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Research Article
Local Ecological Knowledge on Climate Change and
Ecosystem-Based Adaptation Strategies Promote Resilience in
the Middle Zambezi Biosphere Reserve, Zimbabwe
Olga Laiza Kupika ,
1
Edson Gandiwa ,
1
Godwell Nhamo,
2
and Shakkie Kativu
3
1
Chinhoyi University of Technology, School of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Private Bag 7724, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe
2
Exxaro Chair in Business & Climate Change, Institute for Corporate Citizenship, University of South Africa, P.O. Box 392,
UNISA 0003, Pretoria, South Africa
3
Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Correspondence should be addressed to Olga Laiza Kupika; olgal.kupika@gmail.com
Received 11 May 2018; Revised 23 October 2018; Accepted 12 November 2018; Published 11 March 2019
Academic Editor: Giuseppe Comi
Copyright ©2019 Olga Laiza Kupika et al. is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
Understanding local community perceptions on impacts, causes, and responses to climate change is vital for promotion of
community resilience towards climate change. is study explored local ecological knowledge (LEK) held by local communities
on climate change trends and impacts in the Middle Zambezi Biosphere Reserve (MZBR), Zimbabwe. e objectives of the study
were to (i) investigate local community perceptions on trends and causes of climate change, (ii) identify biophysical impacts of
climate change at the local level, and (iii) explore the ecosystem-based adaptation strategies towards climate change. e study
used a mixed methods approach where a household questionnaire survey (n�320), key informant interviews (n�12), and focus
group discussions (n�8) were used to collect data between April 2015 and October 2016. Results from the study show that local
communities have observed decreasing rainfall and increasing temperatures as key indicators of climate change. Local com-
munities observed water scarcity, changes in vegetation phenology, livestock and wildlife mortalities, and food shortages due to
drought as the major impacts on their livelihoods. LEK can contribute to adaptive management strategies that enhance resilience
of socioecological systems (SES) in the face of climate change by providing information on the status and use of biophysical
components of the environment and by highlighting potential local adaptation strategies that can sustain key livelihood practices.
1. Introduction
Communities from different parts of the world use local
knowledge about ecosystems to recognize and respond to
the impacts of climate change and variability [1]. African
rural communities have been documented as constructing
climate change realities based on their experiences of the
impacts and effects [2]. Although the observation of global
climate change has been largely based on meteorological
data, there is paucity of information on how humans use
local ecological knowledge to recognize and respond to such
changes [3]. is calls for research to explore the role of local
culture in identifying and responding to threats imposed by
the changing climate. Adger et al. [4] suggest that local
communities could interpret and construct climate change
trends and local indicators within a cultural setting. e
United Nations (UN) recognizes the significant role played
by indigenous knowledge, cultures, and traditional practices
in promoting sustainable development, equity, and man-
agement of the environment [5]. Adger et al. [4] further
argue that since culture is embedded in societal modes of
production, consumption, lifestyles, and social organization,
it should be recognized in understanding both mitigation
and adaptation to climate change. Understanding and
building upon perceptions, experiences, and IK on climate
change can contribute towards strengthening the resilience
of poor societies who are characterized by weak in-
frastructure and economic well-being [6].
Hindawi
Scientifica
Volume 2019, Article ID 3069254, 15 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/3069254
Traditional knowledge is derived from indigenous
knowledge systems (IKSs), the designation that is used
to refer to the modus operandi and processes that the
indigenous peoples use to harness local knowledge [7].
Local/traditional/indigenous traditional knowledge is de-
fined as the intellectual behavior and beliefs of indigenous
societies or local information about the relationship of
living beings (including humans) with one another and
with their environment [8]. e knowledge exists and is
developed, accumulated, and transmitted culturally
through local community experiences and know-how
across generations [8, 9]. Also, known as indigenous
technical science, indigenous knowledge is dynamic and is
informed by local communities’ interactions with their
local biophysical and social environment [10]. Indigenous
knowledge encompasses interrelated subsets of local eco-
logical knowledge (LEK), seasonal knowledge, and phe-
nological knowledge [11].
Local ecological knowledge (LEK) refers to knowledge,
practices, and beliefs shared among local resource users
regarding ecological interaction within ecosystems [12]. LEK
comprises people’s lived experiences and their dialectical
interaction with the natural environment [13]. us, local
knowledge is a key component of integrated ecosystem and
community-based adaptation strategies. e Convention of
Biological Diversity (CBD) [14] defines ecosystem-based
adaptation (EbA) as the use of biodiversity and ecosystem
services in an overall adaptation strategy. Reid et al. [15]
defines community-based adaptation as a community-led
process, based on communities’ priorities, needs, knowl-
edge, and capacities, which should empower people to plan
for and cope with the impacts of climate change. EbA in-
cludes approaches such as the sustainable management,
conservation, and restoration of ecosystems to provide
services that help people adapt to the adverse effects of
climate change [14]. Approaches to ecosystem-based ad-
aptation take into account the multiple social, economic, and
cultural cobenefits for local communities as part of an overall
adaptation strategy [16]. is study investigated LEK in-
clusive of seasonal ecological knowledge (SEK) on climate
trends and responses to climate change impacts in the
context of a biosphere reserve.
e United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) Man and Biosphere Reserves
(MAB) are established directly to bring together bio-
diversity, cultural diversity, and ecosystem services, thus
promoting ecological security and models for sustainable
development [17]. UNESCO MAB, together with its World
Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) functions as a
Global Observatory for Climate Change Mitigation and
Adaptation focused on promoting integrated monitoring,
multidisciplinary approaches, and participatory activities,
supporting climate change management [18]. e WNBR
strives to implement the Paris Agreement and United Na-
tions (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by
fostering the improvement of human livelihoods and pro-
tection of natural and managed ecosystems for sustainable
development [19]. Yashina [20] notes that biosphere reserves
play an important role in developing and implementing
mitigation and adaptation measures as stipulated in the
Madrid Climate Change Strategy Action Plan Framework of
2008 and the Climate Change Initiative of 2009. Target 24 of
the Action Plan predicts that biosphere reserves can be used
as learning sites for research into, adaptation to, and mit-
igation of climate change impacts [20]. UNESCO [21] calls
for member states to respond to new kinds of conservation
challenge posed by climate change, developing innovative
policy, tailoring management strategies, and recognizing the
value of resilient protected area systems that help safeguard
the global environment and human societies from the
threats posed by climate change. UNESCO MAB strategy
highlights the need for local communities to integrate in-
digenous knowledge in the fight against climate change.
us, embracing indigenous knowledge in climate change
adaptation is vital to enhance community resilience of
communities to climate change [22] in biosphere reserve
settings.
Several studies have focused on the impacts and small-
scale farmers’ adaptation towards climate change and vari-
ability at the agriculture-wildlife interface in Zimbabwe
[23, 24]. Nyikahadzoi et al. [25] studied the factors influencing
climate change adaptation among small-scale farmers in
Hurungwe District, Zimbabwe. Ndebele-Murisa et al. [26]
studied the effects of climate change and variability on
fisheries-based livelihoods in Kariba, Zimbabwe. However, a
few studies have focused on the role of local knowledge in
understanding climate change trends, impacts, and adaptive
strategies among agroecological-based livelihoods within the
MZBR. is study uses two case studies to explore local
ecological knowledge (LEK) held by local communities on
climate change trends, impacts, and adaptation in the Middle
Zambezi Biosphere Reserve (MZBR), Zimbabwe.
e growing body of knowledge on local indigenous
knowledge about climate change impacts on biophysical
systems provides novel contributions towards our un-
derstanding of local climate change and people’s responses
[27–29] in rural communities who are determined to de-
velop sustainable environments [6]. Murphy et al. [30]
contend that successful adaptation to climate change re-
quires understanding processes of social and biophysical
change and their interactions within socioecological sys-
tems. us, LEK can be used to understand community
adaptive practices which promote resilience to environ-
mental changes [31] that have negative effects on local
livelihoods and sustainable development [10]. LEK can
therefore supplement scientific data by providing primary
and comprehensive descriptions of the biophysical and
socioeconomic components of the biosphere landscapes that
are experiencing climate change stresses [20]. In addition,
local community traditional daily practices such as weather
forecasting can provide a myriad of benefits including
making informed decisions to enhance agricultural food
security [11]. e objectives of this study were to (i) in-
vestigate local community perceptions on trends and causes
of climate change, (ii) identify biophysical impacts of climate
change at the local level, and (iii) explore the ecosystem-
based adaptation strategies towards climate change on the
MZBR, Zimbabwe.
2Scientifica
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Sites. e study was conducted in the Chundu
Communal and Nyamakate Resettlement Area (Table 1)
located in the transitional zone of the Middle Zambezi
Biosphere Reserve (MZBR), in the northern margins of
Mashonaland West Province, Zimbabwe. e case study
communities were purposively sampled due to their prox-
imity to Mana Pools National Park and Hurungwe Safari
Area (Figure 1) as an important factor in their recruitment.
e study area is made up of indigenous people who were
forced to migrate from the Zambezi Valley prior to the
establishment of the adjacent protected areas, namely,
Hurungwe Safari Area, Mana Pools National Park, and
Charara Safari Area (Figure 1).
e Nyamakate chiefdom and Chundu Communal Area
was established in the Zambezi valley before and after
colonization by the white men, respectively [33]. However,
the chiefdom was dismantled by the colonial government
and the occupation of the contemporary Nyamakate
Resettlement was done in the 1980s [32, 33]. Nyamakate
Resettlement and Chundu Communal Areas lie within
agroecological region 3. Chimhowu and Hulme [32] ob-
served that most agricultural seasons experience drought in
the area as indicated by the 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84,
1986–87, 1991–92, 1994–95, and 1996–97 droughts. e
1991–92 drought was the most severe, and it had profound
effects on livelihoods [32].
e MZBR is a habitat to diverse and unique flora and
fauna which contributes significantly towards the region’s
biodiversity. Terrestrial and aquatic flora and fauna
species are found in the adjacent protected areas,
i.e., Mana Pools National Park, Hurungwe, Chewore, and
Charara safari areas. e MZBR valley floor area is
endowed with diverse wildlife species including elephant
(Loxodonta africana), buffalo (Syncerus caffer), black
rhino (Diceros bicornis), painted wild dog (Lycaon pictus),
nyala (Tragelaphus angasii), impala, kudu, waterbuck,
zebra, hyena, and escarpment sable [35]. Nyamakate and
Chundu Communal Areas are located within a pre-
dominantly Miombo woodland characterized by broad-
leaved deciduous Brachystegia,Julbernardia, and Iso-
berlinia species.
2.2. Data Collection. e study used the mixed methods
approach where a household questionnaire survey, key in-
formant interviews, and focus group discussions were used
to collect data on the causes, trends, and indicators of cli-
mate change. Prior to the survey, written annual permission
to carry out the research was sought and granted from
Hurungwe Rural District Council in 2015 and 2016. e
research was approved by the Senate Research Council at the
Chinhoyi University of Technology (CUT), Zimbabwe. In
addition, all participants gave verbal informed consent to
participate in the research. e study was ethically cleared by
the CUT Ethics Committee.
Household surveys were used to collect quantitative data
on climate trends. e household questionnaire contained
questions related to (i) demographic profile of the house-
hold; (ii) perceptions towards climate change trends, im-
pacts; and (iii) coping and adaptation strategies. e
questions comprised both close-ended and open-ended
questions. e household survey was carried out in the
two communities between August 2015 and October 2016.
e questionnaire was pre-tested with 16 households from
Lima village located adjacent to Charara Safari Area to
improve validity and reliability of the instruments. e
questionnaires were revised after a pilot test to remove
ambiguities and misunderstandings. Villages which are lo-
cated close to the Hurungwe Safari Area were purposively
sampled for the survey. Village registers which were ob-
tained from the village heads were used to come up with the
representative sample for the survey. Every third household
was systematically sampled on the ground for the survey.
Interviews were conducted with the head of the household or
their spouse if they were not available. e geographical
location of each sampled household was captured using a
Geographical Position System Garmin Model GPS Map 64
(2013) and recorded.
Household questionnaires were administered to 320
people, of which 30% (n�96) were from five villages (India,
Golf, Village 20, Murimbika, and Hotel) located in Nya-
makate Resettlement Area, while the remaining 70%
(n�224) were from Kabidza and Mayamba villages in
Chundu Communal area. e proportion of respondents
from each area ward is proportional to the number of
households in the sampled villages. We selected only re-
spondents that were more than 20 years since we assumed
that they were more familiar with the local environment. e
overall response rate was 100% since research assistants
administered the questionnaires. Many of the interviewees
(85%) were local farmers in the two areas. Socioeconomic
and demographic profiles of the respondents are presented
in Table 2.
Twelve (12) key informant interviews were also held with
traditional leaders, ward councilor, and village elders. e
structured key informant guide contained open-ended
questions on traditional climate and weather indicators
and prediction tools. During 2015 and 2016 survey, tradi-
tional leadership accompanied the researcher to their gar-
dens, agricultural plots, and forest areas to identify biotic
climate predictors and to learn about their use and their
purpose in climate prediction and adaptation. is in-
formation together with data from the household survey and
focus group discussions allowed the researcher to compile an
inventory of flora and fauna species used in climate
prediction.
To ensure triangulation of findings, focus group dis-
cussions (FGDs) were held to share, validate, and explore the
findings of the household survey in greater detail [36]. A
random call of at least two household survey respondents for
participation in FGDs was made in each village. e FGDs
were composed of between 8 to 15 farmers from mixed
gender and/or separate male and female participants.
During the FGDS, participants were asked to describe the
causes of climate change and historical climatic events.
Participants deliberated among themselves and reached a
Scientifica 3
consensus before the final ranking was recorded. Challenges
related to domination of the discussion by a few participants
[6] were overcome by encouraging all group members to
provide answers. us, the researcher elicited responses
from all FGD participants in the listing and ranking of
stressors [6].
Table 1: Attributes of the study sites within the transition zone of the MZBR.
Attribute Nyamakate Resettlement Area Chundu Communal Area
Land use status Planned Resettlement Area Traditional Communal Area
Ownership Government Government
Management Public Public
Key stakeholders Hurungwe Rural District Council Hurungwe Rural District Council
Conservation initiatives
Year established 1980 1958
Size (ha) 110145 60753
Fauna Domesticated animals Domesticated animals
Flora Dry savannah dominated by Miombo
woodland Dry savanna dominated by Miombo woodland
Climate
Marked seasonal annual rainfall 700–800 mm
high means monthly temperatures
approximately 40°C and average minimum
temperatures are around 10°C
Human population High (over 13000 small-scale subsistence
farmers located in designated villages)
High (communal farmers in a typical rural
setup villages)
Forms of tourism Nonconsumptive tourism Nonconsumptive tourism
Source of livelihoods for local
communities
Semisubsistence agriculture, Communal Area
Management Programme for Indigenous
Resources (CAMPFIRE)
Subsistence agriculture, CAMPFIRE
Human-wildlife conflicts Human carnivore conflict Human carnivore conflict
Source: Chimhowu and Hulme [32]; Mbereko et al. [33]; Madhekeni and Zhou [34].
Figure 1: Location of Nyamakate Resettlement and Chundu Communal Area in the Middle Zambezi Biosphere Reserve (source: authors).
4Scientifica
2.3. Data Analysis. Data collected through the household
questionnaire survey were coded by assigning numerical
codes to text and then entered into Statistical Package for
Social Sciences (SPSS software IBM Version 20, Chicago,
USA) for analysis. Descriptive statistics (frequencies) were
used to summarize demographic and socioeconomic data
from the questionnaire response data set. Although the
demographic profile (Table 1) shows distribution of re-
spondents from the Resettlement and Communal Area, for
further analysis, all the data were lumped and treated as a
single data set. e percentage of all respondents in the
household survey (n�320) that had perceived specific
changes in the climate was calculated. One-way analysis of
variance was used to test whether there is any significant
difference in the mean respondents’ perceptions towards
awareness of changes in climate as well as temperature and
rainfall changes. Trends in meteorological data, specifically
rainfall and temperature, were analysed using Microsoft
Excel 2007 [37].
Transcripts from key informant interviews and focus
group discussions were translated to English and analysed
through content analysis by identifying recurring themes,
concepts, patterns, trends, and key words [38]. During
qualitative content analysis, LEK on impacts of climate
change was extracted and synthesized. According to Braun
and Clarke [39], the deductive thematic analysis is a
Table 2: Socioeconomic and demographic profiles of respondents.
Household characteristics Study sites Total %
Nyamakate (n) Chundu (n)
Gender of household head Male 64 171 235 73
Female 32 53 85 27
Age of the household head
Below 29 24 20 44 14
30–40 34 75 109 34
41–50 14 32 46 14
51–60 13 26 39 12
60+ 11 71 82 26
Marital status of the head
Never married 5 7 12 4
Married 73 180 253 79
Divorced/separated 5 7 12 4
Widowed 13 28 41 13
Cohabiting 0 2 2 1
Household size
1–3 11 32 43 13
4–6 49 113 162 51
7–9 25 58 83 26
10–12 9 17 26 8
Above 13 2 4 6 2
Period of stay in the MZBR
1–5 20 18 38 12
5–10 16 24 40 13
10–15 15 26 41 13
16–20 26 33 59 18
21–25 6 22 28 9
26–30 6 35 41 13
Above 30 7 66 73 23
Education level of household head
None 11 54 65 20
Primary 28 85 113 35
Secondary 55 82 137 43
Tertiary 1 1 2 1
Vocational training 1 2 3 1
Wealth rank category
Poor 20 80 100 31
Average 68 127 195 61
Rich 8 17 25 8
Occupation/job of the household head
Gardening 17 11 28 9
Rural farmer 73 199 272 85
Farm laborer 1 3 4 1
Business 2 3 5 2
None 2 0 2 1
Pension 0 2 2 1
Professional 0 6 6 2
Family member employed in the wildlife sector Yes 12 15 27 8
No 84 209 293 92
Scientifica 5
qualitative data analysis approach which is based on themes
which are predetermined by the researcher’s theoretical or
analytic interest in the research area and is more explicitly
driven. Data were therefore classified according to local
observations of climate change, impacts of climate change
on the biophysical and socioeconomic systems, and the
coping and adaptation strategies.
3. Results
3.1. Local Community Perceptions on Climate Change
and Variability
3.1.1. Local Awareness of Climate Change and Vulnerability.
Findings from key informant interviews indicated a general
awareness among the village elders and other community
leaderships that climate change and variability have been a
reality in the area. One of the key informants who had stayed
in Chundu Communal Area for over five decades (50 years)
had this to say:
“I was born in this place in 1965 and my parents were also
born here. Yes, I have heard of climate change. I can
witness that the climate is changing judging from the
shifting rainfall patterns, it is increasingly becoming er-
ratic and local spirit mediums have advised that rainfall
will decrease. We have observed it to be true and even the
radio confirms this notion about declining and erratic
rainfall.”
Perceptions of key informants are similar to about 58.1%
(n�186) of household questionnaire respondents who
indicated that they were aware of climate change whilst
41.9% (n�134) were not aware. Results from one-way
ANOVA show that there were no significant differences
in the mean responses across the entire sample (p≤0.000).
Focus group discussions further revealed that, in the study
area, rainfall has been generally decreasing whilst temper-
ature has been increasing. Key informants and FGD par-
ticipants expressed concern that while the rainfall amount
has been generally decreasing, the seasonal distribution of
the rainfall was not even throughout the growing seasons.
3.1.2. Patterns and Trends of Climate Change and Variability.
Results from the household survey show that the majority
(88.1%; n�282) of the respondents perceived that the
rainfall amount was generally decreasing whilst tempera-
tures were increasing (68.1%; n�218) (Figure 2). Re-
spondents showed mixed perceptions on temperature trends
with 68.1% (n�218) of the respondents perceiving an in-
crease, 8.1% (n�26) perceiving a decline, and 23.8%
(n�76) perceiving that temperatures had remained the
same (P�0.02) (Figure 3). e mean response was 1.40. On
the other hand, no significant differences were observed on
perceptions on rainfall with 4.4% (n�14) of the respondents
perceiving an increase, 88.4% (n�282) perceiving a decline,
and 6.9% (n�22) perceiving that temperatures had
remained the same (P�0.03). e mean response was 2.83.
Findings from key informants and FGDs indicate that
there has been a shift in the onset of rain season from
October to mid-December whilst the end of rainy season has
shifted from March to April since 2013. Traditional lead-
ership noted that the community used to receive early rain
like “bumharutsva” and “gukurahundi” prior to the onset of
the rain season in November. e majority of key informants
indicated that the onset of the rain season had shifted and
was now shorter whilst the amount of rainfall has been
declining. One key informant stated
“Rains are no longer coming in November but mid-
December and end in early March. In the past, we
used to get rainfall from October/November until around
March/April. Overall, the length of the rain seasons has
also decreased we only get rainfall for just two months or
even one month. From 1982, we have been receiving
normal rainfall except for 1992, 2001 and 2008 when we
experienced severe drought. From 2008 up to now it has
drastically decreased.”
A large proportion of the household respondents (94.4%;
n�302) perceived that they had experienced drought as the
most frequent extreme event followed by extreme heat
(74.7%; n�239) (Figure 3). Key informants and FGD
participants also confirmed that there have been changes in
rainfall amount and temperature. One key informant stated
“2015/16 summer season has been the worst in terms of
excessive heat. ere were 2 days on a weekend that were
the hottest ones we have ever seen. On those same days,
our soya bean crops actually dried up within hours from
the excessive heat. I think that temperatures at that time
were over 40°C. On the other hand, we also experienced
extremely cold periods in winter.”
A large proportion (94%; n�302) of the household
respondents had experienced drought. Respondents showed
mixed perceptions on the frequency of occurrence of
drought with 61.6% (n�197) of the respondents perceiving
an increase, 14% (n�45) perceiving a decline, and 24.4%
(n�78) perceiving that temperatures had remained the
same (P�0.01). On the other hand, no significant differ-
ences were observed on perceptions on excessive heat and
excessive cold (P�0.07). Key informants and FGD par-
ticipants mentioned that the area had experienced droughts
during the following years: 1981/82; 91/92; 87/88; 2001/02;
2007/8; 2013/14. Approximately half of the household re-
spondents (56%; n�178) stated that they had experienced
extreme cold winters since 2008. Trends in the occurrence of
cold winters were also perceived to be on the increase (48/
8%; n�156), and the severity was moderate (43.4%;
n�139). FGD participants also stated that, during the 2012/
13 and 2014/2015 rain season, the area had received unusual
hailstorms associated with destructive winds. However,
findings from the household survey show that floods (3.8%;
n�12) and tropical cyclones (10%; n�32) are not a
common event in the area. All the key informants and FGD
participants concurred that generally, weather conditions
6Scientifica
had become drier and rainfall timing was becoming more
unpredictable.
Key informants were of the opinion that climate change
is caused by industrial pollutants and the abandonment of
traditional culture and practices. Traditional leaders noted
that local chiefs generally no longer perform the traditional
rainmaking ceremonies. It was reported that the chiefs could
not perform the ceremonies because they do not qualify
since these days people use various deviant acts to become
chiefs. One key informant stated
“Back in the days when industries were few, we had no
issues of climate change. e spirit mediums tell us that in
terms of lifestyle, people used to be well behaved long ago
and there were no cases of incest. Bereaved families did
not store or hang up dead peoples’ clothes (kuturika
matata) like what people are doing nowadays. e
ancestors are angered by these sins and in turn do not
bless the area with rainfall.”
Traditional key informants also lamented that modern
religions were overriding cultural practices most probably
due to diverse cultural backgrounds of people located in
Nyamakate Resettlement Area. Traditional leadership also
highlighted that contemporary religious practices particu-
larly Christianity of the apostolic sect seem to be in conflict
with traditional values as indicated by invasion of sacred
sites such as Hurungwe Mountain where they have estab-
lished their shrines. Generally, all key informants stated that
climate change is caused by excessive deforestation whilst
other thought it is due to natural causes. ose who men-
tioned deforestation attributed this to clearance of land and
wood harvesting for tobacco farming and curing,
respectively.
3.2. Temperature and Rainfall Trends from Meteorological
Data. Analysis of available rainfall data (Figure 4) from the
Meteorological Services Department (Kariba Station) for the
period 1976 to 2011 shows a slight decreasing trends in total
rainfall for the period. e timing and transitions of seasons
have been highly variable. Periods with very low rainfall
include 1991/92 and 2001/02 seasons, corresponding to
those years cited by all household survey respondents, key
informants, and FGD participants.
Mean monthly minimum and maximum temperatures
for Kariba Station (1976–2007) show a general increase
(Figure 5). e period 1970 to 1981 recorded 30.2°C as the
average maximum temperature.
e ten-year period, 1981–1990, shows a significant
temperature increase with a calculated mean average
maximum temperature for this period as 31.4°C, showing a
1.2°C increase from 30.2°C. Ever since 1991 to date, tem-
peratures have been increasing, particularly a record of
33.1°C for the year 2007. us, in Kariba, temperatures are
increasing.
3.3. Impacts of Climate Change and Variability on Livelihood
Systems. Household respondents, key informants, and focus
group discussants were aware of the impacts of climate
change on socioeconomic and biophysical components of
the environment (Table 3). e changing climate has
resulted in a general decline in agricultural productivity,
including changes in the availability of ecosystem goods and
services. About 43% (n�139) of the respondents indicate
that they had experienced livestock diseases such as red
water due to climate change. Approximately 59% (n�189)
attributed the decrease of pastures to drought which ranked
third after increase in livestock and population increase.
About 8% (26) households had lost at least two cattle
(currently valued at approximately US$ 800) due to drought.
A large proportion of household respondents (78%;
n�250) cited declining rainfall (53%; n�168) as the major
factor contributing to water shortages whilst another pro-
portion (43%; n�136) also indicated that disappearance of
wetlands (68; n�218) was also mentioned to be succumbing
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Rainfall Temperature
Number of respondents
Climate parameters
Decreasing
No change
Increasing
Figure 2: Household respondents’ perceptions of rainfall and
temperature (1980–2015).
0
50
100
150
200
250
Drought Excessive cold Excessive heat
Frequency of households respondents
Declining
Regular
Increasing
Extreme events
Figure 3: Household respondents’ experiences of extreme events
(1980–2015).
Scientifica 7
to decreasing rainfall. Field observations revealed that some
farmers cultivated in wetlands and valley bottoms, taking
advantage of residual moisture in the soils. Personal field
observations revealed boreholes, rivers, streams, and wells as
the key water sources in the area. Key informants indicated
that there have been substantial changes to the flow regime
of streams such as Chitake, Chewore, Kabidza, Chitake,
Mvurameshi, Mvuramachena, Samhofu, and Hodobe. For
instance, key informants reported that Rukomechi river flow
regime had changed from perennial to seasonal since 2015/
2016 season. e study villages used to have several water
sources, which would supply water throughout the year such
as natural springs and wetlands, but most of them have dried
up.
Key informants and FGD participants identify wild fruits
and forest products, which they used to sustain livelihoods
during periods of drought. Respondents indicated that
Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach) fruits were being har-
vested and pounded into powder to cook porridge, whilst
Diospyros mespiliformis (mushuma) and Parinari Curate-
llifolia (muchakata) fruits are used as an alternative food
source during drought. In addition, exotic tree species such
as raw mangoes have also been harvested prematurely and
cooked for consumption during the 1991/92 and 2007/8
drought period. During drought local communities also rely
on indigenous shrubs and underground tubers such as air
potato (manyanya) and “mupama”, although even these
roots only do well when there is good rainfall. Dioscorea
praehensilis Benth (mupama) and the air potato Dioscorea
bulbifera (manyanya) are woody perennial plants, which
both belong to the family Dioscoreaceae. e plants produce
edible underground organs (tubers). e air potato
(mupama) is one of the most widely consumed yam species.
Mupama tree is also used during drought periods. For ex-
ample, respondents mentioned the tree species provided
food relief to most vulnerable and poor households during
the most severe 1991/2 and 2007/8 drought period. Re-
spondents stated that the yam plant produces potato like
roots are edible. Unlike the ordinary potato and sweet potato
tubers, the air potato tubers have to be thoroughly boiled to
remove the bitter taste before consumption. Other key in-
formants reported that if the tubers are underprepared, their
consumption could lead to severe stomach ailments and
eventually death.
Key informants reported that Rhynchosia venulosa
(mukoyo) is as one of the popular drought relief plant
species among the local community members. Key in-
formants and FGD participants stated that traditional beer-
brewing experts use the roots of the legume to brew beer,
which can be sold locally or taken to the border town of
Chirundu for sale. Key informants suggested that com-
mercialization of the by-product from the legume is im-
portant in contributing towards household income during
drought periods. e shrub has been cited as one of the
underutilised legumes which have tremendous potential for
commercial exploitation in the area. Participants reported
that they even illegally harvest the plant in the adjacent
protected area since the species is already disappearing in
nearby community forests.
A few respondents cited bee farming as one of the key
coping strategies in response to changing climatic short-
ages. e beehives are made from mupfuti tree timber.
Upon completion, the beehives are placed in the mupondo
or mutsabvi tree because it has flowers, which easily attract
the bees towards the hives. Local community members
practice highlighted that bee farming requires patience and
dedication; hence, very few people use it as a coping
strategy. e next section presents an analysis of factors
which influence the choice of coping strategies in the study
area.
4. Discussion
4.1. Local Community Perceptions on Trends and Causes of
Climate Change. Findings from this study indicate that local
communities perceive that rainfall is decreasing whilst
temperatures are increasing. Findings are in line with IPCC
[40] predictions that temperatures across different scales are
set to increase whilst rainfall in southern Africa is set to
decrease. Results from this study show that scientific rainfall
0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
120.0
0 1020304050
Mean monthly rainfall (mm)
Ye a r s
Rainfall (mm)
10 per. mov. avg. (rainfall (mm))
Figure 4: Mean monthly rainfall for Kariba (1967–2007) (source:
Meteorological Services Department (MSD) Kariba Station).
y= 0.0443x+ 30.066
R2= 0.5233
29
29.5
30
30.5
31
31.5
32
32.5
0 1020304050
Mean monthly maximum temperature (°C)
Figure 5: Mean monthly temperature for Kariba (1967–2007)
(source: Meteorological Services Department (MSD) Kariba
Station).
8Scientifica
Table 3: Local community perceptions of climate change impacts on livelihood systems.
Perceived climate trend Impacts on livelihood system Coping and adaptation strategy
Agricultural activities
Declining and erratic rainfall shifting rain
season
Inadequate moisture for plants production
(BI)
Decrease in crop productivity, e.g., maize
(SE)
Changes in crops/varieties
Short and unpredictable planting season (SE)
Increased prevalence of new pests and
diseases (BI/SE)
Cultivate in wetlands and low-lying areas
Change crop variety from long season to
short season (A)
Use stored grain as seed reduced the overall
area under cultivation
Extreme temperatures (heat waves and very
cold winters)
Wilting of maize and tobacco has mostly
been affected by excessive heat (BI/SE)
Water conservation techniques such as
conservation agriculture and mulching
Persistent droughts Household food shortages due to poor
harvest/low agricultural output (SE)
Harvest wild fruits, e.g., muchekecha, and
wild legumes such as Dioscorea praehensilis
Benth (mupama), and the air potato,
Dioscorea bulbifera (manyanya), and
Rhynchosia venulosa (mukoyo) during
drought periods
Harvest wild animals, e.g., rabbits, warthogs,
and mice, and community/nutritional
gardens
Off-farm jobs in nearby commercial farms
Cooking raw bananas and mangoes
Gold panning,
Selling livestock.
Barter trading, for example, exchanging 2
gallons maize with a goat
Reduced household income (SE)
Rearing of domestic guinea fowls (Numida
meleagris f. domestica) and rock hyrax
(Procavia capensis) for sale; bee-keeping
informal trading; food for work; weaving and
hand crafting; Off-farm activities, e.g., seek
employment in nearby farms, and migrant
labor in Zambia
Reduced rainfall and excessive heat drought
Deterioration on quantity and quality of
livestock grazing areas (BI/SE)
Reduced livestock, e.g., cattle and goats, and
reproductive rate and capacity has been
affected (SE)
Increase in roadrunner mortalities and
reduced reproduction (SE)
Increase in cases of climate-induced disease
outbreaks (SE)
Shortage of water for livestock (BI); livestock
mortality (cattle, goats, and sheep); livestock
diseases (e.g., red water in sheep, goats, and
cattle), and deteriorating health condition
(all domestic animals) (SE/BI)
Livestock graze within wetlands and adjacent
protected area
Store maize crop residue for cattle feed
Reduce livestock numbers
Water resources
Reduced rainfall and high temperatures
Reduction in water sources due to drying up
of water sources boreholes; domestic wells
drying up before the end of the next rainy
season (BI/SE)
Change in river flow from perennial to
seasonal (BI); disease outbreaks such as
headache, malaria, and diarrhoea (SE)
Lack of water for setting up tobacco seed
beds (BI/SE)
Wetlands drying up
Dig deep wells along river beds and on
wetlands
Women travel long distances to fetch water
Several households (e.g., up to 44) share
same borehole
Scientifica 9
data which show interannual variations and a general de-
cline in rainfall for over the past 30 years corroborate with
the people’s perception of climate changes. Farmers’ per-
ceptions of climate change in the study area are in line with
empirical data and other studies on farmers perceptions
inhabiting marginal areas in Zimbabwe [23, 41, 42]. Findings
are also similar to other studies in Zimbabwe such as Guruve
District where Gwenzi et al. [43] and Hwedza and Makoni
[44] have reported unpredictable rainfall, declining rainfall,
and increasing temperatures as some of the indicators of
climate change. Local ecological knowledge on climate
patterns and impacts has been documented in other studies
in different parts of Africa [45–48]. Using IKS, Nkomwa
et al. [22] reported that farmers in Malawi observed delayed
and unpredictable onset of rainfall, declining rainfall trends,
warming temperatures, and increased frequency of dry spells
as some of the key indicators of a changing climate.
However, there are variations with respect to observed
extreme events. In this study, respondents cited frequent
droughts and heat waves as the common extreme events.
ese findings are similar to IPCC [40] report, which in-
dicated that persistent droughts and extreme temperatures
are some of the indicators of a changing climate. Whilst
other studies have observed extreme events such as cyclones
and floods [49–51], in this study, farmers did not identify
such events. In Zimbabwe, two cyclones Elline (experienced
in 2000) and Japhet (experienced in 2003) have mainly
affected the Manicaland and Masvingo provinces [51], which
the study respondents have not experienced. According to
the [52] the major flood-prone areas in Zimbabwe are se-
lected parts of the southern lowveld and the lower Zambezi
valley, that is Muzarabani, Middle Sabi, Tsholotsho, Mali-
pati, Chikwalakwala, and Tuli-Shashe.
In this study, farmers attribute climate change to both
anthropogenic and spiritual causes. is is in line with
findings by [53] who noticed that farmers in Ghana per-
ceived that disasters such as prolonged droughts are inflicted
by spiritual factors such as the gods. Our findings also
correspond with the IPCC [40] report that combinations of
anthropogenic and natural forces are the major cases of
climatic changes.
4.2. Local Ecological Knowledge on the Impacts of Climate
Change. is study found that community members agreed
that extreme events related to climate change such as
Table 3: Continued.
Perceived climate trend Impacts on livelihood system Coping and adaptation strategy
Forest resources
Reduce rainfall
Changes in tree phenology (both domestic
and exotic tree species), e.g., mazhanje and
mango (BI)
Prolonged leaf senescence time in leaf fall for
deciduous trees from August to October, tree
leaves would be green but now the leaves
have actually fallen off when they used to fall
off only in August, e.g., mupfuti, munondo,
mutsonzowa, mukonono, mutowa (BI/SE)
Most indigenous and exotic fruit trees
including fruit trees are no longer producing
fruit disappearance of reduced fruit
production, e.g., Diospyros mespiliformis and
muhacha (BE/SE)
Planting of indigenous and exotic tree
species
Extreme temperatures (heat waves and
excessive cold)
Premature drying up of fruits like nhunguru
(BI) Planting indigenous and exotic trees
Soil resources
Reduced rainfall and excessive temperatures Soil carbon stocks have been disturbed (BI)
Change in soil quality over time (BI)
Conserve our soils through the use of
“madhunduru”; apply fertilizers
Wildlife resources
Drought (2002–2008)
Habitat encroachment, e.g., human
expansion of cultivation into buffer zone (BI)
Livestock depredation during the prolonged
dry season; lions mostly follow after donkeys
and cows; hyenas target goats wild animals;
lions and hyenas attack livestock (BI)
Crop destruction (buffaloes and elands
destroy tobacco and eat maize in the fields
during March, April, and May
Bush pigs and baboons create a menace
during the planting and harvesting season
from December to May (SE)
Illegal hunting and harvesting
Key: Socioeconomic impact (SE); biophysical Impact (BI).
10 Scientifica
prolonged dry periods and excessive temperatures have
affected agricultural activities and the biophysical envi-
ronment. Nyikahadzoi et al. [25] note that climate change is
expected to continue to pose a serious threat to agriculture in
southern Africa as annual rainfall amounts are expected to
decline and temperatures are expected to increase. Climate
change has led to highly variable yields in arable agriculture
(both rain-fed and irrigated) in African countries [54].
Findings in this study are in line with the IPCC [40] which
states that climate change impacts affect both natural and
human systems. Respondents indicated that climate change
has affected seasonal rainfall patterns by reducing the length
of the rainy periods as well as the amount of rain with
consequences on crop and livestock production. Similar
observations by Chikozho [51] are that low and erratic
rainfall is leading to low and unpredictable levels of crop
production in the semidry agroecological zones of Zim-
babwe. Study findings revealed that some farmers resorted to
stored grain for seed but did not indicate any loss of seed
variety impacts associated with climate change. is con-
trasts with findings by Mburu Gathuru and Kaguna [55] who
revealed that, in Kenya, climate change, mainly reduced
rainfall levels, has led to the disappearance of some of the
indigenous seed varieties as continued failure of crops is
affecting the capacity for production of good seeds. In this
study, farmers indicated that the planting season has been
shortened due to shifting in the timing of the onset of the
rain season. Findings in this study are in line with Mburu
Gathuru and Kaguna [55] who observed that, in Kenya,
climate change has caused disruption of the planting cal-
endar such that it has become increasingly difficult for
youthful farmers to predict seasonal regimes.
Findings on the negative impacts of climate change on
pastures and livestock health concur with those by Hopping
et al. [56] who reported that pastoralists in the Tibetan
rangelands, China, have the same opinion that changing
climate is driving undesirable trends in grassland and
livestock health. Rose et al. [57] also noted cases of decline in
pastures due to low and erratic rainfall. Other authors have
also noted that livestock production faces the problem of
poor and variable rangeland productivity and desertification
processes [24, 58, 59]. Generally, reduction in fresh water
resources affects natural resource and climate-dependent
sectors such as forestry, agriculture, water, and fisheries
[60]. Findings from this study indicate that local commu-
nities use LEK to detect changes in water resources due to
climate change and variability. Respondents indicated that
frequent extreme events such as drought and increasing
temperatures affect soil moisture and surface water avail-
ability for both domestic use and agriculture. is is in line
with United Nations Framework on Climate Change [61]
assertion that Africa faces challenges related to water
availability and spatial variations in the location and need for
water resources. Observations from this study are also
similar to those by Taylor et al. [62] who noticed that more
frequent and intense climate extremes such as droughts and
floods increase variability in soil moisture and surface water.
Observations in this study related to drying up of rivers and
poor water quality in surface and groundwater systems
coincide with findings by Urama and Ozor [63] who re-
ported that impacts on water resources act in conjunction
with other factors to affect ecosystem health and socio-
economic well-being of human communities. For example,
Mburu Gathuru and Kaguna [55] also noticed that, in
Kenya, climate change interacts with anthropogenic activ-
ities along rivers to contribute to reduction of river water
volume over time and weakening of critical ecosystems like
forest watersheds.
Farmers at the agriculture wildlife interface notice im-
pacts of climate change on wildlife resource abundance such
as disappearance of wetlands, habitat changes, and changes
in the phenology of indigenous tree species. ese obser-
vations are in line with Dube and Phiri [64] who reported
that climate change is affecting biodiversity in Zimbabwe as
indicated by the disappearance of natural habitats, flora, and
fauna. In Tanzania, Paavola [65] also noticed that forests,
wildlife, and wetlands are being impacted by climate change.
Farmers also reported that although wildlife resources such
as fruits are consumed to avert food shortages during
drought, their abundance has declined due to climatic
changes. Results from this study agree with those by Rurinda
et al. [44], who reported that the availability of wild fruits
and social safety nets was affected directly and indirectly by
extreme temperatures and increased rainfall variability,
impacting on the livelihoods of resource-constrained
farmers. Similar observations were also seen in [66] who
noticed that farmers in Makonde district, Zimbabwe, per-
ceived changes in ecosystem productivity, goods, and ser-
vices as a result of climate-induced factors. Nhemachena
et al. [41] also indicated that the phenology of indigenous
fruit trees and invertebrate species was under threat from
climate-induced changes on water availability and wetlands.
However, in this study, respondents did not identify any
impacts associated with invertebrate species.
e recruitment of plants has been constrained by low
rainfall and temperature leading to low productivity [67].
Low productivity of primary producers (plants) had severe
cascading effects on both domestic and wildlife species along
the food chain. Climate change has led to creation of strong
tensions between humans and wildlife species due to
shortage of resources (especially food and water). Occur-
rence of habitat patches and invasive species (which are
inedible to animals) led to animals exceeding their home-
ranges and encroaching human habitats, thereby causing
damage to crops and property paving a way to human-
wildlife conflict. Climate change has the potential to alter
migratory routes (and timings) of species that use both
seasonal wetlands (migratory birds) and track seasonal
changes in vegetation (herbivores) [68]. is increase
conflicts between people and large mammals such as ele-
phants, particularly in areas where rainfall is low. Change
[69] states that wildlife-farming conflict was potentially
exacerbated by climate change, in particular, drought, which
encourages wildlife to forage on farmlands.
In this study, respondents also noted that climatic pa-
rameters interact with other nonclimatic factors such as
illegal harvesting and pressure from human population
increase also influence the abundance of wildlife resources.
Scientifica 11
For instance, trees belonging to the dominant family within
the Miombo region are threatened by other nonclimatic
factors such as deforestation. Similar observations have been
made in Mozambique where trees associated with Miombo
woodland utilised for traditional purposes are declining due
to overexploitation and destructive collection [70]. Mubaya
et al. [71] suggest that although climatic factors are critical in
determining production in agroecosystems, multiple
stressors interact to influence the abundance and diversity of
natural resources.
4.3. Coping and Adaptation Strategies. Findings from this
study revealed that local communities use LEK on wildlife
resources, water conservation, indigenous plant food sources,
and alternative income generation as way of adapting and
coping with changing rainfall patterns, extreme temperatures,
and droughts. Local communities use water harvesting such
as digging wells, which collect water within wetlands during
the rainy season, as one of the key strategies of coping with
water shortages. e water is then used for supplementary
irrigation of vegetables and crops during the dry season.
Similar observations have been made by Van Campenhout
et al. [72] that, in the dry season, farmers use the water
conserved in the wells and basins for irrigation. Home gar-
dens are widely done in southern Africa especially Zimbabwe,
Mozambique, Botswana, and South Africa where there is
growing of food crops like maize, rice, vegetable, and fruits for
barter trading and income generation [72]. For example, in
South Africa, indigenous people grow cash crops like vege-
tables, tomatoes, and maize in home gardens to increase
household income [73].
is study established that illegal harvesting of wildlife
and harvesting and consumption of wild fruits and legumes
can alleviate food shortages during drought. Similar findings
have been observed by [74, 75] who noted that off-farm
income derived from exploitation of wildlife resources is
critical to livelihoods and overall adaptive capacity. In
coping with risk due to excessive or low rainfall, drought,
and crop failure, some traditional people in Ghana also
supplement their food by hunting, fishing, and gathering
wild food plants [76]. Findings from this study on the use of
edible tubers from family Dioscoreaceae are similar to
findings elsewhere in Africa. Similar sentiments have been
expressed by Mortimore and Manvell [77] who reported that
small holder farmers in northern Nigeria making use of
biodiversity in cultivated crops and wild plants as one of the
adaptation strategies. For example, Bruschi et al. [70] found
that some plant species like Dioscorea cochleari apiculata
and Dioscorea dumetorum have been collected from a
Miombo woodland and eaten as a means of averting food
shortages during drought periods in a rural community of
Muda-Serraçã, central Mozambique. Similarly, in this study,
the same species provide alternative food during drought
periods. In addition, both studies acknowledge that uti-
lisation of the tubers requires one to be thoroughly
acquainted with the skills and techniques for making some
of the poisonous wild plants edible. Apart from southern
Africa, the edible legumes are widely known as famine foods
in East Africa and have also been reported as cultivated in
some parts of West Africa [78]. Key informants also em-
phasized that Dioscorea cochleari apiculata and D. dume-
torum may be eaten only after they have undergone
appropriate preparation. Basically, the preparation pro-
cedure for the tubers involve the following: peeling the tuber,
cutting it into thin slices, dry and wash several hours in a
river, always changing the place, and then boil thoroughly
for a prolonged period of time till they are cooked. Failure to
do this may cause vomiting and even death as revealed by
observations from East Africa [79].
In this study, few individuals indicated that they resort to
production of handcrafts for sale as a strategy to increase
household income. Mogotsi et al. [80] concurs that local
communities have engaged in different living strategies like
producing crafts for selling for income generation in order to
reduce poverty and starvation during drought periods. For
example, in Zimbabwe and South Africa, they use murara
(Hyphanate petersiana) leaves for basket weaving and
production of wine from the sap [24, 81]. In Zimbabwe,
njemani production has become a source of living for many
people in Sengwe area and some of people no longer get
involved in farming [82]. Similarly, in this study, some
farmers indicated that they used local plant resources to
weave mats, curve wood crafts, and brew beer for selling to
boost household income but still engage in farming.
However, unlike other communities who use grass plants
like Hyphanate petersiana to brew local beer [82], in this
study, they used legume Rhynchosia venulosa to brew beer.
5. Conclusion
Local communities within the MZBR perceive climatic
changes especially changing rainfall and temperature. In
addition, they perceive cultural and anthropogenic factors
such as deforestation as some of the causes of climatic
change. e community uses ethnobotanical and ethno-
zoological knowledge to detect weather changes. Local
communities in biosphere reserves have noticed impacts of
climate change on the socioeconomic and biophysical
livelihood assets. Consequently, they have developed several
livelihood coping and adaptation strategies to enhance the
food security of their families in response to the changing
climatic conditions. Land tenure category influences the
choice of drought-related coping strategies for local com-
munities in the MZBR.
Based on the findings, local ecological knowledge can
provide information on the changing climate especially in
under-researched areas such as the MZBR. Such information
can complement scientific data to inform policy on best
practices to build adaptive capacity of rural communities
within biosphere reserves in semiarid tropical savanna. LEK,
in particular, traditional phenological knowledge (TPK), can
be adopted to complement scientific forecasts especially
under situations where the local community recognizes that
climate is changing. Findings from this study indicate that
local ecological knowledge can provide information on
household livelihood strategies under a changing climate
especially in under-researched areas such as the MZBR. Such
12 Scientifica
information can compliment scientific data to inform policy
on best practices to build adaptive capacity of rural com-
munities within biosphere reserves in semi-arid tropical
savanna. Integrating local ecological knowledge into climate
change adaptation and biodiversity conservation is possible
if the knowledge holders are directly engaged as active
participants in these efforts. Results from this study highlight
the need for harnessing local knowledge to enhance com-
munity resilience and promote ecosystem-based adaptation
strategies in the face of a changing climate.
Data Availability
Data can be made available subject to terms and conditions
related to open-access publication.
Disclosure
e contents of this paper are the sole responsibility of the
authors and can under no circumstances be regarded as
reflecting the position of the European Union.
Conflicts of Interest
e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
e authors would like to acknowledge joint funding from the
Department for International Development (DfID) under the
2015 Climate Impact Research Capacity and Leadership
Enhancement (CIRCLE) programme, the European Union
under the DREAM project, and Chinhoyi University of
Technology (Grant PG3987). Special thanks go to the Institute
of Cooperate Citizenship, Exxaro Chair in Business and
Climate Change University of South Africa, South Africa, for
hosting OLK during the CIRCLE fellowship.
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