesiz ki onun gelişmesinde etkili olmuştu. Şam’ın sosyo-kültürel yapısı XIX yüzyıl için birçok sıkıntı ve ayrılıklara sahne olmuş, vaktiyle kültürel bir zenginlik adına bir arada yaşayan farklı kimlikler, sermayeci aktörlerin elinde bir savaş silahı haline gelmişti.
Bereketli hilal sınırları dâhilinde kalan ve önemli karayollarının kavşak noktasında yer alan Şanlıurfa şehrinin yerleşme tarihi oldukça gerilere gitmektedir. Göbeklitepe, Nevali Çori ve Yeni Mahalle'de (Urfa) yapılan kazı çalışmalarında Şanlıurfa yöresinde yerleşme tarihinin günümüzden yaklaşık 10-11 bin yıl öncesine dayandığı ortaya konulmuştur. Yörede ilk yerleşmelerin bu kadar eski olmasında ise büyük oranda fiziki çevre koşullarının uygun olması etkili olmuştur. Bunun yanında şehrin sürekli yerleşme görmesi ve günümüzde 500 bini aşan nüfusa sahip olmasında ulaşım fonksiyonlarına bağlı olarak gelişen ticari faaliyetlerin büyük etkisi olmuştur. Bu çalışmada Şanlıurfa şehrinin şehir hüviyeti kazanmaya başladığı dönemden (Osmanlı hâkimiyeti öncesi) günümüze kadar olan alansal gelişimi ve şehrin günümüzdeki durumu ele alınmıştır. Şehrin Osmanlı dönemi öncesi ve Osmanlı dönemindeki (1517-1923 yılları arsı) alansal gelişimi, dini mekânların konumundan hareketle belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. Şehrin Cumhuriyet dönemindeki alansal gelişimini belirlemek için ise daha önce yapılmış çalışmalar ile uydu görüntülerinden faydalanılmıştır. Buna göre şehrin Osmanlı hâkimiyetinden önceki alanı 1,48 km² civarında iken, Osmanlı döneminde yaklaşık 0,75 km²'lik yeni alan şehre eklenmiştir. Böylece Cumhuriyet dönemine kadar olan sürede şehir alanı yaklaşık 2,1 km² olmuştur. 1983 yılına gelindiğinde ise şehrin alansal açıdan yaklaşık 3 kat büyüyerek 5,8 km²'lik alana yayıldığı görülmektedir. Şehir GAP'ın da etkisiyle 1990'lı yıllardan sonra nüfus ve alansal olarak daha hızlı büyümüş ve 20 yılda (1990-2010 yılları arası) 31,5 km²'lik alan kaplamıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Şanlıurfa şehri, CBS, uzaktan algılama, sehirleşme, alansal gelişim. ABSTRACT Situated within borders of Fertile Crescent and in junction of significant roads, Şanlıurfa city's settlement dates back to early times. Excavations in Göbeklitepe, Nevali Çori and Yeni Mahalle (Urfa) prove dating of the settlement in Şanlıurfa back to around 10-11 thousand years ago. Eligible physical environmental conditions have a considerable effect on such an old date. Besides, the city has constantly been settled and currently has a population above 500 thousand partly as a consequence of developing commercial activities due to the transportation facilities. In this study, territorial development of Şanlıurfa from its first being a city (before Ottoman period) upto day, and current status of the city is investigated. Territorial development of the city before and during Ottoman time is studied in relation with location of the religious sites. The territorial development during the Republic period is investigated by using remote sensing technique. As a result, while the city's area was 1,48 km² earlier, another 0,75 km² was annexed during the Ottoman period. The city's area reached nearly 3 km² upto the Republic period. In 1983, the city expanded around 5,8 km² by doubling its area. Upon start of the GAP also, the city witnessed a rapid increase in population and area after 1990s. Finally, it reached 31,5 km² in 20 years (between 1990 and 2010).
The paper attempts to find out the effects of the trade relations established through silk route extending to Arabian, African and in some cases to European kingdoms under the Medieval India. The paper also attempts at understanding the Architectural vocabulary of buildings and settlement in Jaisalmer in terms of similar settlements existing on the silk routes and their common identities.
Hernando de Soto's new bestseller, The Mystery of Capital, attributes the failure of capitalism in the Third World to the lack of property titles. Many governments around the world are following this advice and are busy distributing legal titles to self-help families. Using data gathered in the now legalised self-help settlements of Bogota, the paper questions a number of the alleged benefits of legalisation. It shows how sales are more common when people lack legal title, how informal finance is available at the commencement of an illegal settlement and how little formal finance is forthcoming after legalisation. Most importantly, it shows that there is little sign of a secondary housing market. And, if there is little possibility of selling a house, home ownership in the self-help suburbs can offer little in the way of capital accumulation. It is hard to make money from a house that cannot be sold. Perhaps, de Soto's argument is less a panacea than a populist dream.
"[F]illed with rare encounters with Syria's oldest, most elite families. Critics of anthropology's taste for exoticism and marginality will savor this study of upper-class Damascus, a world that is urbane and cosmopolitan, yet in many ways as remote as the settings in which the best ethnography has traditionally been done. [Written] with a nuanced appreciation of the cultural forms in question and how Damascenes themselves think, talk about, and create them." -- Andrew Shryock In contemporary urban Syria, debates about the representation, preservation, and restoration of the Old City of Damascus have become part of status competition and identity construction among the city's elite. In theme restaurants and nightclubs that play on images of Syrian tradition, in television programs, nostalgic literature, and visual art, and in the rhetoric of historic preservation groups, the idea of the Old City has become a commodity for the consumption of tourists and, most important, of new and old segments of the Syrian upper class. In this lively ethnographic study, Christa Salamandra argues that in deploying and debating such representations, Syrians dispute the past and criticize the present.
For urban politics in Syria, the interwar years were pivotal. The country was in a transitional phase, uncomfortably suspended between four centuries of Ottoman rule and national independence. Although the Empire had collapsed and new forms of social and political organization were available, there remained a distinctive Ottoman cast to Syria's urban elites. Meanwhile, France had occupied the country, but was ruling clumsily and with a growing measure of uncertainty. The Mandate system itself dictated that the French could not remain in Syria indefinitely and Arab nationalism, however inconsistent and inarticulate, had become the reigning political idea of the age. The cry of independence rang across much of Syria, and nowhere more loudly and clearly than in her cities, the traditional centers of political life.
It is indeed an interesting endeavor to investigate the impact of economic policies on social stratification. Doing so enables us to see to what extent economic policies bring changes in class structure in a society. We take the case of Syria to study its economic policies and their accompanying impact on the evolving pattern of the Syrian elite from the late 1950s to the early 1980s and then look at accompanying impact on class structure.
The two poles or aspects of this paper are (1) economic policies themselves and (2) their impact on class structure. The question that we are going to raise in the first pole is the following: what is the nature of the economic policies? This refers to land reforms, industrial and commercial reforms, and foreign trade controls.
An increasing concentration of people and economic activities as well as a growing vehicle fleet have contributed to high levels of air pollution in the large cities of developing countries. This paper uses the case study of Tehran, the capital of Iran, to address the problem of air pollution in the major cities of developing countries. Specifically, the paper reviews and evaluates the implementation of the 10-year master plan to control air pollution in Tehran since its introduction in 2000. The paper argues that, thus far, the full implementation of many of the strategies of the master plan has lagged behind and a gap has emerged between the plan and its practice. Looking into the future, the paper identifies a list of challenges that need to be addressed systematically and comprehensively in order to turn the master plan and its strategies into meaningful and coordinated practice. Lessons learned from the case study of Tehran will help other major cities in developing countries to combat the air pollution problem more effectively in the future.
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